Revision Notes for Class 11 Physics

Chapter 1 – Units and Measurements

Units:

A unit can be defined as an internationally accepted standard for measuring quantities.

• Measurement has been included in a numeric quantity along with a specific unit.

• The units in the case of base quantities (such as length, mass etc.) are defined as
Fundamental units.

• Derived units are the units that are the combination of fundamental units.

• Fundamental and Derived units constitute together as a System of Units.

• An internationally accepted system of units can be defined as Système Internationale

d’ Unites (This is how the International System of Units is represented in French) or
SI. In 1971, it was produced and recommended by General Conference on Weights
and Measures.

• The table shown below is the list of 7 base units mentioned by SI.

There are two units along with it. They are, radian or rad (unit for plane angle) and steradian
or sr (unit for solid angle). Both of these are dimensionless.

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Base Quantity Name Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Thermodynamic
kelvin K
Temperature

Amount of Substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

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Significant Figures

Every measurement gives us an output in a number that includes reliable digits and uncertain
digits.

Reliable digits added with the first uncertain digit can be defined as significant digits or
significant figures. This represents the precision of measurement which is dependent on the
least count of instruments used for measurement.

The period of oscillation of a pendulum is 1.62 s can be taken as an example. Here 1 and 6
will be reliable and 2 is uncertain. Hence, the measured value will have three significant
figures.

Rules for the determination of the number of significant figures

• All non-zero digits will be significant.

• Irrespective of the decimal place, all zeros between two non-zero digits will be
significant irrespective of the decimal place.

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 • Zeroes before non-zero digits and after decimal are not considered significant, for a
value less than 1. Zero presents before the decimal place in case of these numbers will
be insignificant always.

• Trailing zeroes in case of a number without any decimal place will be insignificant.

• Trailing zeroes in case of a number with a decimal place will be significant.

Cautions for removing ambiguities in calculating the number of significant figures

• Variation of units will not change the number of significant digits. As an example,

4.700 m=470.0 cm

=4700 mm

Here, first, two quantities have 4 but the third quantity is having 2 significant figures.

• Make use of scientific notation for reporting measurements. Numbers must be shown
in powers of 10 such as a  10b

where b is defined as the order of magnitude.

Example, 4.700 m = 4.700  102 cm

= 4.700  103 mm

= 4.700  10-3 km

Here, as the power of 10 is irrelevant, a number of significant figures will be 4.

• Multiplying or dividing exact numbers will give giving infinite number of significant
digits. Example,

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 diameter
radius= . In this case, 2 can be represented as 2, 2.0, 2.00, 2.000 and so on.
2

Significant Figures

Every measurement gives us an output in a number that includes reliable digits and uncertain
digits.

Reliable digits added with the first uncertain digit can be defined as significant digits or
significant figures. This represents the precision of measurement which is dependent on the
least count of instruments used for measurement.

The period of oscillation of a pendulum is 1.62 s can be taken as an example. Here 1 and 6
will be reliable and 2 is uncertain. Hence, the measured value will have three significant
figures.

Rules for the determination of the number of significant figures

• All non-zero digits will be significant.

• Irrespective of the decimal place, all zeros between two non-zero digits will be
significant irrespective of the decimal place.

• Zeroes before non-zero digits and after decimal are not considered significant, for a
value less than 1. Zero presents before the decimal place in case of these numbers will
be insignificant always.

• Trailing zeroes in case of a number without any decimal place will be insignificant.

• Trailing zeroes in case of a number with a decimal place will be significant.

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Cautions for removing ambiguities in calculating the number of significant figures

• Variation of units will not change the number of significant digits. As an example,

4.700 m=470.0 cm

=4700 mm

Here, first, two quantities have 4 but the third quantity is having 2 significant figures.

• Make use of scientific notation for reporting measurements. Numbers must be shown
in powers of 10 such as a  10b where b is defined as the order of magnitude.
Example,

4.700 m = 4.700  102 cm

= 4.700  103 mm

= 4.700  10-3 km

Here, as the power of 10 is irrelevant, a number of significant figures will be 4.

• Multiplying or dividing exact numbers will give giving infinite number of significant
diameter
digits. Example, radius= . In this case, 2 can be represented as 2, 2.0, 2.00,
2
2.000 and so on.

Rules for Arithmetic operation with Significant Figures

Multiplication or
Type Addition or Subtraction
Division

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 The end result must retain as many The end result must have as
significant figures as there in the initial many decimal places similar
Rule
number with the least number of way as in the original number
significant digits. with the least decimal places.

Mass
Density=
Volume Addition of 436.32 (2

Assume Mass=4.237 g (4 significant digits after decimal),

figures)
227.2 (1 digit after decimal)
and
and .301 (3 digits after
Example Volume=2.51 cm3 (3 significant figures)
decimal) is= 663.821
4.237 g
Density= As 227.2 is precise up to only 1
2.51 cm3
decimal
=1.68804 gcm−3
place, Therefore, the end result
should be 663.8.
=1.69 gcm−3 (3 significant figures)

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Rules for Rounding off the uncertain digits

Rounding off will be essential for reducing the number of insignificant figures to hold to the
rules of arithmetic operation with significant figures.

Example (rounding
Rule
Insignificant digit Preceding digit off to two decimal
Number
places)

Insignificant digit to be
Preceding digit is Number– 3.137
dropped
1
raised by 1. Result –3.14
being more than 5

Insignificant digit to be
Number– 3.132
dropped The preceding digit is
2
left unchanged.
Result –3.13
being less than 5

Insignificant digit to be When the preceding Number– 3.125

3 dropped being equal to digit is even, it is left
5 unchanged. Result –3.12

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 Insignificant digit to be
When the preceding Number– 3.135
dropped
4 digit is odd, it is raised
by 1. Result –3.14
being equal to 5

Rules for the determination of uncertainty in the results of arithmetic calculations

For calculating the uncertainty, the below process must be used.

• Do a summation of the lowest amount of uncertainty in the original numbers.

Example uncertainty for 3.2 will be 0.1 and for 3.22 will be 0.01.

• Find out these in percentage also.The uncertainties get

multiplied/divided/added/subtracted after the calculations.

• In the uncertainty, round off the decimal place to obtain the end uncertainty result.

For example, for a rectangle,

Suppose length, l=16.2 cm and breadth, b=10.1 cm After that, take l=16.2  0.1 cm or

l=16.2 cm  0.6 % and breadth =10.1  0.1 cm or 10.1 cm  1 % When we multiply,

area=length  breadth=163.62 cm2  1.6 % Or 163.62  2.6 cm 2

Hence after rounding off, area =164  3 cm 2 .

Therefore 3 cm 2

will be the uncertainty or the error in estimation.

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Rules

1. In the case of a set of experimental data of ‘n’ significant figures, the result must be
accurate to ‘n’ significant figures or less (only in the case of subtraction).

For example 12.9-7.06=5.84 or 5.8 (when we round off to least number of decimal places of
original number).

2. The relative error of a value of the number mentioned to significant figures will be
dependent on n and on the number itself.

As an example, say the accuracy for two numbers 1.02 and 9.89 be 0.01. But relative
errors are:

  0.01 
For 1.02,    100 % =  1 %
 1.02 

  0.01 
For 9.89,    100 % =  0.1 %
 9.89 

Therefore, the relative error will be dependent upon the number itself.

3. The results in the intermediate step of a multi-step computation should be found to have
one significant figure more in all the measurements than the number of digits in the least
precise measurement.

1
For example: = 0.1044
9.58

1 1
Now, = 9.56 and = 9.58
0.104 0.1044

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Therefore, taking one extra digit will provide more precise outputs and reduce rounding-off
errors.

Dimensions of a Physical Quantity

The powers (exponents) to which base quantities are raised to represent that quantity can be
defined as dimensions of a physical quantity. They are figured as the square brackets around
the quantity.

• Dimensions of the 7 base quantities have been considered as – Length [L], time [T],
Mass [M], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], electric current
[A] and amount of substance [mol].

For example,

Volume=Length  Breadth  Height

text =  L    L    L  =  L 
3

Force=Mass  Acceleration

 M L = M L T -2
=    
T 
2

• The other dimensions for a quantity will be always 0. As an example, in the case of
volume, only length has 3 dimensions but the mass, time

etc will have 0 dimensions. Zero dimension is shown by superscript 0 like  M 0  .

Dimensions will not affect the magnitude of a quantity Dimensional formula and
Dimensional Equation

The expression that represents how and which of the base quantities represent the
dimensions of a physical quantity is defined as a Dimensional Formula.

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An equation we got after equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is a
Dimensional Equation.

Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula Dimensional Equation

Volume  M 0 L3T 0   V  = M 0 L3T 0 

Speed  M 0 LT -1    =  M 0 LT -1 

Force  MLT −2   F =  MLT −2 

Mass Density  ML−3T 0     = ML−3T0 

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Dimensional Analysis

• The physical quantities that have similar dimensions only can be added and
subtracted. This can be named as the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

• Dimensions are multipliable and can be cancelled as normal algebraic methods.

• Quantities on both sides should always have identical dimensions, in mathematical

equations.

• Arguments of special functions such as trigonometric, logarithmic and ratio of similar

physical quantities will be dimensionless.

• Equations will be uncertain to the extent of dimensionless quantities.

As an example, say Distance = Speed x Time. In Dimension terms,

 L = LT-1   T 

As the dimensions can be cancelled as we do in algebra, dimension  T  will get cancelled

and the equation will be  L =  L .

Applications of Dimensional Analysis

When we check the Dimensional Consistency of equations

• A dimensionally correct equation should have identical dimensions on both sides of

the equation.

• There is no need for a dimensionally correct equation to be a correct equation but a

dimensionally incorrect equation will be always incorrect. Dimensional validity can
be tested but not calculate the correct relationship between the physical quantities.

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 1
Example, x=x 0 +  0 t+   at 2
2

Or, Dimensionally,  L  =  L  +  LT -1   T  +  LT -2  T 2 

Where, x be the distance travelled in time t,

x 0 – starting position,

 0 - initial velocity,

a – uniform acceleration.

Dimensions on both sides will be [L] because [T] get cancelled out. Therefore this will be a
dimensionally correct equation.

Deducing relation among physical quantities

• For deducing a relation among physical quantities, we must know the dependence of
one quantity over others (or independent variables) and assume it as a product type of
dependence.

• Dimensionless constants will not be obtainable by the use of this method.

We can take an example,

T=klx g y mz

Or,

x y z
 L0 M 0T1  =  L1   L1T -2   M1 

=  Lx+y T -2y M z 

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 1 1
This means that, x+y=0,-2y=1 and z=0 . So x= ,y=- and z=0 .
2 2

l
Hence the original equation will be reduced to T=k .
g

Rounding off will be essential for reducing the number of insignificant figures to hold to the
rules of arithmetic operation with significant figures.

Example (rounding
Rule
Insignificant digit Preceding digit off to two decimal
Number
places)

Insignificant digit to be
Preceding digit is Number– 3.137
dropped
1
raised by 1. Result –3.14
being more than 5

Insignificant digit to be
Number– 3.132
dropped The preceding digit is
2
left unchanged.
Result –3.13
being less than 5

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 Insignificant digit to be When the preceding Number– 3.125
3 dropped being equal to digit is even, it is left
5 unchanged. Result –3.12

Insignificant digit to be
When the preceding Number– 3.135
dropped
4 digit is odd, it is raised
by 1. Result –3.14
being equal to 5

Rules for the determination of uncertainty in the results of arithmetic calculations

For calculating the uncertainty, the below process must be used.

• Do a summation of the lowest amount of uncertainty in the original numbers.

Example uncertainty for 3.2 will be 0.1 and for 3.22 will be 0.01.

• Find out these in percentage also.

• The uncertainties get multiplied/divided/added/subtracted after the calculations.

• In the uncertainty, round off the decimal place to obtain the end uncertainty result.

For example, for a rectangle,

Suppose length, l=16.2 cm and breadth, b=10.1 cm

After that, take l=16.2  0.1 cm or l=16.2 cm  0.6 % and

breadth =10.1  0.1 cm or 10.1 cm  1 %

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When we multiply,

area=length  breadth=163.62 cm2  1.6 %

Or 163.62  2.6 cm 2

Hence after rounding off, area =164  3 cm 2 .

Therefore 3 cm 2 will be the uncertainty or the error in estimation.

Rules

1. In the case of a set of experimental data of ‘n’ significant figures, the result must be
accurate to ‘n’ significant figures or less (only in the case of subtraction).

For example 12.9-7.06=5.84 or 5.8 (when we round off to least number of decimal places of
original number).

2. The relative error of a value of the number mentioned to significant figures will be
dependent on n and on the number itself.

As an example, say the accuracy for two numbers 1.02 and 9.89 be 0.01. But relative
errors are:

  0.01 
For 1.02,    100 % =  1 %
 1.02 

  0.01 
For 9.89,    100 % =  0.1 %
 9.89 

Therefore, the relative error will be dependent upon the number itself.

3. The results in the intermediate step of a multi-step computation should be found to have
one significant figure more in all the measurements than the number of digits in the least
precise measurement.

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 1
For example: = 0.1044
9.58

1 1
Now, = 9.56 and = 9.58
0.104 0.1044

Therefore, taking one extra digit will provide more precise outputs and reduce rounding-off
errors.

Dimensions of a Physical Quantity

The powers (exponents) to which base quantities are raised to represent that quantity can be
defined as dimensions of a physical quantity. They are figured as the square brackets around
the quantity.

• Dimensions of the 7 base quantities have been considered as – Length [L], time [T],
Mass [M], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], electric current
[A] and amount of substance [mol].

For example,

Volume=Length  Breadth  Height

text =  L    L    L  =  L 
3

Force=Mass  Acceleration

 M L = M L T -2
=    
T 
2

• The other dimensions for a quantity will be always 0. As an example, in the case of
volume, only length has 3 dimensions but the mass, time

etc will have 0 dimensions. Zero dimension is shown by superscript 0 like  M 0  .

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Dimensions will not affect the magnitude of a quantity Dimensional formula and
Dimensional Equation

The expression that represents how and which of the base quantities represent the
dimensions of a physical quantity is defined as a Dimensional Formula.

An equation we got after equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is a
Dimensional Equation.

Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula Dimensional Equation

Volume  M 0 L3T 0   V  = M 0 L3T 0 

Speed  M 0 LT -1    =  M 0 LT -1 

Force  MLT −2   F =  MLT −2 

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 Mass Density  ML−3T 0     = ML−3T0 

Dimensional Analysis

• The physical quantities that have similar dimensions only can be added and
subtracted. This can be named as the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

• Dimensions are multipliable and can be cancelled as normal algebraic methods.

• Quantities on both sides should always have identical dimensions, in mathematical

equations.

• Arguments of special functions such as trigonometric, logarithmic and ratio of similar

physical quantities will be dimensionless.

• Equations will be uncertain to the extent of dimensionless quantities.

As an example, say Distance = Speed x Time. In Dimension terms,

 L = LT-1   T 

As the dimensions can be cancelled as we do in algebra, dimension  T  will get cancelled

and the equation will be  L =  L .

Applications of Dimensional Analysis

When we check the Dimensional Consistency of equations

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 • A dimensionally correct equation should have identical dimensions on both sides of
the equation.

• There is no need for a dimensionally correct equation to be a correct equation but a

dimensionally incorrect equation will be always incorrect. Dimensional validity can
be tested but not calculate the correct relationship between the physical quantities.

1
Example, x=x 0 +  0 t+   at 2
2

Or, Dimensionally,  L  =  L  +  LT -1   T  +  LT -2  T 2 

Where, x be the distance travelled in time t,

x 0 – starting position,

 0 - initial velocity,

a – uniform acceleration.

Dimensions on both sides will be [L] because [T] get cancelled out. Therefore this will be a
dimensionally correct equation.

Deducing relation among physical quantities

• For deducing a relation among physical quantities, we must know the dependence of
one quantity over others (or independent variables) and assume it as a product type of
dependence.

• Dimensionless constants will not be obtainable by the use of this method.

We can take an example,

T=klx g y mz

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Or,

x y z
 L0 M 0T1  =  L1   L1T -2   M1 

=  Lx+y T -2y M z 

1 1
This means that, x+y=0,-2y=1 and z=0 . So x= ,y=- and z=0 .
2 2

l
Hence the original equation will be reduced to T=k .
g

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