Module 1

1. What are the forces acting on a body

2. Provide examples or scenarios where the concepts of stress deformation and their
relationship are applied in real world engineering or structural analysis problem

Ans: Stress and deformation are fundamental concepts in engineering and structural analysis, playing a
crucial role in the design, safety, and functionality of materials and structures. Here are several real-
world examples and scenarios where these concepts are applied:

1. Building Construction and Structural Design

 Scenario: When designing a building, engineers consider the stress that different parts of the
structure will experience, such as columns, beams, and foundations. For instance, the weight
of the building (including its occupants, furniture, and equipment) creates a stress on the
beams and columns.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Engineers must ensure that the stress on these
elements does not exceed the material’s yield strength. Deformation is also considered, as
structures must be designed to tolerate some movement (e.g., bending of beams or slight
settlement of foundations) without failing. Elastic deformation (temporary) or plastic
deformation (permanent) must be carefully predicted to avoid structural collapse or excessive
damage.

2. Bridge Design

 Scenario: A bridge experiences various loads from vehicles, pedestrians, and environmental
factors like wind and seismic activity. The materials used to construct the bridge must
withstand these loads without excessive deformation or failure.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Engineers perform stress analysis on the bridge
materials (steel, concrete, etc.) to ensure they can handle the applied forces without breaking
or bending beyond acceptable limits. The deformation of the bridge under load is also
measured to ensure it doesn’t exceed the limits that could affect the safety or comfort of users,
such as excessive sagging or vibration.

3. Aircraft Wings and Structural Integrity

 Scenario: Aircraft wings are subjected to complex stresses during flight, including lift, drag,
and turbulence. The materials used in the wing construction must handle these stresses
without breaking or deforming in a way that affects the aircraft's performance.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Engineers conduct detailed stress analysis on the
wing structure to prevent fatigue failure, considering the deformation of the wing due to the
aerodynamic forces it experiences. Wings are designed with sufficient strength to handle high
stresses but also to bend (within limits) to prevent structural failure. The deformation of the
wing is often monitored during test flights to ensure that the stresses do not exceed material
limits.

4. Tension in Cables (Suspension Bridges or Elevators)

 Scenario: In suspension bridges, cables experience tension due to the weight of the bridge and
vehicles. Similarly, elevator cables undergo tension when supporting the weight of the
elevator car.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: The tension stress in the cables must be calculated
to ensure the material can bear the load without breaking. Engineers consider the deformation
of the cables, ensuring they do not stretch too much. For suspension bridges, the amount of
 deformation (vertical displacement) under load is critical to ensure structural stability and
safety.

5. Pressure Vessels (Industrial Tanks)

 Scenario: Pressure vessels, such as those used in chemical plants or oil refineries, are subject
to internal pressure. The vessel's material experiences stress due to the pressurized contents,
which can lead to deformation or even rupture if not properly designed.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Engineers calculate the internal stress caused by the
pressure inside the vessel and determine the thickness and material properties needed to
withstand it. They also analyze the deformation of the vessel walls under pressure to avoid
failure and ensure the integrity of the vessel throughout its operational life.

6. Pipelines and Oil Rigs

 Scenario: Pipelines transporting oil or gas experience internal pressure, external forces (such
as soil movement or impact), and temperature variations. The pipe material must be able to
withstand these stresses without failure.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: The stress due to internal pressure is critical for
determining pipe thickness, material choice, and safety factors. Deformation is also analyzed
to avoid buckling or excessive bending of pipelines, especially in areas with seismic activity
or shifting ground.

7. Automobile Crashworthiness

 Scenario: During a car crash, the vehicle undergoes significant forces, which result in stress
and deformation of the vehicle’s frame and components. Engineers design vehicles to absorb
crash energy and protect occupants.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Engineers simulate crash scenarios to assess the
stress on the vehicle's frame, analyzing how different materials deform upon impact. They
optimize the vehicle design to absorb energy (through crumple zones, for instance) while
limiting deformation that could harm the occupants. The amount of plastic deformation
(permanent) in the body is crucial for controlling injury levels.

8. Geotechnical Engineering (Soil Stress and Deformation)

 Scenario: Foundations and underground structures must account for the stresses imposed by
the surrounding soil and groundwater. Over time, the soil may experience compression or
settlement.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Geotechnical engineers analyze the stress on the
soil under various load conditions, such as building foundations or earth embankments. They
also calculate deformation (settlement, shear, or compression) that might occur over time due
to soil behavior, which helps design foundations that prevent uneven settlement or failure.

9. Load Testing of Structural Members

 Scenario: Before a building or bridge is fully operational, it may undergo load testing to
simulate real-world stress conditions, ensuring it performs safely under expected loads.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: Engineers apply calculated loads to structural
elements and measure the resulting deformation. The relationship between stress and
deformation is analyzed to ensure the structure is designed to behave within safe limits.
Deformation tests help verify that materials will not undergo excessive plastic deformation
and fail.

10. Manufacturing of Machine Parts

  Scenario: When creating machine components like gears, shafts, or frames, engineers must
account for the stresses these parts will encounter in use, such as rotational forces, bending,
and compression.
 Application of Stress and Deformation: The material must be selected based on the stress it
will experience under load, and its design must minimize deformation under operational
conditions to maintain precision and functionality. Parts such as gears are analyzed for both
stress and elastic deformation to ensure proper operation without excessive wear or failure.

In all these cases, understanding the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and deformation
(the resulting displacement or strain) is essential for ensuring the safety, durability, and functionality of
the engineered system

3. What is generalized hooks law explain with derivation what is its significance
Ans ; when more than one strain component exist within the elastic limit then at every point
of the body each of the 6 stresses components may be expressed as linear function of 6
components of strain and vice versa this statement is called generalized hookes law

Derivation
Assumptions

generalized Hooke's Law typically requires the use of stress-strain relationships to solve a
structural analysis problem . eg thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel is subjected to
internal pressure. The material of the vessel behaves elastically and follows Generalized
Hooke’s Law. The internal pressure causes the radial and tangential stresses to develop in the
walls of the cylinder

4. Equilibrium equations? how its is used in structural analysis

5. State of stress on oblique plane or arbitrary plane? explain its relevance

6. What are stress transformation? what is its significance

7. Explain stress invariants ? what its significance in principle plane

Significance of Stress Invariants in Mechanics

1. Coordinate Independence:
Stress invariants are scalar quantities unaffected by changes in
the coordinate system. This makes them ideal for describing
stress states without the ambiguity of orientation.
2. Yield Criteria:
Many material failure criteria, such as the von Mises
criterion and the Drucker-Prager criterion, are based on
stress invariants (I_1 and J_2), as they are more representative
of material behavior than individual stress components.
3. Material Behavior Under Hydrostatic Stress:
The first invariant, I_1, is crucial in problems where hydrostatic
pressure dominates, such as pore collapse in geomechanics or
cavitation in materials.
 4. Shear-Dominated Deformation:
The second invariant, J_2, is directly linked to the energy
associated with shear deformation, which is the primary
mechanism of yielding in ductile materials.
5. Complex Triaxial Stress States:
The third invariant, J_3, is significant in capturing the nuances
of stress triaxiality and skewness, which affect phenomena like
fracture toughness and ductile-brittle transitions.
6. Numerical Simulations:
Stress invariants are used in computational methods like Finite
Element Analysis (FEA) to evaluate stress states and predict
failure, ensuring accurate and reliable results.

8. What are directional cosines and its relevance

Directional Cosines:

Directional cosines are the cosines of the angles that a vector makes with
the coordinate axes in a 3D Cartesian coordinate system. If a vector is
represented as , then the directional cosines are:

where:
• , , and are the angles that the vector makes with the -axis, -axis,
and -axis, respectively.

These cosines satisfy the equation:

This condition arises because they are derived from a unit vector in the
direction of .

Relevance of Directional Cosines:

1. Vector Representation:
• Directional cosines help describe the orientation of a vector in 3D
space.
• The unit vector of can be expressed as:
2. Stress Analysis in Structural Engineering:
• In mechanics, the orientation of a plane (or normal to a plane) is
defined by directional cosines. These are crucial for calculating
stresses, strains, and deformations.
3. Transformation of Coordinates:
• Directional cosines are used in coordinate transformations, such as
converting vectors between different coordinate systems.
4. Principal Stress Calculations:
 • In structural analysis, directional cosines are used to find the
orientation of principal stress axes, where normal and shear stresses
are determined.
5. Navigation and Orientation:
• Directional cosines are widely used in fields like robotics, aerospace,
and computer graphics to describe the orientation of objects or
motion paths in space.
6. Angle Determination:
• They help calculate angles between two vectors using the dot
product:

Would you like to see an example or a practical application in structural

engineering?

9. Explain concept of principle stress and plane. how it is applied structural analysis problem

10. What are octahedral stresses? how it related to real world with equations

11. Pure shear and decomposition into hydrostatic and pure shear states

12. What is compatibility equations? explain how these equations are essential for analysing
deformation in structures

 compatibility equations are mathematical expressions that ensure that the deformation
of a structure is physically possible.
 In the context of structural analysis, they ensure that the displacements and strains in a
structure are consistent with each other and with the boundary conditions.
 These equations are vital for maintaining the continuity and coherence of the
deformation of the material or structure under loading.
 In simpler terms, compatibility equations express the condition that the deformations
in a structure should not violate the continuity of the material. For example, if you
imagine a bar being stretched or compressed, the material must deform in a way that all
points on the material shift appropriately relative to one another, without creating gaps
or overlaps in the structure.
 Imagine an elastic body cut in to small parallelepipeds and give each of them the
deformation defined by six strain components it is easy to conceive that if the
components of strain are not connected by certain relations it is impossible to make a
continuous deformed solid from individual performed parallelepipeds hence these
equations furnish these conditions hence these equations are also known as continuity
equations
Importance of Compatibility Equations in Structural Analysis:
 Ensuring Physical Realism of Deformations: Compatibility equations ensure that the
structure deforms in a physically realistic manner. Without them, it would be possible to
have a deformation where parts of the structure "overlap" or "separate," which is
impossible in real materials.
 Link Between Displacements and Strains: Structural analysis involves computing strains
based on applied forces or stresses. Compatibility equations connect these computed
strains with the actual displacement fields, ensuring that the displacement results are
consistent with the physical properties of the material.
 Finite Element Analysis (FEA): In FEA, compatibility equations play a crucial role in
solving for displacements and strains in complex structures. They help to establish the
relationships between the nodal displacements and the strain/displacement fields. The
finite element method requires solving a system of equations, including those of
equilibrium (force balance) and compatibility (deformation consistency).
 Structural Integrity: By applying compatibility equations, engineers can ensure that the
structure will not fail due to incompatible deformations. For example, during the design
of a bridge, it is essential to know that the road surface and the structural elements will
deform together without gaps or misalignments under expected loads.
 Stress Analysis and Design: These equations help in calculating stresses and strains in
different parts of a structure, such as beams, columns, and plates. The knowledge of how
material deforms under loading (compatible deformation) is essential to ensure the
structure performs as expected and meets safety standards.

Example Application of Compatibility Equations:

 Consider a beam under a uniformly distributed load. We want to determine the
displacement and strain at any point in the beam.
 Displacement Compatibility: We first apply the compatibility equations to the beam,
ensuring that the displacement at any point on the beam is continuous. The
displacement field must be continuous across the beam's length, meaning that if one
part of the beam stretches, the other parts must stretch accordingly.
 Strain Compatibility: The compatibility equations ensure that the strain in the beam at
any point matches the displacement gradients (changes in displacement) at that point.
This means there cannot be any abrupt discontinuities in the strain across the beam,
such as a sudden jump in bending strain.
 Final Design: By solving the system of equations (using boundary conditions and the
compatibility relations), the stress and strain distributions across the beam can be
determined. This allows engineers to check whether any part of the beam is overstressed
and whether the beam will deform in an acceptable way.
 MODULE 2

1. Examine the difference between plane stress and plain strain problems in elasticity.? Provide
examples of situation where each type of problem would be applicable
2. Examine the concept of airy’s stress function which can be used in solving two dimensional
elasticity problems

MODULE 3

1. Develop axisymmetric problems in the context of elasticity

2. What is an axisymmetric problems and its significance

3. Examples for axisymmetric problems

4. How would the stress distribution change if the pressure vessel is subjected to external
pressure instead of internal pressure

5. Lami’s equations and their applications

6. Application’s in pressure vessels

7. Rotating disc
 MODULE 4

1. Illustrate the primary factors that influence torsional behaviour in materials context of
mechanics

In the context of mechanics, particularly torsional behavior, several primary factors influence
how materials react when subjected to twisting or torque. These factors are crucial in
understanding how materials deform under torsion, and they are important for designing
structures or components that will experience such forces. Here's a breakdown of these
factors:

1. Material Properties

 Shear Modulus (G): The shear modulus, also known as the modulus of rigidity, is
one of the key material properties affecting torsional behavior. It represents the
material's resistance to shear deformation. A higher shear modulus means the material
is stiffer and resists twisting more.
 Yield Strength (τ_y): The yield strength indicates the material's ability to withstand
stress before permanent deformation occurs. When a material reaches its yield
strength under torsion, it will begin to plastically deform.
 Tensile Strength: While tensile strength is generally associated with stretching or
pulling forces, it plays a role in torsion as well, as it represents the ultimate stress a
material can handle before fracture. Excessive torsion can lead to failure if the stress
exceeds the material's tensile strength.

2. Geometry of the Object

 Shape of the Cross-Section: The geometry of the cross-sectional shape of a material

has a significant impact on its torsional behavior. For example:
o A solid circular shaft is commonly used for torsional loading because it
offers uniform distribution of shear stress.
o A hollow shaft can carry higher torsional loads with less material, making it
more efficient in some applications.
o Non-circular cross-sections (such as square or I-beams) can have more
complex stress distributions and may fail more easily under torsion,
depending on how the load is applied.
 Polar Moment of Inertia (J): The polar moment of inertia measures the distribution
of material around the axis of rotation. It plays a significant role in the material's
resistance to twisting. A larger polar moment of inertia means the material can resist
twisting more effectively.

3. Applied Torque (T)

  Magnitude of Applied Torque: The greater the torque applied to a material, the
more the material will twist. If the applied torque exceeds the material's capacity
(based on the material properties and geometry), the material may yield or fracture.
 Direction and Location of Torque: The position where the torque is applied relative
to the material's geometry also matters. A torque applied far from the center of the
material (or axis of rotation) will cause a higher bending moment and greater twisting
effects.

4. Length of the Material (L)

 Length of the Shaft: The longer the material subjected to torsion, the more it will
twist for a given amount of torque. This is because the angle of twist (θ) is directly
proportional to the length of the material. The relationship is described by the
formula: θ=T⋅LG⋅J\theta = \frac{T \cdot L}{G \cdot J}θ=G⋅JT⋅L where TTT is the
applied torque, LLL is the length, GGG is the shear modulus, and JJJ is the polar
moment of inertia. Therefore, a longer material will experience a greater twist for the
same applied torque.

5. Temperature

 Thermal Effects: Changes in temperature can affect the torsional behavior of

materials. As temperature increases, materials may become more ductile (increasing
torsional deformation) or more brittle (decreasing the material's ability to handle
stress). The thermal expansion or contraction of a material can also induce additional
stresses that may affect its torsional response.

6. Boundary Conditions

 Support and Constraints: The way a material is supported or constrained (e.g.,

fixed, simply supported, or free) influences how torsion is distributed. For instance, a
shaft fixed at both ends will experience different shear stress distributions compared
to a shaft with one end free.

7. Rate of Loading

 Dynamic vs. Static Loading: If torsional forces are applied quickly (dynamic
loading), the material's response can differ from when the force is applied slowly
(static loading). In dynamic conditions, the material may experience greater stress
concentrations or failure due to the rate at which the load is applied, as the material
may not have time to deform uniformly.

8. Internal Defects and Inhomogeneities

 Material Flaws: Imperfections in the material, such as voids, cracks, or inclusions,

can significantly affect its torsional behavior. These defects can serve as stress
concentrators, which may lead to earlier failure under torsional loading.
 Anisotropy: If the material has directional properties (e.g., in composite materials or
metals with a grain structure), the torsional response can vary depending on the
orientation of the applied torque relative to the material’s inherent directionality.

9. Fatigue and Cyclic Loading

  Cyclic Torsional Loading: Materials subjected to repeated or fluctuating torsional
forces can develop fatigue over time. Even if the applied torque is below the
material's yield strength, the repeated stress cycles can lead to the formation of cracks
and eventual failure. The material’s fatigue strength and its ability to withstand cyclic
loads is a crucial factor in such applications.

Conclusion

In summary, the torsional behavior of materials is influenced by a combination of material

properties, geometry, applied torque, length, temperature effects, boundary conditions, and
potential flaws. Understanding these factors is essential for designing components that will
undergo torsional stress and ensuring their durability and safety.

2. What is warping? explain why saint – venants theory predicts warping in non circular
sections

Warping

Warping refers to the out-of-plane deformation of a cross-section of a

structural member when it is subjected to certain loads, such as torsion. In simple
terms, warping occurs when parts of a cross-section move longitudinally (along
the member’s axis) and no longer remain in a flat plane during deformation.

Warping is most noticeable in non-circular cross-sections because of the

uneven distribution of stresses and strains across the section. It introduces
longitudinal normal stresses (in addition to shear stresses) in the member.

Characteristics of Warping

1. Non-Uniform Deformation:

• Points on the cross-section experience varying amounts of displacement

along the member’s length, depending on the geometry of the section.

2. Shear and Normal Stresses:

• Warping induces normal stresses (called warping normal stresses) in

addition to the primary shear stresses caused by torsion.

3. Cross-Section Geometry:

• Circular cross-sections generally do not warp under torsion due to their

symmetry. Warping is significant in non-circular or open sections (e.g.,
rectangular, I-beams, L-sections).

Examples of Warping in Real Life

1. Torsion of Rectangular Beams:

• When a rectangular beam is twisted, the edges and corners warp, causing
a “saddle-shaped” deformation of the cross-section.

2. Open Sections (e.g., I-beams):

• The flanges and web of I-beams undergo warping under torsion because
the open geometry cannot resist twisting uniformly.

3. Thin-Walled Structures:
 • In thin-walled sections, warping is more pronounced, and it significantly
affects the torsional stiffness.

Factors Influencing Warping

1. Geometry of Cross-Section:

• Symmetrical sections (e.g., circular shafts) resist warping, while

asymmetrical or open sections experience significant warping.

2. Length of the Member:

• Warping effects increase with the length of the member.

3. Material Properties:

• The stiffness and ductility of the material affect how much warping occurs.

Implications of Warping

1. Design Considerations:

• Warping induces additional stresses that must be accounted for in the

design of beams, shafts, and other structural elements.

2. Stiffness Reduction:

• Structures that warp under torsion are less stiff and may fail under lower
torques compared to non-warping structures.

3. Need for Reinforcements:

• Open sections or thin-walled members may require additional

reinforcements or closed cross-sections to reduce warping.

Understanding and analyzing warping is essential in designing safe and efficient

structural and mechanical components.

Why Non-Circular Sections Warp According to Saint-Venant’s Theory

1. Asymmetry of Shear Stresses:

• In non-circular sections, the shear stresses vary significantly along the

boundary. This uneven stress distribution leads to non-uniform deformation.

2. Inability to Resist Torsion Uniformly:

• Unlike circular sections, where every point is equidistant from the center
and resists torsion uniformly, non-circular sections have varying resistance to
twisting, resulting in longitudinal displacement of points.

3. Lack of Symmetry:

• For circular cross-sections, the symmetry prevents any longitudinal

displacement of points. Non-circular sections lack this symmetry, which
permits warping.

3. What is torque? How it applicable to real world scenarios

Torque (also known as moment of force) is a measure of the rotational force that causes an object to rotate
around an axis. It describes the tendency of a force to produce rotational motion. Torque depends on two key
factors:

1. The magnitude of the applied force.

2. The distance from the point of application of the force to the axis of rotation (often called the lever
arm or moment arm).

Units of Torque:

In the International System (SI), torque is measured in Newton-meters (N·m). In imperial units, it is often
measured in pound-feet (lb·ft).

How Torque Applies to Real-World Scenarios in Structural Engineering:

Torque plays a crucial role in structural engineering, as it is involved in the analysis and design of components that
undergo rotational forces, bending, and twisting. Below are several real-world applications where torque is
significant in structural engineering:

1. Beam Bending and Moment Distribution:

 Bending Moments: In structural beams (such as those used in buildings, bridges, and other
infrastructures), the internal forces acting on the beam create bending moments. These moments can be
considered as torques applied at different points along the beam. The magnitude of these moments
determines how much the beam bends and how much stress is induced at each point.

The bending moment at any point on a beam is essentially a measure of torque, and engineers calculate
it to ensure that the beam is designed to withstand these moments without failing.

2. Torsion in Shafts and Structural Members:

 Torsional Forces: Torque is involved in torsion, which occurs when an object is twisted around its axis.
Structural members like shafts, columns, or beams subjected to twisting forces experience torsional
stress. This is a direct consequence of torque applied along the length of these members, leading to
rotational deformation.

For example, in towers, bridges, or high-rise buildings, vertical elements (like columns) may
experience torsion due to wind loads or uneven foundation settlements, resulting in rotational motion
that must be accounted for in design.

3. Wind Load and Rotational Effects on Buildings:

 In high-rise buildings, tornadoes, or hurricanes, wind loads act on the building's surface and generate
torque around the center of mass. This creates rotational moments on the structure, causing it to sway or
twist. Structural engineers use torsional analysis to predict and mitigate the effects of wind-induced
torque on buildings, ensuring they remain stable and safe under extreme conditions.

For example, building rotation can occur due to uneven wind load distribution, especially on
asymmetrical or irregularly shaped buildings. The torque caused by wind forces must be considered
during the design phase to prevent excessive twisting or lateral displacement.

4. Rotating Machinery and Structural Connections:

 Rotating Equipment: In industrial structures, equipment like turbines, pumps, and motors often
generate significant torque during operation. For example, the torque applied to a turbine shaft in a
power plant is transferred through structural supports and may cause stresses and deformations in the
supporting structure. Proper design ensures that these forces do not lead to failure or excessive
vibrations.
  Connections and Bolts: In structural joints, torque is often applied when tightening bolts or fasteners.
The torque ensures that the bolts hold the connected components securely. The application of torque to
bolts is essential to achieve the correct preload, which in turn influences the strength and stability of the
joint, as well as the overall safety of the structure.

5. Foundations and Settlement Analysis:

 When structures are being built, especially on soft soils, uneven settlement can occur, causing rotational
effects due to differences in the load-bearing capacity of the soil. This results in torque on the
foundation and may cause tilting or twisting of the building or structure. Engineers account for this
torque during the design of foundations and use techniques like foundation piles to distribute the load
and resist rotational movement.

6. Bridges and Supports Under Heavy Loads:

 In bridges, torsional effects can occur when an uneven load is placed on the bridge deck, such as when
a truck or vehicle applies force at a non-central point. This leads to torque, which must be analyzed to
ensure the bridge remains stable and does not twist or collapse. Engineers often design bridge supports
with the ability to withstand these torsional moments, ensuring long-term stability.

7. Structural Frames Under Lateral Loads:

 In structures with frame systems (like skyscrapers, warehouses, or industrial plants), lateral loads
(wind, seismic forces, etc.) can apply torque to the frame, causing it to twist. To prevent failure,
torsional resistance must be integrated into the frame design, often by adding diagonal bracing or
using reinforced concrete in specific areas to resist the twisting moments.

4. Sand heap analogy

sand heap analogy can be used to explain torque in a way that helps visualize how forces act to
produce rotational motion or bending.

While the analogy is typically used to explain the behavior of materials under loading or stress, in the
context of torque, it helps explain how forces can cause objects to rotate or twist about an axis.

Sand Heap Analogy for Torque:

To relate the sand heap analogy to torque, imagine a pile of sand that is being gradually built up or
pushed in one direction. Here’s how the analogy breaks down:

1. Building the Heap (Applying Force):

o Imagine you have a flat surface, and you begin adding sand to a point at some
distance from the axis of rotation (for example, a central point or pivot).
o As you add sand, it represents applying force at a certain distance from the center,
just like when you apply a force at the end of a lever arm in torque.
o The more sand (force) you add, the more the pile (structure) begins to change its
shape or rotate, similar to how torque causes an object to rotate when a force is
applied.
2. The Lever Arm (Distance from Pivot):
o The distance between where the sand is being added and the center (axis of rotation)
represents the lever arm or the distance from the point of application of the force
to the axis.
 o The longer the distance (lever arm), the more the sand will cause a larger change in
the structure. In the same way, if a torque is applied at a longer distance (lever arm)
from the axis, the rotational effect (torque) will be greater, even with the same
applied force.
3. Slumping or Redistribution (Rotation due to Torque):
o As you add more sand, it begins to pile up, but eventually, the sand heap will reach a
point where the slope becomes too steep and the sand starts to shift or redistribute
itself. This is akin to an object rotating or deforming under the influence of torque.
o If the force is applied continuously (like adding sand), eventually the pile reaches a
tipping point, and it begins to collapse or rotate. In terms of torque, this is similar
to an object rotating past a certain point, and the pile may shift or redistribute, just as
an object rotates or twists when the torque surpasses a certain limit.
4. Equilibrium and Failure:
o In the sand heap analogy, the pile of sand reaches a stable state once the sand settles
or balances. Similarly, when a torque is applied to an object, it may rotate until it
reaches an equilibrium position where the forces (torques) balance out.
o However, just like a sand heap that can collapse if too much sand is added beyond a
critical point (leading to instability), a rotating object can fail if the torque applied
exceeds the material's strength, causing it to overturn, bend, or break.

Summary of the Sand Heap Analogy for Torque:

In this analogy:

 The sand pile represents an object or structure that experiences rotation when a force (sand) is
applied at a distance from an axis.
 The distance from the center (axis) to the point where the force is applied represents the
lever arm in torque.
 The force applied through adding sand determines the rotational effect (torque), and the
structure will change, collapse, or rotate once a critical amount of torque is exceeded,
similar to the pile of sand reaching an unstable slope and spilling over.

5. Membrane analogy? what is the reason to introduce membrane analogy

6. Explain key difference between prandtl and saint venants method

Prandtl theory and Saint-Venant theory are two fundamental

approaches in the analysis of torsion in structural members. Here’s a
detailed comparison:

1. Overview
Aspect Saint-Venant Theory Prandtl Theory
Key Concept Focuses on the deformation of a bar under torsion using warping displacements.
Focuses on the stress distribution using a stress function.
Applicability Best suited for general cross-sections. Best suited for non-circular cross-sections
like rectangular or elliptical.
Type of Analysis Displacement-based theory. Stress-based theory.

2. Core Assumptions
Aspect Saint-Venant Theory Prandtl Theory
Deformation Assumes that the warping (longitudinal displacement) of the cross-section remains
small and consistent. Assumes the cross-section remains plane, but it uses a stress function to
evaluate stress distribution.
Stress Derives stresses indirectly from displacement relations. Directly defines stresses using the
Prandtl stress function.

3. Governing Equations

Saint-Venant:
• Warping function satisfies:
This governs the displacement field.

Prandtl:
• Prandtl’s stress function satisfies:
Where:
• : Shear modulus
• : Rate of twist per unit length
• : Stress function to find shear stresses.

4. Stress Distribution
Aspect Saint-Venant Theory Prandtl Theory
Shear Stress Derived indirectly from warping. Directly calculated using the stress
function.
Stress at Boundaries Assumes zero tangential stress at boundaries. Can handle non-zero stress
conditions.

5. Limitations
Aspect Saint-Venant Theory Prandtl Theory
Complexity Simpler for basic problems, less accurate for thin-walled or non-circular sections.
More accurate but mathematically intensive.
Shape of Section Works better for circular and symmetrical sections. Particularly
powerful for non-circular shapes.

6. Applications
• Saint-Venant Theory:
• Useful for approximate analysis in bars with simple
geometries.
 • Provides a first-order solution for torsional rigidity and angle of
twist.
• Prandtl Theory:
• Provides accurate stress distribution for non-circular cross-
sections like rectangles, ellipses, or thin-walled sections.
• Useful in practical design problems where stress distribution is
critical.

Summary
• Saint-Venant theory focuses on displacement (warping) and
is suitable for simpler torsion problems.
• Prandtl theory provides more detailed stress analysis,
especially for non-circular cross-sections, using a stress function.

7 Assumptions of saint venants theory

 Projection of any cross section on xy plane parallel cross section rotates as a rigid
body angle of twist /unit legth being assumed a constant along the length of
the bar thus the rotation is same as that of the circular shaft subjected to torsion
 Warping is assumed to be same for all cross sections it is a function of x and y only
 MODULE 5

PLASTICITY

 Plasticity is a property of materials that describes their ability

to undergo permanent deformation without breaking or failing
when subjected to external forces.
 Unlike elastic deformation, which is reversible, plastic
deformation results in a permanent change in the material’s
shape once the applied stress exceeds the elastic limit or yield
point.

Key Concepts of Plasticity:

1. Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior:
• Elastic Behavior: The material returns to its original shape
upon removal of the load.
• Plastic Behavior: The material retains its deformed shape
after the load is removed.
2. Yield Point:
• The stress level at which a material transitions from elastic to
plastic behavior.
 • For metals like steel, this is clearly defined, while in some
materials, it is gradual.
3. Plastic Deformation:
• Occurs due to the movement of dislocations in the crystal
structure of materials.
• Typically happens at stresses higher than the yield stress.
4. Ductility:
• A measure of how much plastic deformation a material can
undergo before failure.
• Materials like metals (e.g., steel, aluminum) are ductile, while
brittle materials (e.g., concrete, glass) have low ductility.
5. Work Hardening:
• A phenomenon where a material becomes stronger and harder
as it undergoes plastic deformation.

Stages of Plastic Deformation:

1. Elastic Range:
• The material deforms temporarily and returns to its original
shape when the load is removed.
2. Yielding:
• The material begins to deform plastically at the yield point.
3. Strain Hardening:
• As plastic deformation progresses, the material resists further
deformation, increasing its strength.
4. Necking and Fracture:
• Under tensile stress, the material may form a localized
reduction in cross-sectional area (necking) before ultimately
fracturing.
Plasticity in Structural Engineering:
1. Metal Structures:
• Plasticity is crucial in designing steel structures, allowing them
to redistribute stresses and avoid sudden failure.
2. Reinforced Concrete:
• Concrete shows limited plasticity but is designed with steel
reinforcement to improve its ductility.
3. Soil Plasticity:
• In geotechnical engineering, the plastic behavior of soils is
analyzed to assess settlement, slope stability, and foundation
performance.

Applications of Plasticity:
 1. Forming and Shaping:
• Plasticity is exploited in processes like forging, extrusion,
rolling, and bending of metals.
2. Crash Safety:
• Automotive components are designed to deform plastically
during collisions, absorbing energy and protecting passengers.
3. Earthquake-Resistant Structures:
• Plastic hinges in beams and columns allow controlled
deformation, dissipating energy and preventing catastrophic
collapse.
4. Material Testing:
• The plasticity of materials is studied through stress-strain
curves to determine properties like yield strength, ultimate
strength, and ductility.

Stress-Strain Curve and Plasticity:

• Proportional Limit: The point up to which stress and strain
are proportional (Hooke’s Law applies).
• Elastic Limit: Beyond this, permanent deformation occurs.
• Yield Point: Stress level at which plastic deformation begins.
• Ultimate Strength: Maximum stress the material can
withstand before necking.
• Fracture Point: The point at which the material fails.

Examples of Plastic Materials:

1. Metals: Steel, aluminum, copper.
2. Polymers: Plastics like polyethylene and polycarbonate
(behave plastically under certain conditions).
3. Geological Materials: Clays and soft rocks exhibit plastic
behavior under long-term loading.

Plasticity is fundamental to understanding and designing materials

and structures. By leveraging a material’s ability to deform
plastically, engineers can create safer, more efficient designs that
account for real-world loading conditions.
 Idealized stress strain behaviour

The stress-strain relationship describes how materials respond to

applied loads. Idealized models simplify this relationship for
engineering analysis. These models are critical in understanding
material behavior and designing structures. Below are the common

idealized stress-strain behaviors:

Graphical Representation
1. Elastic: Straight line through the origin.
2. Elastic-Perfectly Plastic: Linear up to yield stress, flat
thereafter.
3. Elastic-Plastic with Strain Hardening: Linear up to yield,
then increases with strain.
4. Rigid-Perfectly Plastic: Vertical line at yield stress, flat
thereafter.
 5. Rigid-Plastic with Strain Hardening: Vertical line at yield
stress, then increases.
6. Perfectly Brittle: Linear to failure, abrupt drop

1. Elastic Behavior
• Definition: The material returns to its original shape after the
removal of the applied stress.
• Stress-Strain Relationship: Linear relationship governed by
Hooke’s Law:
• Behavior:
• Proportional limit: Stress is proportional to strain.
• Common in materials like steel and concrete under small
loads.

2. Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Behavior

• Definition: The material deforms elastically up to the yield
point, after which it deforms plastically without an increase in
stress.
• Key Points:
• Elastic range: Stress and strain are proportional.
• Yield point: Stress reaches the yield strength ( \sigma_y ).
• Plastic deformation: Strain increases without additional stress.
• Applications: Used in structural steel design for modeling
plastic hinge formation.

3. Elastic-Plastic with Strain Hardening

• Definition: The material behaves elastically up to the yield
point, then plastically with an increasing stress requirement due to
strain hardening.
• Behavior:
• After the yield point, stress increases with strain due to
changes in the material’s internal structure.
• Common in ductile materials like steel and aluminum.
• Key Points:
 • Strain hardening enhances the load-carrying capacity beyond
the yield strength.

4. Rigid-Perfectly Plastic Behavior

• Definition: The material does not exhibit elastic behavior. It
deforms plastically immediately upon loading.
• Stress-Strain Relationship:
• Stress remains constant once it reaches the yield strength.
• Applications: Used in limit analysis of structures and
plasticity theory.

5. Rigid-Plastic with Strain Hardening

• Definition: Similar to rigid-perfectly plastic behavior, but
includes strain hardening after the yield point.
• Stress-Strain Relationship:
• Stress increases with strain due to hardening effects.
• Applications: Applicable in forming processes like rolling and
extrusion.

6. Bilinear Stress-Strain Behavior

• Definition: Combines elastic and plastic behavior with a linear
strain hardening segment after yielding.
• Key Points:
• Elastic region: Linear relationship governed by E.

• Plastic region: A second linear relationship with a lower slope

defined by the strain hardening modulus E_t .
• Applications: Simplified model for structural steel in plastic
analysis.

7. Perfectly Brittle Behavior

• Definition: The material behaves elastically until it reaches
the failure point, then fractures without plastic deformation.
• Behavior:
• No post-yield behavior.
 • Common in materials like glass, ceramics, and high-strength
concrete.
• Stress-Strain Curve: A steep linear rise followed by an
abrupt drop.

8. Idealized Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete

Concrete shows a nonlinear stress-strain behavior, which can be

idealized as:
• Initial Linear Elastic Phase: Stress is proportional to strain
at small loads.
• Nonlinear Phase: Stress increases nonlinearly as
microcracking begins.
• Peak Stress: Corresponds to the ultimate compressive
strength.
• Post-Peak Behavior: A descending branch represents brittle
failure.

Applications in Structural Engineering

• Elastic Analysis: For small loads where material stays within
the elastic range.
• Plastic Analysis: For ultimate load-carrying capacity, using
elastic-plastic or rigid-plastic models.
• Failure Analysis: For brittle materials or post-yield behavior
in ductile materials.
• Finite Element Modeling (FEM): Idealized curves simplify
numerical modeling.

STRAIN HARDENING

Strain hardening is a process that increases the strength of a material by deforming it

plastically, or permanently:
 How it works
When a material is plastically deformed, dislocations are generated and interact,
becoming tangled and pinned. This prevents the dislocations from moving further, which
increases the material's strength.
 Other names
 Strain hardening is also known as work hardening or cold working.
 When it's useful
Strain hardening can be desirable, undesirable, or inconsequential, depending on the
application. For example, some materials, like pure copper and aluminum, can only be
strengthened through strain hardening.
 Factors that affect the rate of strain hardening
The rate at which a material's strength increases with strain is influenced by several
factors, including the initial density of dislocations, the rate of dislocation generation,
and the rate of dislocation annihilation.

Engineering Stress/Strain /
Nominal vs True Stress/Strain
 In engineering and materials science, stress–strain curve for a material
gives the relationship between stress and strain.
 That is obtained by gradually applying load to a test coupon and
measuring the deformation from tensile testing, which the stress and
strain can be determined.
 These curves reveal many of properties of materials, such as the
Young’s modulus, the yield strength, the ultimate tensile strength and
so on.
Stress/Strain graph of a tension test experiment.
Stress-strain curve for material is plotted by elongating the sample and
recording the stress variation with strain until the sample fractures. The
strain is set to horizontal axis and stress is set to vertical axis. It is often
assumed that the cross-section area of the material does not change during
the whole deformation process. This is not true since the actual area will
decrease while deforming due to elastic and plastic deformation.

 The curve based on the original cross-section and gauge length is

called the engineering stress-strain curve, or nominal
 while the curve based on the instantaneous cross-section area and
length is called the true stress-strain curve.
NOMINAL STRESS AND NOMINAL STRAIN

For engineering stress, we assume the length and diameter of the sample
remain constant throughout the whole experiment

Engineering stress
Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of a material. Also known as nominal stress.
The engineering stress is obtained by dividing F by the cross-sectional
area A0 of the deformed specimen. Engineering stress becomes apparent in
ductile materials after yield has started directly proportional to the force
(F) decreases during the necking phase.

Nominal strain
 NOMİNAL STRAIN is the amount that a material deforms per unit
length in a tensile test. Also known as nominal strain.
 Engineers will produce an acceptable stress and an acceptable
deformation in a given member and they want to use a diagram based
on the engineering stress and the engineering strain with the cross-
sectional area A0and the length L0 of the member in its undeformed
state.

Engineering stress: σ =F/A0

True Stress and Strain
True stress and strain are different from engineering stress and strain.

In a tensile test, true stress is larger than engineering stress and true strain is
less than engineering strain. The difference between the true and
engineering stresses and strains will increase with plastic deformation. At low
strains (in elastic region), the differences between the two are negligible.

True Stress (σt):

 True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting

on the instantaneous cross-sectional area.
 True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area (the changing area with respect to time) of the specimen at that
load
There is no decrease in true stress during the necking phase.
 Also, the results achieved from tensile and compressive tests will
produce essentially the same plot when true stress and true strain are
used.
 The true stress (σt), which is proportional to F and inversely proportional
to A, is observed to keep increasing until rupture of the specimen
occurs.

True Strain (εt):

 True strain is logarithmic and engineering strain is linear. However it

appears to be almost same for small deformation owing to small values
in Taylor expansion.
 True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length
over the original length.
σ =F/A0 Engineering Stress

σt =F/A True Stress

ε =δ/L0 Engineering Strain

εt = ln (L/L0) True Strain

F Load

Cross-sectional area of specimen before

A0
deformation has taken place

Cross-sectional area of specimen at which the

A
load is applied

δ Total elongation

L0 Original value of the gage length

L Successive values of the length as it changes

True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the
changing area with time) of material. Engineering stress is the applied load
divided by the original cross-sectional area of material. Also known as
nominal stress.

This shows the cross-section of the specimen has changed during the
experiment process.
The cross-section does not remain constantly and will be different from the
given value of diameter. This stress is called True Stress. Applied force is
divided by the area of the section at that instant.

Before examine thoroughly true stress and strain, let’s reminisce about
tensile testing (tension test).

Tensile Testing
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials
science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled
tension until failure.

Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area.
From these measurements some properties can also be determined: Young’s
modulus, Poisson’s ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.
Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the
mechanical characteristics of isotropic materials. For Some materials, biaxial
tensile testing is used. The main difference between these testing machines
being how load is applied on the materials.

Fracture Behaviour
Fracture behavior is considered under two main material behaviours which
are called Ductile and Brittle materials.

Ductile material:
Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) reveals
before fracture. Characteristic feature of ductile material is necking before
material failure.

Brittle material:
Little plastic deformation or energy absorption reveals before fracture.
Characteristic feature of brittle materials is different compare to ductile
materials. Brittle materials fracture without any necking.
Different materials exhibit different behaviours/trends under the same
loading condition.
More traditional engineering materials such as concrete under tension, glass
metals and alloys exhibit adequately linear stress-strain relations until the
onset of yield point.

Axial tensile test and bending test for two different materials:

A is a ductile material, and B is a brittle material.

True stress (σt) and true strain (εt) are used for accurate definition of plastic
behaviour of ductile materials by considering the actual dimensions.

Brittle materials usually fracture(fail) shortly after yielding or even at yield

points whereas alloys and many steels can extensively deform plastically
before failure. The characteristics of each material should be chosen based
on the application and design requirements.

Yeilding criteria independent of

hydrostatic pressure
 Yielding criteria that are independent of hydrostatic
pressure focus on the material’s response to the deviatoric
 (shear) stresses rather than the volumetric (dilatational)
stresses.
 This is particularly relevant for ductile materials, where
yielding is primarily governed by distortional energy and not
by changes in volume.
Below are the most common criteria that satisfy this condition:

1. von Mises-Hencky Criterion (Distortion Energy

Theory)
• Independence from Hydrostatic Pressure:
The von Mises stress is derived from the deviatoric components of
the stress tensor, ignoring hydrostatic pressure. This makes it
hydrostatic pressure-independent.
• Formulation:
Yielding occurs when exceeds the material’s yield strength in
uniaxial tension.
• Reason for Independence:
The hydrostatic component does not affect the deviatoric stress, as
yielding in ductile materials is driven by shear deformation, not
volumetric expansion or compression.

2. Tresca Criterion (Maximum Shear Stress Theory)

• Independence from Hydrostatic Pressure:
The Tresca criterion depends on the maximum shear stress, which is
calculated using the differences between principal stresses (, , and ),
irrespective of hydrostatic pressure.
• Formulation:
Yielding occurs when equals the shear yield stress ().
• Reason for Independence:
Shear stress is a result of differences in principal stresses, and
hydrostatic pressure affects all principal stresses equally, leaving
the differences unchanged.

3. Drucker-Prager Criterion (For Ductile and Brittle

Materials)
• Independence:
When used without the hydrostatic pressure term (), the Drucker-
Prager criterion focuses solely on deviatoric stresses.
• Formulation:
Here, is the square root of the second invariant of the deviatoric
stress tensor, and is a material constant.

4. Mohr-Coulomb Criterion (Modified for Hydrostatic

Independence)
• Independence:
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion can be adapted to be hydrostatic-
pressure independent by focusing on the shear components of
stress in the deviatoric plane.
• Reason for Dependence (in original form):
The original Mohr-Coulomb criterion includes terms related to the
normal stress, which introduces hydrostatic pressure dependence.
Adjustments can remove this dependence for ductile materials.

Conclusion

The von Mises and Tresca criteria are the most widely used and
purely hydrostatic-pressure-independent yielding criteria. These are
especially suited for ductile materials where yielding depends on
distortional energy or maximum shear stress rather than volumetric
stresses.

Tresca’s and von Mises-Hencky’s Failure Criteria

Both Tresca’s and von Mises-Hencky’s failure criteria are widely

used in structural engineering and material science to predict
yielding of ductile materials under complex stress states. They have
distinct formulations, assumptions, and applications, as described
below:

Tresca’s Criterion
• Formulation: Yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress
in the material reaches the shear stress at yielding in a simple
tension test.
Where and are the maximum and minimum principal stresses, and is
the uniaxial yield stress.

Strengths:
1. Simplicity: Easy to apply in calculations since it directly
relates to the concept of shear stress.
2. Conservative: Provides a conservative estimate for the onset
of yielding, ensuring safety in design.
 3. Physical Intuition: Linked to the maximum shear stress,
which is physically observable in failure.

Weaknesses:
1. Overly Conservative: In some cases, it underestimates the
material’s capacity, leading to overly conservative designs.
2. Discontinuity: The criterion is non-smooth (piecewise linear)
in the principal stress space, making it less convenient for
numerical simulations.

von Mises-Hencky Criterion

• Formulation: Yielding occurs when the second invariant of the
deviatoric stress tensor reaches a critical value equivalent to
yielding in uniaxial tension.
Where is the von Mises stress.

Strengths:
1. Accuracy: Provides a more accurate representation of yielding
for ductile materials under multi-axial stress states.
2. Smoothness: Continuous and smooth in the principal stress
space, making it ideal for numerical methods like finite element
analysis (FEA).
3. Consistency with Experiments: Better aligns with
experimental results for ductile materials.

Weaknesses:
1. Complexity: Slightly more complex than Tresca’s criterion,
involving more computational effort.
2. Less Conservative: Can overestimate material strength
compared to Tresca, potentially leading to unsafe designs if
improperly applied.

Comparison
Aspect Tresca von Mises-Hencky
Primary Basis Maximum shear stress Distortion energy theory
Shape in Stress Space Hexagonal prism Ellipsoid
Safety MarginMore conservative Less conservative
Applicability Simpler problems or hand calculations Complex problems and numerical
simulations
Experimental Correlation Moderate accuracy High accuracy for ductile materials

When to Use Which Criterion?

 • Tresca: Preferred in applications where simplicity or
conservatism is crucial, such as initial design stages or for
materials with high sensitivity to shear stress.
• von Mises: Ideal for detailed analyses, especially when using
FEA, and for materials with isotropic behavior and yielding
governed by distortion energy.

Both criteria are valid within their respective assumptions, and the
choice often depends on the material and the nature of the problem.