Functions

Equations in Two Variables

More complicated equations in two variables are more difficult to graph. To sketch the graph of
an equation, we plot enough points from its solution set in a rectangular coordinate system so
that the total graph is apparent, and then we connect these points with a smooth curve. This
process is called point-by-point plotting. But using point-by-point plotting, it may be difficult
to find points in the solution set of the equation, and it may be difficult to determine when
enough points are found to understand the shape of the graph. We will supplement the technique
of point-by-point plotting with a detailed analysis of several basic equations, giving the ability to
sketch graphs with accuracy.

Definition of a Function

Definition (Function). A function is a correspondence between two sets of elements such that
to each element in the first set, there corresponds one and only one element in the second set.

The first set is called the domain, and the set of corresponding elements in the second set is
called the range.

Functions Specified by Equations

The correspondence between domain and range elements is often specified by an equation in two
variables. Consider, for example, the equation for the area of a rectangle with width 1 inch less
than its length. If x is the length, then the area y is given by
y  x( x  1), x  1 .
For each input x (length), we obtain an output y (area).

The input values are domain values, and the output values are range values. The equation assigns
each domain value x a range value y. The variable x is called an independent variable (since
values can be “independently” assigned to x from the domain), and y is called a dependent
variable (since the value of y “depends” on the value assigned to x). In general, any variable
used as a placeholder for domain values is called an independent variable; any variable that is
used as a placeholder for range values is called a dependent variable.

When does an equation specify a function? If in an equation in two variables, we get exactly one
output (value for the dependent variable) for each input (value for the independent variable), then
the equation specifies a function. The graph of such a function is just the graph of the specifying
equation. If we get more than one output for a given input, the equation does not specify a
function.

For example, the equation 4 y  3 x  8 specifies a function; but the equation y 2  x 2  9 does not
specify a function.

Theorem (Vertical-Line Test for a Function). An equation specifies a function if each vertical
line in the coordinate system passes through, at most, one point on the graph of the equation.
If any vertical line passes through two or more points on the graph of an equation, then
the equation does not specify a function.

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The vertical-line test implies that the equations of the form y  mx  b , where m  0 , specify
functions; they are called linear functions. Similarly, equations of the form y  b specify
functions; they are called constant function, and their graphs are horizontal lines. The vertical-
line test implies that equations of the form x  a do not specify functions; note that the graph of
x  a is a vertical line.

If a function is specified by an equation and the domain is not indicated, then we assume that the
domain is the set of all real-number replacements of the independent variable (inputs) that
produce real values for the dependent variable (outputs). The range is the set of all outputs
corresponding to input values.

Example (Finding a Domain). Find the domain of the function specified by the equation
y  4  x , assuming that x is the independent variable.

Solution. For y to be real, 4 - x must be greater than or equal to 0; that is 4  x  0 , and therefore
x  4 . Domain: x  4 (inequality notation) or (, 4] (interval notation).

Function Notation

If x represents an element in the domain of a function f, then we frequently use the symbol f(x).
The symbol f(x) is read as “f of x”, “f at x”, or “the value of f at x”.

For any element x in the domain of the function f, the symbol f(x) represents the element in the
range of f corresponding to x in the domain of f. If x is an input value, then f(x) is the
corresponding output value. If x is an element that is not in the domain of f, then f is not defined
at x and f(x) does not exist.

Applications

We consider break-even and profit-loss analysis. Any manufacturing company has costs, C,
and revenues, R. The company will have a loss if R < C, will break even if R = C, and will have
a profit if R > C. Costs include fixed costs such as plant overhead, product design, setup, and
promotion; and variable costs, which are dependent on the number of items produced at a
certain cost per item. In addition, price-demand functions, usually established by financial
departments using historical data or sampling techniques, play an important part in profit-loss
analysis. We will let x, the number of units manufactured and sold, represent the independent
variable. Cost functions, revenue functions, profit functions, and price-demand functions are
often stated in the following forms, where a, b, m, and n are constants determined from the
context of a particular problem:

Cost Function
C = (fixed costs) + (variable costs) = a + bx;
Price-Demand Function
p = m - nx (x is the number of items that can be sold at $p per item);
Revenue Function
R = (number of items sold) x (price per item) = xp = x(m - nx);
Profit Function
P = R – C = x(m - nx) - (a + bx).

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 Example (Price-Demand and Revenue Modeling). A manufacturer of a popular digital
camera wholesales the camera to retail outlets throughout the United States. Using statistical
methods, the financial department in the company produced the price-demand data in Table 1,
where p is the wholesale price per camera at which x million cameras are sold.

Table 1 Price-Demand
x (Millions) p ($)
2 87
5 68
8 53
12 37

Notice that as the price goes down, the number sold goes up.
Using special analytical techniques (regression analysis), an analyst obtained the
following price-demand function to model the Table 1 data:
p ( x)  94.8  5 x, 1  x  15 .
What is the company’s revenue function for this camera, and what is its domain?

Solution. R ( x)  xp ( x)  x(94.8  5 x) million dollars.

Domain: 1  x  15 (Same domain as the price-demand function).

Quadratic Functions

Definition (Quadratic Functions). If a, b, and c are real numbers with a  0 , then the function
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
is a quadratic function and its graph is a parabola.

Properties of Quadratic Functions and Their Graphs

Many useful properties of the quadratic function can be uncovered by transforming

f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c, a  0
in the vertex form
f ( x )  a ( x  h) 2  k .

The process of completing the square is central to the transformation. Let us illustrate the
process through a specific example and then generalize the results.

Consider the quadratic function given by

f ( x)  2 x 2  16 x  24 .
We use completing the square to transform this function into vertex form:

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 f ( x)  2 x 2  16 x  24  2( x 2  8 x)  24  2( x 2  8 x  ?)  24 
 2( x 2  8 x  16)  24  32  2( x  4) 2  8.
Therefore,
f ( x)  2( x  4) 2  8 .
If x  4 , then f (4)  8 is the maximum value of f ( x ) for all x. Furthermore, if we choose any
two x values that are the same distance from 4, we will obtain the same function value.
Therefore, the vertical line x  4 is a line of symmetry.
It is easy to see that as x moves from left to right, f ( x) is increasing on (, 4] , and
decreasing on [4, ) , and that f ( x ) can assume no value greater than 8. Thus, the range of f is
(,8] .
In general, the graph of a quadratic function is a parabola with line of symmetry parallel
to the vertical axis. The lowest or highest point on the parabola, whichever exists, is called the
vertex. The maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function always occurs at the vertex of
the parabola. The line of symmetry through the vertex is called the axis of the parabola. In the
example above, x  4 is the axis of the parabola and (4,8) is the vertex.

S u m m a r y (Properties of Quadratic Functions and Their Graphs).

Given a quadratic function and the vertex form obtained by completing square
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c  (a  0)
 a ( x  h) 2  k ,
we summarize general properties as follows:
1. The graph of f is a parabola (which opens upward for a>0, and opens downward for a<0);
2. Vertex: (h, k) (parabola increases on one side of the vertex and decreases on the other);
3. Axis (of symmetry): x = h (parallel to y axis);
4. f (h)  k is the minimum if a  0 and the maximum if a  0 ;
5. Domain: All real numbers. Range: (, k ] if a  0 or [k , ) if a  0 ;
6. The graph of f is the graph of g ( x)  ax 2 translated horizontally h units and vertically k
units.

Applications

Example (Maximum Revenue). The financial department in the company that produces a
digital camera arrived at the following price-demand function and the corresponding revenue
function:
p ( x)  94.8  5 x , (Price-demand function)
R ( x)  xp ( x)  x(94.8  5 x) , (Revenue function)
where p ( x) is the wholesale price per camera at which x million cameras can be sold and R ( x)
is the corresponding revenue (in millions of dollars). Both functions have domain 1  x  15 .
(A) Find the value of x to the nearest thousand cameras that will generate the maximum
revenue. What is the maximum revenue to the nearest thousand dollars? Solve the
problem algebraically by completing the square.
(B) What is the wholesale price per camera (to the nearest dollar) that generates the
maximum revenue?

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Solution. (A) Algebraic solution:
R ( x)  x(94.8  5 x)  5 x 2  94.8 x  5( x 2  18.96 x  ?) 
 5( x 2  18.96 x  89.8704)  449.352  5( x  9.48) 2  449.352.
The maximum revenue of 449.352 million dollars ($ 449 352 000) occurs when x = 9.480
million cameras (9 480 000 cameras).

(B) Finding the wholesale price per camera: Use the price-demand function for an output of
9.480 million cameras:
p ( x)  94.8  5 x ,
p (9.480)  94.8  5(9.480)  $47 per camera.

Example (Break-Even Analysis). The company’s, that produces a digital camera, revenue and
cost functions are:
R ( x)  x(94.8  5 x) , (Revenue function)
C ( x)  156  19.7 x . (Cost function)
Both have domain 1  x  15 . Break-even points are the production levels at which
R ( x)  C ( x) . Find the break-even points algebraically to the nearest thousand cameras.

Solution. Find x such that R ( x)  C ( x ) :

x(94.8  5 x)  156  19.7 x
5 x 2  75.1x  156  0
x = 2.490 and 12.530.
The company breaks even at x = 2.490 million cameras (2 490 000 cameras) and at x = 12.530
million cameras (12 530 000 cameras).