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 INTRODUCTION
 The study of thermodynamics is concerned with
the ways energy is stored within a body and how
energy transformations involving heat and work,
may take place.
 One of the most fundamental laws of nature is
the conservation of energy principle. It simply
states that during an energy interaction, energy
can change from one form to another but the
total amount of energy remains constant.
That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
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 Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems
 A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study.
 The region outside the system is called the surroundings.
 The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
 The boundary of a system may be fixed or movable.

The system may be considered to be closed , open, isolated system.

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A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may
cross the system boundary. The closed system boundary may move.

Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices.
However, energy in the form of heat and work may cross the boundaries of a
closed system.

Closed system = control mass

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An open system, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary,
called a control surface. Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors,
turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.

Open system = control volume

An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may
cross the boundaries.

Isolated System Boundary

Heat = 0 Work
Work = 0 Surr 4
Mass = 0 Mass
System
Across Surr 3
Isolated Surr 1 Mass
Boundary Heat
Surr 2

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Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property. The property is
independent of the path used to arrive at the system condition.

Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Properties may be intensive or extensive.

Extensive properties are those that vary directly with mass of the system.

Some Extensive Properties

It depends on the total mass, such as:
a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy
d. mass dependent property

Some Intensive Properties

It is independent on the total mass, such as:
a. Pressure
b. Temperature
c. Density

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 Intensive properties are those that are independent of size.

Some Intensive Properties

a. temperature
b. pressure
c. age
d. color
e. any mass independent property

Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. For example, the
specific volume v, defined as

Volume V  m3 
v   
mass m  kg 
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and density , defined as

mass m  kg 
   3
volume V  m 
Units
 An important component to the solution of any engineering thermodynamic
problem requires the proper use of units.
 Since units present a major hindrance to the correct solution of
thermodynamic problems, we must learn to use units carefully and properly.
 The system of units selected for this course is the SI System, also known as
the International System .
 In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and
second (s), respectively. We consider force to be a derived unit from
Newton's second law, i.e.,
Force  (mass)(acceleration)
F  ma
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In SI, the force unit is the Newton (N), and it is defined as the force required to
accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. That is,
m
1N  (1kg )(1 2 )
s
This definition of the newton is used as the basis of the conversion factor to
convert mass-acceleration units to force units.

The term weight is often misused to express mass. Unlike mass, weight Wt is a
force. Weight is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is
determined from Newton's second law,

Wt = mg
 where m is the mass of the body and g is the local gravitational acceleration
(g is 9.807 m/s2 at sea level and 45latitude).
 The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called the specific weight w and
is determined from w =  g, where  is density.

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 SI BTU
Mass, m Kilogram (kg) Slug-Ibm

Time,  Second (s) Second (s)

Length, L Meter (m) Foot (ft)

Force, F Newton (N) Pound-force (lbf)

Newton’s second law is often written as

F=mg
c

where gc called the gravitational constant and is obtained from the force
definition. In the SI System 1 newton is that force required to accelerate 1 kg
mass 1 m/s2. The gravitational constant in the SI System is

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 2
gc = 9.806 m/s

Example 1-1
An object at sea level has a mass of 400 kg.
a) Find the weight of this object on earth.
b) Find the weight of this object on the moon where the local gravitational
acceleration is one-sixth that of earth.
The Solution

(a) Wt= mg
= (400 kg) 9.807 m/s2
= 3922.8 N

(b) Wt= mg
= (400 kg) 9.807/6 m/s2
= 653.8 N N

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State, Equilibrium, Process, and Properties State
Consider a system that is not undergoing any change. The properties can be
measured (P, T) or calculated () throughout the entire system. This gives us a
set of properties that completely describe the state of the system. At a given
state, all of the properties are known; changing one property led to change the
state.

Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it maintains thermal
(uniform temperature), mechanical (uniform pressure), phase (the mass of two
phases), e.g., ice and liquid water are , in equilibrium states

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Process
Any change from one state to another is called a process. During a quasi-static
process, the system remains practically in equilibrium at all times. We study
quasi-equilibrium processes because they are easy to analyze.

In most of the processes that we will study, one thermodynamic property is

held constant. Some of these processes are

Process Property held constant

isobaric pressure System
Boundary
isothermal temperature
F
isochoric volume Water

isentropic entropy Constant Pressure

Process

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We can understand the concept of a constant pressure process by considering
the above figure. The force exerted by the water on the face of the piston has
to equal the force due to the combined weight of the piston and the bricks. If
the combined weight of the piston and bricks is constant, then F is constant
and the pressure is constant even when the water is heated.

We often show the process on a P-V diagram as shown below.

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Steady-Flow Process
Consider a fluid flowing through an open system such as a water heater. The
flow is often defined by the terms steady and uniform. The term steady implies
that there are no changes with time. The term uniform implies no change with
location over a specified region.
Engineering flow devices that operate for long periods of time under the same
conditions are classified as steady-flow devices. The processes for these
devices is called the steady-flow process.
Cycle
A series of connected processes with identical end states is called a cycle.
Below is a cycle composed of two processes, A and B. Along process A, the
pressure and volume change from state 1 to state 2. Then to complete the
cycle, the pressure and volume change from state 2 back to the initial state 1
along process B.
Keep in mind that all other thermodynamic
properties must also change so that the 2
P Process
B
pressure is a function of volume as described
by these two processes. 1
Process
A

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Pressure
Force per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is the Pascal, N/m2, in the
SI system and psia, lbf/in2 absolute, in the English system.
Force F
P 
Area A N
1 kPa  103
m2
6 N
1 MPa  10 2  103 kPa
m

The pressure used in all calculations of state is the absolute pressure

measured relative to absolute zero pressure. However, pressures are often
measured relative to atmospheric pressure, called gage or vacuum
pressures.

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These pressures are related by
Pgage  Pabs  Patm
Pvac  Patm  Pabs
Or these last two results may be written as

Pabs  Patm  Pgage

Where the +Pgage is used when Pabs > Patm and –Pgage is used for a vacuum gage.
The relation among atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures is shown below.

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 1 atm of pressure  101.325 kPa, 0.101325 MPa, 14.696 psia, 760 mmHg, and
29.92 inches H2O.

Small to moderate pressure differences are measured by a manometer and a

differential fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference
between the system and the surroundings of the manometer.

This pressure difference is determined from the manometer fluid displaced height as

P   g h ( kPa)

Other devices for measuring pressure differences are shown below.

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Example 1-3
A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tank?
Pabs  Patm  Pgage
 98 kPa  30 kPa
 68 kPa 19
Example 1-4
A pressure gage connected to a valve stem of a truck tire reads 240 kPa at a
location where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the absolute
pressure in the tire, in kPa
Pabs  Patm  Pgage
 100 kPa  240 kPa
 340 kPa

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Example 1-5
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure its
pressure. If the pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the distance between
the two fluid levels of the manometer if the fluid is mercury, whose density is
13,600 kg/m3.
P
h
g
103 N / m2
80 kPa kPa
h
kg m 1N
13600 3 9.807 2
m s kg m / s2
 0.6 m

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Temperature
Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or
“coldness,” it is not easy to give an exact definition of it.
However, temperature is considered as a thermodynamic property that is the measure
of the energy content of a mass. When heat energy is transferred to a body, the body's
energy content increases and so does its temperature.
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached the same temperature.
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This simple fact is known as the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.

The temperature scales used in the SI and the English systems today are the Celsius
scale and Fahrenheit scale, respectively. These two scales are based on a specified
number of degrees between the freezing point of water ( 0C or 32F) and the boiling
point of water (100C or 212F) and are related by
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T F = T  C  32
5

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Example 1-6
Water boils at 212 F at one atmosphere pressure. At what temperature does
water boil in C.
5 5 C
T = (T  F  32)  (212  32)  F  100 C
9 9 F
Like pressure, the temperature used in thermodynamic calculations must be in
absolute units. The absolute scale in the SI system is the Kelvin scale, which
is related to the Celsius scale by

T K = T C + 273.15
In the English system, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankine scale,
which is related to the Fahrenheit scale by

T R = T  F+ 459.67
Also, note that
T R = 1.8 T K

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Below is a comparison of the temperature scales.
C K F R

Boiling
99.975 373.125 211.955 671.625
point
of water
at 1 atm

0.01 273.16 32.02 491.69 Triple

point of
water

Absolute
-273.15 0 -459.67 0 zero

This figure shows that that according to the International Temperature Scale of
1990 (ITS-90) the reference state for the thermodynamic temperature scale is
the triple point of water, 0.01 C. The ice point is 0C, but the steam point is
99.975C at 1 atm and not 100C as was previously established. The magnitude
of the kelvin, K, is 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.
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The magnitudes of each division of 1 K and 1C are identical, and so are the
magnitudes of each division of 1 R and 1F. That is,
 
T K = (T2 C + 273.15) - (T1 C + 273.15)
 
= T2 C - T1 C = T C
T R  T  F

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