0% found this document useful (0 votes)

83 views52 pages

CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory

This document contains summarized notes on the CAIE IGCSE Physics syllabus, covering key concepts such as motion, forces, energy, mass, weight, and density. It explains fundamental physics principles, measurement techniques, and the distinction between scalar and vector quantities. The notes are prepared for personal use and include various examples and equations relevant to the syllabus.

Uploaded by

haresh Vishwanath

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

83 views52 pages

CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory

Uploaded by

haresh Vishwanath

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 52

ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Haresh for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square

1. Motion, Forces and Energy centimetre (1 cm²).
Area formula: area = length × breadth.
SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a
1.1. Physical Quantities and square with sides 1 m long.
Measurement Techniques Volume
Units and basic quantities
A standard or unit must be chosen before a
measurement can be made.
The size of the quantity to be measured is found using
an instrument with a scale marked in the unit
Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length,
mass, and time.
Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and
time.
The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set
of units used in many countries
Length Volume is the amount of space occupied.
Unit of length: metre (m) Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m Volume of a cylinder: V = πr2 h
1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a
1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m liquid. Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at
1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m bottom level of the meniscus.

Multiples for large distances: Time

1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m Unit of time: second (s).

1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a
rule stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond
timer for measuring the speed of sound).
For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure
Scalars and Vectors

Note: Take ± readings for accuracy

Area

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Distance and displacement
Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.
Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy,
temperature.
Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and
direction.
Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric field
strength, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum.
Representing Vectors: a straight line with length
indicating the magnitude and an arrow showing
direction.
Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.
Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both
magnitude and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles: Distance is a length a body travels between two points. It
is a scalar quantity.
The magnitude of the resultant Displacement is similar to distance but as it is a vector
quantity, direction is also considered.
F = FX2 + FY2

Distance-Time Graph Examples

Angle θ between FX and F

FY
tan θ = FX

At rest ( BC).
Constant speed (AB and CD)
Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For
example, the speed of the train at CD is 2m/s, but that at
AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD
being steeper.

Non-Constant Speed

When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time

graph varies.
Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.
The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.
Example:

1.2. Motion Gradient of the tangent at T:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
AB 40m Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector
BC

= 2s

= 20m/s
quantity. Displacement is a vector, unlike distance which
is a scalar
Acceleration

When the velocity of an object changes, the object

accelerates.
Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity in
unit time:
Δv
Acceleration = Δt

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

0 0
1 5
2 10
Speed
3 15
Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time. 4 20
When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time 5 25
period (t), the speed (v) is given by: 6 30
s
v= t

Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a

Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit velocity of 2 m/s after 1 second, its acceleration is
2
time. 2m/s , due north
General formula: Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per
unit time.
Average speed = Total distance travelled
Total time taken

Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to
(50−20),m/s
50 m/s in 5 seconds: Acceleration = 5s =
Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average

2
6m/s
speed is: Average speed = 3005 hkm = 60 km/h

Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction

Velocity should be stated.
For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the
Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given velocity equals the speed, and the magnitude of the
direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction. acceleration equals the speed change in unit time.
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time. Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the
Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they following speeds:
have the same speed and velocity due north. If one The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the
travels north and the other south, their speeds are the acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².
same, but not their velocities. Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.
Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also
per unit of time. called deceleration or retardation).
Velocity formula:
Speed-Time Graphs
Velocity = Distance moved in a given direction
Time taken
=

Displacement
T ime

Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against

Velocity is the speed in a given direction. time.
A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a Used to solve motion problems.
steady speed in a straight line.
Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved Constant Speed
path.
Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s.

Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving

with a constant speed of 25 m/s.

A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates

constant speed.

Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with

a curved shape.

Constant Acceleration

Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each

second, indicating decreasing acceleration.
Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration

The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the
acceleration. acceleration.
The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero
constant acceleration. acceleration.
For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by: \n
Variable Acceleration Gradient = Δx Δy Y <i>2−Y </i>1
= X<i>2−X</i>1

Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, For changing acceleration, the gradient changes,
constant speed, and deceleration. indicating changing acceleration.
An object accelerates if the speed increases and
decelerates if the speed decreases with time.

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper

due to air resistance.
In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.
Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies
compared to heavy bodies.
Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low
speeds.

Acceleration of Free Fall

All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate

uniformly if air resistance is negligible.
This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of
Measures the distance travelled. free fall, denoted by ( g ).
The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant. The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on
The distance equals the shaded area under the graph. average.
The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about
Equations for constant acceleration 9.8m/s every second.
First Equation A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates
If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a ) by about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching its highest point
in a straight line and its speed increases from ( u ) to ( after 3 seconds.
v ) in time ( t ): As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its
Acceleration is given by: acceleration.
v−u
a= t

Rearranging gives:

v = u + at (Equation 1)
Second Equation
For an object moving with constant acceleration, its
average speed equals half the sum of its initial and
final speeds:
u+v
Average speed = 2

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

Average speed = s
t

Combining these, we get

s u+v
t = 2

Rearranging gives:

s = (u+v)
2
⋅ t (Equation 2)

Air Resistance and Free Fall

When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that
a terminal velocity. has mass.
Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, The weight of an object can vary with location due to
and weight. differences in gravitational field strength.
A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured
accelerates for a longer distance. in newtons and can be determined using a spring
A light object or one with a large surface area, like a balance.
raindrop or parachute, has a low terminal velocity and
accelerates over a shorter distance. Aspect Mass Weight
Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling Measure of the Gravitational force
parachutist: Definition amount of matter in acting on an object
an object with mass
Explanation: Kilogram (kg), gram
Units Newton (N)
(g)
Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the This can be measured Measured using a
Measurement
plane, they experience free fall. During this phase, their using a balance spring balance or scale
velocity increases steadily due to the acceleration of Independent of Depends on location
2 Dependency location and and gravitational field
gravity (approximately 9.8m/s acting downwards. The
graph slopes upwards steeply. gravitational field strength
Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases Symbol in
m (W ), or, (Fg )
Equations

significantly when the parachutist deploys their

parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration,
leading to a less steep slope on the graph. The Gravitational Field
parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in
slower rate compared to free fall. contact with the Earth to fall towards it.
Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall, Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass
their velocity eventually reaches a maximum constant and is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2,
forces of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out, representing both the acceleration due to gravity and the
resulting in zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time gravitational field strength.
graph, this appears as a horizontal line where the
velocity remains constant.
1.4. Density
1.3. Mass and Weight Definition
Mass Density (ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume
The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of ρ= m
V

matter in it. It is a measure of the quantity of matter in

an object at rest relative to an observer. Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic
The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).
gram (g) being one-thousandth of a kilogram: 1g =
Calculation Methods
10−3 kg = 0.001kg
Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and
force on an object with mass. measure volume (V ) by direct measurement of
Weight dimensions.
Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance.
Measure volume (V ) using displacement methods:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled
with water, record the initial and final water levels to find Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass
63 g
volume. of 63 g and a volume of 7 cm³ ρ = mV = 7 cm³ =

9 g/cm³
Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet
with a volume of 73 cm³ and a density of 2.7 g/cm³
m = ρ × V = 2.7 g/cm³ × 73 cm³ = 197.1 g

Floating and Sinking:

Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density
relative to the liquid's density. A higher-density object
sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa.

1.5. Forces
Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout. Force
Immerse the object in the water and find the volume of A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion,
water displaced. That volume of water is the volume of speed, or shape of an object.
the object. It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction
of moving objects.

Extension in Springs

Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is

proportional to the stretching force up to the limit of
proportionality.
Symbolically, extension ∝ stretching force

Spring Constant

The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to

cause a unit extension in a spring.
k = Fx , where (F ) is the force applied and (x) is the

Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, resulting extension.

add liquid, measure total mass, and subtract to find the
mass of the liquid. Divide by the known volume to find Load-Extension Graphs
density.
Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then Used to graphically represent the relationship between
remove the air with a vacuum pump. Calculate air applied force (load) and resulting extension in materials
density by dividing the mass difference by volume like springs.
measured using water displacement. Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality
indicate permanent deformation.
Example Calculations

Friction and Air Resistance

Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to

slow down and eventually come to rest.
In their absence, objects would continue moving
Forces and Resultants indefinitely with constant speed.

Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by Newton’s Second Law

arrows in diagrams. States that the acceleration of an object is directly
Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g. proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
weight and support force) or have a resultant force. proportional to its mass.
The resultant force is the single force that has the same Mathematically expressed as:
effect as all forces acting together. F = ma
A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by
where (F ) is the resultant force in newtons (N ), (m) is
altering its speed or direction of motion.
the mass in kilograms (kg ), and (a) is the acceleration in
meters per second squared (m/s2 ).

Proportional Relationships

Acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the force (F )

when mass (m) is constant
a∝F
Acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to mass (m)
when force (F ) is constant
a ∝ m1

Newton’s First Law Units and Constant (k )

An object remains at rest or continues to move at a The unit of force, the newton (N ), is defined as the force
constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1m/s2
resultant force. k in F = kma equals 1 when m = 1kg and a = 1 m/s2
This means that no force is required to maintain
constant velocity if no external forces act on the object. Resultant Force and Motion

Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the

direction of the force.
When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but
changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within
the object.
Friction

Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one Despite constant speed, circular motion involves
surface over another. acceleration because velocity direction changes
It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can continuously.
prevent proper movement on surfaces like ice. Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary
to maintain circular motion.
Types of Friction
Factors Affecting Centripetal Force
Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:
starting of motion between surfaces in contact.
Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the Speed (v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.
motion of surfaces sliding past each other. Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal
Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an force.
object moving through a fluid (air or liquid), increasing Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.
with speed and reducing acceleration.
Role of Centripetal Force
Effect of Force and Mass on Friction
It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from
Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases the centre of the circle.
friction initially.
Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, Moment of a Force
causing a rise in temperature when contacting surfaces.
The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called
the moment of the force.
It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of
action of the force.
Mathematically, the moment is given by:
M =F ×d
Centripetal Force where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to
the line of action of the force.
In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path
due to a force directed towards the centre of the circle. The unit of moment is the Newton metre (N m).

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of

Acceleration in Circular Motion moments (or law of moments) is used.
The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of
clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same point.
This principle is essential for designing and
understanding the equilibrium of lever systems and
other balanced structures.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Conditions for Equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium if: Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original
position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl).
The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away
equilibrium). from its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a
The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) ruler balanced on its edge).
around any point is zero (rotational equilibrium). Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new
position when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat
Centre of Gravity surface).
The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is
the point through which the entire weight of the object
acts.
It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this
single point.
For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity
is at its geometric centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

Momentum
Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped
lamina involves suspending the object from different Momentum (p) is the product of an object's mass (m)
points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line and its velocity (v ).
through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where Mathematically, p = mv
these lines intersect. It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude
and direction.
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second
(kgm/s) or newton second (N s).
Conservation of Momentum

Stability and Toppling

The stability of an object depends on the position of its

centre of gravity relative to its base.
An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its
base of support.
Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre
of gravity falls outside the base of support.
Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of
gravity improves stability.

Types of Equilibrium

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Types of energy stores
The total momentum of a closed system of objects
remains constant if no external forces act on it (such as Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of
friction or air resistance). substances like food, fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood).
This principle is known as the conservation of Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object
momentum. possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and (usually the Earth's surface).
inelastic) and explosions. For example, in a collision, the Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it
total momentum before and after the collision remains is compressed, stretched, or deformed.
the same. Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.
Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects
pinitial = pfinal

due to their separation in an electric field.

Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an
Example:
atom..
A trolley of mass m1 = 3 kg moving with velocity u1 = 5

Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the

m/s collides and couples with a stationary trolley of mass microscopic motions and interactions of particles within
m2 = 2 kg. They move off together with the same

a substance.
velocity (v). We need to find (v).
1. Calculate initial momentum (pinitial ):
Energy Transfers
pinitial = m1 ⋅ u1 = 3 kg ⋅ 5 m/s = 15 kgm/s
Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action

2. Calculate final momentum (pfinal ):

of a force, like lifting a weight.

Since they move off together with velocity (v): Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric
pfinal = (m1 + m2 ) ⋅ v = (3 kg + 2 kg) ⋅ v =

current, such as in batteries or electric motors.

5 kg ⋅ v Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of
3. Apply conservation of momentum (pinitial = energy through waves, like light or sound waves.
pfinal ):

Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes,
15 kgm/s = 5 kg ⋅ v like heating water in a boiler.
4. Solve for (v): Principle of Conservation of Energy
v = 15 5kgm/s
kg
= 3 m/s

So, the velocity (v ) of the two trolleys moving together Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed from one form to another. Thus the total
after the collision is 3 m/s
amount of energy is constant.

Impulse Energy Forms

Impulse (J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an
object when a force acts on it over a period of time (Δt).
Mathematically, J = F Δt = Δp
Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same
direction as the force causing it.

Force and Momentum:

Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum:

(F = Δp Δt ), which is an alternative form of Newton's

second law.

1.6. Energy, work and power

to its motion. Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a

Ek = 12 mv 2 , where (m) is mass and (v) is velocity.

boiler to produce heat.
Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is
moving at 20 m/s: burned directly in a gas turbine.
Ek = 12 × 0.4 × (20)2 = 80 J The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to
boil water, creating high-pressure steam.

Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its

The steam drives turbines connected to electrical

position or condition or configuration.

Ep = mgh , where (m) is mass, (g ) is acceleration generators.
Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor)

due to gravity, and (h) is height.

mounted on a shaft, which rotates when steam is
Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically directed onto them.
by 1 m: As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is
Ep = 0.1 × 9.8 × 1 = 0.98 J

transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin.

Work The spinning rotor generates electricity through
electromagnetic induction in the generator.
Work (W ) is done when a force (F ) displaces a body
How hydroelectric power stations work
through a distance (d) in the direction of the force.
Formula: W = F ⋅ d They run using the kinetic energy generated from the
Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where 1 J = 1 N ⋅ flow of water moving downstream.
m This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to
generators.
These generators then produce electricity that can be
used by households.

How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations

Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission

reactions with uranium to generate heat.
This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a
heat exchanger.
The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines
Example Calculation connected to generators to produce electricity.
The operation involves the steam passing through a
If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades
horizontally: (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is
W = 50 N × 3 m = 150 J converted into rotational motion.
If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g ≈ The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the
10 m/s2 ): electrical generator, producing electricity for
W = 30 N × 2 m = 60 J consumption.
Energy resources Power

The power of a device is the work it does per second, or Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers
the rate at which it does work. and efficiencies visually.
Power also represents the rate at which energy is They show how input energy is divided into useful output
transferred from one store to another. energy and wasted energy.
Formula: The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is
work done proportional to the amount of energy they represent.
power = time taken

P = t where W is the work done in time t

W
A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while
P = ΔE a narrow arrow represents a small amount.
t where ΔE is the energy transferred in time

t
Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time
and the energy transferred per unit time.
Unit of power: watt (W ), where 1 W = 1 J/s
Larger units:
1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W
1 M W = 1,000,000 W = 106 W
Example: If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its
power is:
500J
10s = 50W

Efficiency

% Efficiency formula for energy

1.7. Pressure
Efficiency (%) = ( Useful
Total Energy Input )
Energy Output
× 100%
Pressure is the force per unit area.

% Efficiency formula for power Formula:

pressure = force
area

Efficiency (%) = ( Useful

Total Power Input )
Power Output

× 100% Key definition: Pressure is the force per unit area.
Unit of pressure: pascal (P a), where 1 P a = 1 N /m²
Example a: Electric Motor
Greater area over which a force acts results in less
Given: pressure.

Energy input = 400 J Liquid Pressure

Work done on load = 300 J
Calculate Efficiency:
Efficiency = ( 300 J
400 J ) × 100 = 75%

Example b: Electric Drill

Given:

Power input to drill = 300 J/s

Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s

Calculate Efficiency:

Efficiency = ( 200
300 J/s )
J/s
× 100 = 66.67%

Sankey Diagrams

Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the

further down you go, the greater the weight of liquid 2.1. Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
above.
Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions. States of Matter
Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the
denser the liquid, the greater the pressure at any given
depth.
The change in pressure Δp at a depth Δh below the
surface of a liquid with density ρ is determined by
considering a horizontal area A.
Force acting vertically downwards on area A equals the
weight of the liquid column of height Δh and cross-
sectional area A above it.
Volume of the liquid column: ΔhA Matter consists of tiny particles like molecules and
Mass of the liquid column: m = ρΔhA (mass = atoms.
density × volume) Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with
Weight of the liquid column: mg = ρΔhAg different characteristics.
Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles
Force on area A: ρΔhAg
are close together in fixed positions.
Pressure due to the liquid column:
Liquids have a definite volume and take the shape of
pressure = force
area

their container. The particles are further apart and can

ρΔhAg
A = ρgΔh slide over each other.
Formula: Δp = ρgΔh Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles
Δp is the change in pressure beneath the surface of the move much further apart and freely.
liquid at depth Δh due to the weight of a liquid of
density ρ Brownian Motion
g is the gravitational field strength
This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth
Δh and depends only on Δh and ρ.
Value will be in pascals (P a) if Δh = is in meters (m) and
(ρ) is in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).

Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids

and gases) and is caused by collisions with smaller,
faster-moving particles.
2. Thermal Physics Temperature and kinetic energy

Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room Reducing the volume of a gas increases the
temperature. concentration of particles.
Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their More particles per unit volume lead to more collisions
average kinetic energy. with the container walls.
Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute The pressure increases proportionally to the decrease in
zero (-273°C or 0 K) stops all motion. volume:
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature
achievable. Variations in Gas Pressure with Volume

Pressure and Kinetic Energy Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the
product of pressure and volume is constant:
Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds.
Each gas particle collision with a container wall changes (p1 V1 = p2 V2 )

its momentum, creating a force.

The average force per unit area on container walls Graphing pressure ( p ) against the reciprocal of volume
remains constant at a constant temperature. ( V1 ) gives a straight line.

Increasing temperature raises collision frequency, Absolute Zero and Kelvin Temperature Scale:
increasing average force and gas pressure.
Absolute zero, at −273°C or 0 K, is the lowest possible
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant temperature.
Volume) Kelvin scale temperatures are derived by adding 273 to
Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles. Celsius temperatures: (T (K) = θ(°C) + 273)
Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and In the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are always positive
energetic collisions with the container walls. and directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of
Increased collisions result in higher pressure according particles.
to a gas law:
2.2. Thermal properties and
( PV = nRT )
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant temperature
Temperature)
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more,

causing them to push apart slightly, resulting in
expansion.
Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions
with container walls, which causes container expansion
to maintain pressure.

Applications

Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with different

expansion rates (e.g., copper and iron). Used in:
Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit
when exposed to heat, triggering alarms.
Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to
break or complete electrical circuits

Specific heat capacity (c) is defined as the energy

required per unit mass per unit temperature increase,
measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/(kg°C)
The formula relating heat energy (ΔE ), mass (m),
specific heat capacity (c), and temperature change (Δθ)
is: \n ΔE = mcΔθ
Specific heat capacity quantifies how much heat energy
is needed to raise the temperature of a substance.
Shrink-fitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting Materials with higher specific heat capacities require
tightly into other parts upon warming. Used in more heat energy per unit mass to achieve the same
manufacturing for tight connections without fasteners. temperature change.
Lid Removal: Expanding metal lids with hot water Worked Example Calculation
loosens them from glass jars, leading to easier opening. Given:
Precautions
Heat energy supplied, (ΔE = 20000, J)
Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used Mass of the substance, (m = 5, kg)
in railways, and pipes to allow for thermal expansion Temperature change, (Δθ = 10°C)
without damage Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance.
Internal Energy and Heating Formula:
Internal energy increases when an object is heated. The specific heat capacity (( c )) is given by:
Different materials require varying amounts of heat to ΔE
c = mΔθ

raise their temperatures due to differences in specific

heat capacity. Substituting the given values:
Specific heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat c = 20000
5×10

required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 Calculation:

degree Celsius per unit mass.
c = 20000
50

Temperature and Thermal Energy c = 400J/(kg°C)

Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of Change of State
particles.
Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a
substance, and more particles can hold more total liquid to a solid (freezing).
thermal energy even if they have lower individual particle Pure substances melt and freeze at specific
energies. temperatures, such as water at 0°C.
Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming
Heat Transfer and Equilibrium intermolecular forces to become a liquid.
Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential
Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid
until thermal equilibrium is reached. becomes solid.
This transfer is caused by collisions between particles, Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome
making their average kinetic energies equal. intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour).
Specific Heat Capacity Condensation involves gas particles losing potential
energy to their surroundings as they return to a liquid
state.

Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to

cold without moving matter.
Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum);
insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors.
Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the
hand compared to insulators at the same temperature.
Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the
particles are further apart and need time to transfer
energy to each other.
Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons,
raising temperatures in cooler areas and lattice
vibrations.
Evaporation Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or
molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons.
Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or
draughts increase the rate of evaporation.
Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid
during evaporation, cooling the liquid.
Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to
maintain a constant temperature.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Feature Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at any
Occurs at a specific
Temperature temperature below
boiling temperature.
the boiling point. Convection
Bubbles of vapour Occurs at the surface
Process
form within the liquid. of the liquid. Heat transfer method in fluids like liquids and gases.
Requires less heat Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter
Requires sufficient
Energy and occurs due to itself.
heat to reach boiling
Requirement energetic particles
point.
escaping. Convection Currents
Rapid compared to Slower compared to
Speed Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less
evaporation. boiling.
Happens throughout dense.
Throughout Happens only at the Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm
the entire volume of
Liquid? liquid's surface.
the liquid. fluid.

This movement of fluids due to temperature differences is

2.3. Transfer of thermal energy known as a convection current.
Conduction

Radiation
A method of thermal energy transfer which occurs
3. Waves
without matter, even in vacuum.
Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light. 3.1. General Properties of Waves
Absorption and Reflection Progressive waves carry energy from one place to
another without transferring matter.
Surfaces vary in radiation absorption.
Black surfaces absorb more than shiny white ones. Two Types of Progressive Waves
Emission Transverse waves
Surface Absorption of Emission of Longitudinal waves
Reflectivity
Type Radiation Radiation
Shiny
Poor absorber Poor emitter High
White
Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter Low

Surfaces emit radiation differently when hot.

Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces.
All bodies emit radiation above absolute zero.
Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 successive crests/
Greenhouse effect troughs.
Frequency (f ): Number of complete waves created per
Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a second, measured in hertz (Hz).
greenhouse. Wave speed (v): Distance moved by a crest or any point
Balance between incoming solar radiation and emitted on the wave in 1 second.
Earth radiation crucial for climate stability.
Amplitude (a): Height of a crest or depth of a trough
Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this
from the undisturbed or mean position.
balance and absorb more infrared which cannot escape.
Phase: Particles in ‘phase’ have the same speed and
direction of vibration.

Wave equation

Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength.

Therefore, a higher frequency results in a smaller
wavelength.
Wave equation:

v = fλ

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Wavefronts and rays
Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip
Wavefront: A straight line where the wave has the same in a ripple tank at x° angle.
phase at all points. Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r)are both
Ray: Line drawn at right angles to a wavefront showing x° .
the direction of travel. Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: (i = r)
Same wavelength as reflected wave
Same wave speed

Reflection of a wave at a plane surface

Refraction
Continuous straight waves in shallow water have shorter
wavelengths than in deeper water.
Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and
smaller wavelength.
When waves move from shallow to dense regions, they
bend towards the normal, and when they move from
dense to shallow regions, they bend away from the
normal.

Diffraction

Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create

circular wavefronts.
Diffraction can also occur at the edges of obstacles
causing wave spreading.

Real and Virtual Images

A real image can be produced on a screen and is formed

by rays that pass through the screen.
A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
A virtual image is produced by rays that seem to come
from it but do not pass through it.
The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from an
3.2. Reflection and Refraction of Light object are reflected at the mirror and appear to come
from a point behind the mirror where the rays would
Light travels in a path called a ray. meet when extrapolated (extended) backward.
A beam is a stream of light shown by several rays.
Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging.

Speed of Light

The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the

speed of sound.
The speed of light is 3 × 108 meters per second. Refractive Index
Reflection of light against a plane mirror

The normal is perpendicular to the mirror at the point

where the incident ray strikes.
The angle of incidence (i) is between the incident ray
and the normal.
The angle of reflection (r) is between the reflected ray
and the normal.

The law of reflection states that the angle of

incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Light refracts due to speed change when entering a A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and
different medium. bends light inwards.
In air, light travels at 300, 000 km/s (3 × 10⁸ m/s) A diverging (or concave) lens is the thinnest in the center
In glass, it slows to 200,000 km/s (2 × 10⁸ m/s) and spreads the light out.
Refractive index (n) is the ratio of light speed in air to The center of a lens is its optical center (C) and the line
light speed in the medium. through C at right angles to the lens is the principal axis.
For glass: n = 300,000km/s = 32 = 1.5
200,000km/s Principal focus

Refractive index is the ratio of speeds of a wave in two

different regions. When a beam of light (parallel to the principal axis)
sin(i)
Experimentally it is true that n = sin(r)

where (i) is the passes through a converging lens, it refracts to converge
angle in air and (r) is the angle in glass. at a point called the principal focus (F ).
Higher refractive index means greater bending of light as The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus.
it slows down more. A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the
lens, from which the refracted beam appears to diverge.
Critical Angle A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side, each
equidistant from the optical center (C).
When light passes from an optically denser to an The distance (CF ) is the focal length (f ) of the lens.
optically less dense medium at small angles of incidence,
there is a strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray.
Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of
refraction.
Critical angle (c) occurs when the angle of refraction is
90°.
For angles of incidence greater than (c), light undergoes
total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection means that the light does not
cross the boundary and reflects inside the denser
medium. Ray diagrams
For the critical angle: sin(c) = n1 where n is the

refractive index. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through

the principal focus (F ).
A ray through the optical center (C) is undeviated (not
refracted) for a thin lens.
A ray through the principal focus (F ) is refracted parallel
to the principal axis.
The intersection of rays (in one beam) after refraction
gives the location of the image.

How to draw a ray diagram step-by-step

Parallel Ray (Ray 1):

3.3. Lenses
Converging and Diverging Lenses

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Image
Draw a straight line (parallel to the principal axis). Object Position Image Position Image Size
Nature
Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens. Real,
After refraction through the lens, draw this direct ray At 2F At 2F Same size
inverted
through the focal point F on the opposite side of the Between 2F and Real,
Beyond 2F Larger
lens. F inverted
Real, Infinitely
At F At infinity
inverted large
Between F and On the same side of Virtual,
Larger
lens lens upright

Central Ray (Ray 2):

Draw a straight line from the top of the object through

the optical center C of the lens.
This ray will continue in the same direction without
bending at all.

Applications of Lenses in Vision Correction

Short-Sightedness (Myopia)
Cause: The eye lens focuses light in front of the
Image formed: retina instead of on it. This causes distant objects to
appear blurry.
These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens Correction: A diverging (concave) lens is used to
to form the image of the object. spread out light rays before they enter the eye, so the
lens can focus them correctly on the retina.
Long-Sightedness (Hypermetropia)
Cause: The eye lens focuses light behind the retina.
This causes nearby objects to appear blurry.
Correction: A converging (convex) lens is used to
focus light rays closer together before they enter the
eye, so they focus correctly on the retina.
Magnification

The linear magnification (M ) is given by: 3.4. Dispersion of Light

image size
M = object size

Refraction by a Prism
Magnification can also be expressed as:
distance of image from lens
M = distance of object from lens

Image properties at different object positions are shown

below:

In a triangular glass prism, a ray bends due to refraction Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which
at each surface. extends beyond visible light in both directions (with
The bending at the first surface combines with the greater wavelength vs. smaller wavelength)
bending at the second surface. The spectrum includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet,
This combined change in direction is called the infrared, microwaves, and radio waves.
deviation. Wavelength increases from gamma rays to radio waves,
Unlike in a parallel-sided block, where the emergent while frequency increases from radio waves to gamma
(exiting) ray remains parallel to the incident ray, these rays.
bendings do not cancel out in a prism.

Dispersion

When white light passes through a triangular glass prism,

it separates into a band of colors known as a spectrum. Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
This separation of colors is called dispersion and occurs
because the refractive index of glass varies with the Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a
wavelength of light. vacuum, approximately 3 × 108 m/s.
White light consists of many colors with different They can undergo reflection, refraction, and diffraction
wavelengths, and the prism separates them based on and are transverse waves.
their refractive indices. They follow the wave equation v = f λ, where (v ) is the
The colors of the visible spectrum, from longest to speed of light, (f ) is the frequency, and (λ) is the
shortest wavelength, are: red, orange, yellow, green, wavelength.
blue, indigo, and violet Higher frequency means smaller wavelength and
Red light, with the longest wavelength and lowest therefore more energy carried.
frequency, is refracted the least by the prism.
Violet light, with the shortest wavelength and highest Radio Waves and Microwaves
frequency, is refracted the most by the prism.
Radio waves are the longest-wavelength electromagnetic
waves used for communication, radio and television
transmission, astronomy, and radio frequency
identification.
Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radiowaves
and are used in telecommunications, satellite
communication, radar, and microwave ovens.

Infrared Radiation

Detected as heat by the body; used in thermal imaging,

heating, and remote controls.
Also used in communication (optical fibers), electric grills,
3.5. Electromagnetic Spectrum and intruder alarms.
However, high-intensity infrared can cause burns and
Light waves and Electromagnetic Spectrum eye damage.

Visible Light

Red light has the longest wavelength, and violet light has
the shortest.
Monochromatic light consists of one color (single
frequency), where frequency is more responsible than
wavelength to express the colour.
Visible light enables vision and is used for illumination
and photography.
Optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes use
light properties to form images.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Shorter wavelengths than visible light; causes sunburn

and skin damage. Infrared Optical Fibers
Used in fluorescent applications (e.g., security marking,
water treatment, artificial skin-tanning) and sterilising Infrared optical fibers use the principle of total internal
water. reflection to make infrared or light travel along the fiber
Can be harmful in high doses. without much loss.
Used for long-distance data transmission, offering high
X-rays and Gamma Rays bandwidth and low signal loss compared to electrical
transmission.
X-rays have smaller wavelengths than ultraviolet rays
and are used in medical imaging, security screening, and
industrial inspection.
Gamma rays are highly penetrating (smallest wavelength
and largest frequency) and used in cancer detection
cancer treatment to kill cells, sterilization, and material
inspection.

Communication Systems

Below are the differences between digital and analog 3.6. Sound
signals:
Longitudinal Waves
Aspect Digital Signals Analog Signals
Continuous, varying Sound waves are longitudinal
Discrete, binary (0s
Signal Type amplitude and Particles in the medium (like air or water molecules)
and 1s)
frequency vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of wave
Limited by bandwidth propagation.
Transmission Higher transmission and signal This creates areas of compression (where molecules are
Rate rates degradation over closer together) and rarefaction (where they are far
distance
apart) as the wave travels through the medium.
Digital data, internet Audio signals, analog
Examples signals, computer television, older
The movement of particles transfers energy through the
memory telephone systems medium.
This vibration causes the sound to be heard
Compressions and Rarefactions

Sound waves are made of compressions (C ) and Sound waves reflect off hard and flat surfaces like how
rarefactions (R) as they move through a medium. light reflects off a mirror.
Compressions are regions where air molecules are When sound reflects, it creates an echo, which is a
densely packed together and the regions have higher repetition of the original sound heard after a short delay.
pressure.
Rarefactions are regions where air molecules are less
densely packed and the regions have lower pressure.

Frequency and Wavelength

Frequency (f ) of a sound wave is the number of

complete wave cycles per second and is measured in Speed of Sound
Hertz (Hz ). The speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350
Higher frequencies mean higher-pitch sounds, while meters per second (m/s) at room temperature.
lower frequencies mean lower-pitch sounds. In other materials, such as water (with a speed of
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive approx. 1500m/s) or steel (with a speed of approx. 5100
compressions or rarefactions in a sound wave. m/s), the speed of sound may vary due to differences in
The speed of sound (v ) in a medium is determined by the the density.
product of its frequency and wavelength: (v = f λ). Temperature affects the speed of sound in air and it
increases with temperature because warmer air
Limits of hearing molecules move faster.
Humans can only hear sound frequencies ranging from Measurement of the Speed of Sound
about 20Hz (low pitch) to 20,000Hz (high pitch).
The upper limit of audibility decreases with age due to Echo Method
changes in the sensitivity of the ear. Stand at a known distance (like more than 300 meters)
Audibility can also be affected by the intensity (loudness) from a large wall.
of the sound which is determined by amplitude. Clap hands or produce a sharp sound and start a
stopwatch simultaneously.
Reflection of sound (Echo) Wait for the distinct echo from the surface and stop the
stopwatch when you hear it.
Calculation: Use the formula (v = 2dt ), where (d) is the

distance to the surface and (t ) is the time interval

measured with the stopwatch.
Note: Twice the distance is used because the
sound travels away from you and then back
again, covering the entire distance two times.

Direct Method

Place two microphones a known distance (like 10 meters) The pitch of the note is determined by the frequency of
apart. the sound wave (higher frequencies produce higher pitch
Connect microphones to an oscilloscope to detect the notes).
sound. Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibrations (
Produce a sound source equidistant from both points greater amplitude produces louder sounds)
and start timing when the sound is produced. Quality (timbre) of a sound is its unique shape or texture,
Stop timing when the sound is detected at the second caused by the instrument's construction.
point.
Use the formula (v = dt ), where (d) is the known distance

between the two microphones and (t) is the measured

time interval between detection at the two points.

Ultrasound

Ultrasound refers to sound waves with frequencies

above the upper limit of human hearing (> 20, 000Hz ).
Musical Notes It is used in medical imaging and industrial applications
for precision and non-destructive testing.
Ultrasound waves behave similarly to audible sound
waves but can penetrate materials and provide detailed
imaging without harmful effects.

4. Electricity and Magnetism

4.1. Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Magnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into

magnets.
Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets
even when not magnetized..

Magnetic Poles

Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by
near the ends of magnets. hanging them from a magnet.
Poles always come in pairs: north and south. Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with
Every magnet has a North Pole (N ) and a South Pole (S ). unlike poles attracting each other.
The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it
geographic North Pole. to collapse because iron shows temporary magnetism.
Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they
Law of Magnetic Poles have permanent magnetism.
Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose
Similar poles (N − N or S − S ) repel each other. magnetism quickly.
Opposite poles (N − S ) attract each other. Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but
The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move remain magnetised longer.
farther apart.

Induced Magnetism
Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a
magnet.

Magnetisation of Iron and Steel

Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are

attracted to magnets and can be magnetised.
Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not
attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetised.

Magnetic Fields

A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in
magnetic forces act. stronger magnetism.
Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils
closer together and lower where they are further apart. around the core increases magnet strength.
Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together
the direction from North to South poles. increases electromagnet strength.
The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer
lines represent stronger magnetic fields.

Electromagnets
4.2. Electrical quantities
They are formed from a coil of wire through which an Electric Charge
electrical current passes.
Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while
Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off,
unlike charges (+ and –) attract.
unlike permanent magnets.
They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes Force Between Charges
magnetised when current flows through the coil.
The force between electric charges decreases as their
Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength separation increases.
Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract
negative charges.
Negative charges repel other negative charges and
attract positive charges.

Charges, Atoms, and Electrons

Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive)

and electrons (negative) orbiting around it.
Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges,
making atoms electrically neutral overall.

Production of Charges

Charges are produced by friction, which transfers When charges are near each other, they experience a
electrons between materials. force known as the electric force.
Electrons move between materials during rubbing; Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due
protons remain in the nuclei and do not move. to nearby charges.
Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged
Units of charge parallel metal plates, shown by evenly spaced lines
perpendicular to the plates.
Charge is measured in coulombs (C ) and defined in
The direction of the electric field is indicated by arrows,
terms of the ampere (A) representing the force acting on a small positive test
The charge on an electron is (e = −1.6 × 10−19 ) C . charge (pointing away from positive charges and towards
Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors negative charges).

Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing

can charge them statically.
Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require
insulation to hold a charge.

Type Description Examples

Electrons are firmly
Plastics (polythene,
bound to atoms; rubbing
Insulators cellulose acetate),
can charge them
Perspex, nylon
statically.
Electrons can move
Conductors freely; require insulation Metals, carbon The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and
to hold a charge. charge)

Electric Fields Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per

unit time, symbolized as
(I = Qt ).

Unit of current is the ampere (A), with one milliampere (

mA) equal to one-thousandth of an ampere and is
measured by an ammeter.
Unit of charge is the coulomb (C ), defined as the charge
passing a point when a steady current of 1 ampere flows
for 1 second (1C = 1As).

Charge Calculation
Q=I ×t
where Q is charge, I is current, and t is time in seconds.
Conventional Current

Conventional current flows from positive to negative

terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow.
Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction
with arrows, while electrons move in the opposite
direction.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Direct and Alternating Current
Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.) Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit
Electrons flow continuously in Electrons regularly change
components and surroundings.
one direction. their direction of flow. Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by unit
Provided by batteries Produced by generators. charge passing through a component
P .d. is measured in volts.
Frequency of Alternating Current Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 V = 1 CJ )
Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per

Formula: V = W Q or W = Q × V
second.

It is measured in Hertz (Hz ), where 1 Hz equals one Resistance

cycle per second.
Electrons move more easily through some conductors
when p.d. is applied.
Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.
Good conductors have low resistance while poor
conductors have high resistance
Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
Formula: R = VI

Variable Resistors

They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or

act as a potential divider by dividing voltage across
components as desired.

4.3. Voltage, Resistance and Power

Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)

Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron

excess at the negative terminal and shortage at the
positive terminal
Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a
connected circuit as long as chemical actions last. Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area,
The battery does work when moving the charge around
and material of the wire
the circuit.
Resistance increases with length but decreases with a
Electromotive force (e.m.f .) is the electrical work done larger cross-sectional area
by a source in moving unit charge around a complete
Formula: (R ∝ Al )
circuit.

Electromotive force is measured in volts (V ). I–V graphs and Ohm’s Law

Potential Difference

Metals and some alloys give I–V graphs that are straight Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
lines through the origin, showing that I is directly I–V graph curve flattens as V and I increase, showing
proportional to V or that I ∝ V . increasing resistance with increasing current and
Doubling V doubles I . increasing temperature.
Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V = IR
Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where
resistance does not change with V .

Thermistor

An increase in temperature generally increases the

resistance of metals.
Semiconductor Diode Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with
rising temperature.
Diode has small resistance when connected one way and
It is a non-ohmic conductor
very large resistance when p.d. is reversed.
It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a
non-ohmic conductor.

Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)

Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with

Filament Lamp increased light intensity.
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to
function.
I–V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor
LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Power in Electric Circuits
In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to
Power defined as work done or energy transferred per flow.
time taken: P = Wt
The current remains the same throughout:
P is power in watts (W ), W is work done in joules (J ), t Current (I ) is consistent at every point in the series
is time in seconds (s) circuit.
For a steady current (I) in a device with a potential The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter
difference (V ) across it, the work done has a formula where it is placed in the circuit.
W =I ×t×V Current in a Parallel Circuit
Substituting work done with the power P = IV
multiplied by time in seconds (t), the energy transferred In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by
is: E = Pt = IV t side, providing alternative paths for current flow.
The total current is the sum of the currents through
Example each branch
If the total current from the source is (I0 ), and the

Lamp with 240 V supply and 0.25 A current current through each branch is I1 , I2 and I3 then I0 =

Power = P = IV = 240 V × 0.25 A = 60 W I1 + I2 + I3

60 J of energy transferred to the lamp each second

Voltage in terms of power and current

Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: V = PI

If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of

resistance R:
P = V × I = IR × I = I 2 R
Doubling the current produces four times the thermal
energy per second P = I 2 R
Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = 1000 Js × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 M J

The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using

kWh where each kWh has a fixed price and is multiplied Potential Difference (p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits
by the units you consume.
In a series circuit, the total potential difference across
the components is the sum of the individual potential
4.4. Electric Circuits differences: V0 = V1 + V2 + V3

In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each

Electrical component symbols component is the same as the potential difference across
one branch: Vacross each branch = V0

Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)

Cells in series increase the total e.m.f . of the battery.

For example, if two 1.5 V cells are connected in series
then the e.m.f .= 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V

Resistors in Series
Current in a Series Circuit

In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0 ) is the sum of In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing
the individual resistances: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3
temperature.
Given resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 the total voltage (V )

When it’s used in a potential divider circuit:
across them is: V = I × R As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance
decreases.
Worked Example This lowers the combined resistance of the two
resistors, increasing the current if the supply voltage
For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω in remains constant.
series: The potential difference across the fixed resistor
Combined resistance: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 Ω + 4 Ω

increases relative to that across the thermistor.

+ 5 Ω= 12 Ω A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by
Current (I ): I = VR = 4.5V
12Ω = 0.375 A
adjusting the position of the contact, changing the
p.d. across 4 Ω resistor: V2 = I × R2 = 0.375 A × 4 Ω =
output potential difference.
1.5 V
Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance (R0 ) of resistors in parallel is

given by: R10 = R11 + R12 + R13 …

Two resistors R1 and R2 have resistance of R10 = R11 + R12

1 ×R 2

= R0 = R

R 1 +R 2

Properties of Parallel Circuits

1. The current from the source is greater than the
current in each branch.
2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less
Potential Divider
than that of any individual resistor.
For two resistors R1 and R2 in series with a supply voltage

(V ):
4.5. Applications of electric circuits
The total current (I) is given by: I = V
R1 +R2

Increase in Resistance of a Conductor

Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)

In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the
temperature of the metal increases:
The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons
to move.
This results in an increase in resistance.

From Ohm's Law V = IR , if resistance (R) increases while

maintaining a constant current(I), the potential difference (
V ) across the conductor also increases.
Variable Potential Divider

An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light A relay allows a small current to control a larger current
intensity. needed to operate an appliance.
In a circuit, as light intensity increases: In a switching circuit:
The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more If the switching circuit output is high, a small current
current to flow. flows through the relay, closing the mains switch.
This increase in current can light a lamp or cause This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high
other actions. voltage mains supply.

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode

connected to the negative terminal):
Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative
terminal) does not emit light and can damage the
LED if the reverse voltage exceeds 5 V .
A suitable resistor R (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 V supply) is
needed to limit the current.

Semiconductor Diode

A diode allows current to pass in only one direction:

Thermistor Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode
A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with to the negative terminal.
temperature increase. Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has
In a series circuit with a thermistor: high resistance.
As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing
the potential difference across it.
This causes an increase in voltage across a series
resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm.

4.6. Electrical safety

Dangers of Electricity
Relays

Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the
and fire risk. neutral is earthed.
Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire. Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to
Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to earth.
reduced resistance.
Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads,
and multiple sockets.
Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit
through a person's body to earth.
Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around
24 mA (it is safe).
Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA
(can be deadly).
Larger currents are more dangerous.
Longer exposure increases risk.

Reducing Risk Switches and Fuses

Turn off power before repairs. Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.
Use earth pin and cord grips. Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.
Keep appliances dry and away from water. Circuit Breakers
Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting
tools. Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current
exceeds a preset level.
First Aid for Electric Shock Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with Earthing
the equipment.
Call for medical assistance. Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents.
Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth,
Causes of fires preventing them from becoming live.
Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring. Double Insulation
Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can
lead to fire. Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an
Preventive Measures: earth wire.
Match fuse rating to appliance.
Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters. 4.7. Electromagnetic induction
Use thick wires for high-power appliances.

House Circuits Process of generating electricity from a changing

magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Induction Experiments

Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in
Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced one direction.
current. A solenoid is a coil of wire wound in a helical shape
Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles that generates a magnetic field when an electric
induces current because of changing magnetic flux current passes through it.
(cutting magnetic field lines) Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the
Upward movement: current flows in one direction. opposite direction.
Downward movement: current flows in the opposite No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside
direction. solenoid.
Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet
wire is moving. movement.
This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the
magnet.

Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f .

Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced

Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid)
e.m.f.
More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f.
Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f.
e.m.f . is directly proportional to the rate at which the
conductor cuts through magnetic field lines.

Direction of Induced e.m.f . (Lenz’s Law)

Induced e.m.f . always opposes the change causing it.

If a magnet approaches a coil, the induced current
generates a magnetic field that opposes the motion.
If a magnet is withdrawn, the coil’s induced current
generates a field that attracts the magnet.

Magnetic Fields

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Variation of Magnetic Field Strength
Straight Wire:
When current flows through a vertical wire, iron Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the
filings around it form circles. wire.
Meaning that around a straight wire, there are Field lines spread out as distance increases.
circular magnetic field lines. Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and
Field direction changes with current direction lines become closer together.
(upwards or downwards through the wire) Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the
Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards magnetic field.
or downwards) indicates magnetic field direction by
the remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-clockwise). 4.8. Applications of electromagnetic
effects
Relay
A relay is a switch that operates using an electromagnet.
It allows one circuit to control another
When current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the
soft iron core.
The magnetized core attracts the L-shaped iron
armature.
Solenoid The armature rocks on its pivot and closes contacts in
A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field another circuit.
similar to a bar magnet.
End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves
like the south pole.
Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current
direction, thumb points to the north pole.
Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and
denser compared to outside.

Components
Coil: Creates the magnetic field.
Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the
armature.
L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open
contacts.
Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off.

Reed Switch

A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit. A device that produces sound by ringing is an electric bell
Operated by current flowing through a coil, which Pressing the bell push completes the circuit.
magnetizes reeds of magnetic material. Current flows through electromagnet coils, magnetizing
Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each them.
other, and close the circuit. Electromagnet attracts a soft iron bar (armature),
Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and causing the hammer to hit the gong.
open the circuit. The circuit breaks at contact screw point
Electromagnet loses magnetism, armature returns to its
original position.
The springy metal strip reconnects the circuit, and the
cycle repeats as long as the bell push is pressed.

Loudspeaker
It converts electrical signals into sound waves.
Varying currents pass through a coil placed in a magnetic
field.
Magnetic fields interact, causing the coil to vibrate.
A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it. 4.9. Motors and generators
Vibrations create sound waves in the surrounding air.
Components Simple d.c. Electric Motor
Coil: Receives electrical signals and vibrates.
Magnet: Provides the magnetic field for interaction.
Paper Cone: Moves with the coil to produce sound.

Electric Bell

Components Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the d.c.

Rectangular coil: Fixed up on an axle that can rotate. motor
C-shaped magnet: Provides the magnetic field.
Split-ring commutator: A copper ring split into two
halves, connected to the ends of the coil. It rotates
with the coil.
Brushes: Carbon blocks pressed against the commutator
to supply current continuously.

The a.c Generator

Components

Rectangular coil: Positioned between the poles of a C-

shaped magnet.
Slip rings: Connected to the ends of the coil, rotate with
Operation the coil.
When direct current (d.c.) flows through the coil, a force Carbon brushes: Press against the slip rings to conduct
acts on the coil due to the interaction with the magnetic current.
field.
This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to
rotate.
The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of
current in the coil as it rotates, making sure there is
continuous rotation by maintaining the direction of
force.

Operation

As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through This occurs when current changes in one coil, inducing a
the field lines, inducing an electromotive force (e.m.f .) voltage in a neighboring coil.
The e.m.f . varies as the coil moves Magnetic field lines from the primary cut through the
Vertical Position: No e.m.f . as the coil cuts the least secondary coil, inducing voltage.
number of field lines. Induced voltage increases with a soft iron rod or
Horizontal Position: Maximum e.m.f . as the coil cuts the complete iron ring core due to increased magnetic field
most field lines. lines.
The direction of e.m.f . reverses as the coil continues to
rotate, producing alternating current (a.c.) in the circuit.
The frequency of the a.c. is determined by the rotation
speed of the coil. For example, a coil rotating twice per
second generates an a.c. with a frequency of 2 Hz.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is used for the a.c.

generator.

Transformer Equation

The alternating voltage applied to the primary induces an

alternating voltage in the secondary.
V N
Relationship given by Vps = Nps

Vp and Vs the primary and secondary voltages.

Np and Ns are the primary and secondary turns.

4.10. Transformers Step-up transformer: More turns are on secondary

(Vs > Vp ).

The transformer changes alternating voltage to different Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary, (
values. Vs < Vp ).

Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron

core. Worked Example
Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate
A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V
limbs.
to 10V.
N
Mutual Induction Turns ratio: Nps = 230V 23
10V = 1

If the secondary has 80 turns, the primary has 80 × 23=

182 turns.
Energy Losses

If V s stepped up, current I is stepped down

proportionally.
Ideal transformer (100% efficient): Ip Vp = Is Vs

Ip and Is are primary and secondary currents.

If V is doubled, I is halved.

The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and

5. Nuclear Physics neutrons.
Three basic particles in an atom include protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
5.1. Nuclear model of the atom Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge
Current atomic model +1, mass about 2000 times that of an electron.
Neutron: Uncharged and with a mass almost equal to
Electrons orbit a positively charged nucleus. that of a proton.
Mostly empty space between the orbits and the nucleus. Relative charges: Proton = +1 and neutron = 0 while
electron = -1.
Scattering experiments by Ernest Rutherford Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and
are together called nucleons.
α-particles directed at thin gold foil.
Observations of α-particles:

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge Location

Proton 1 +1 In nucleus
Proof of atomic
Observation Description Neutron 1 0 In nucleus
model
1
Passed through the Electron 1840
-1 Outside nucleus
Atom is mostly
Most α-particles gold foil without
empty space. In a neutral atom the number of protons equals the
deflection.
Presence of a number of electrons.
dense, positively Atomic number (Z ): Number of protons in the nucleus (it
Deflected at small
Some α-particles charged nucleus also equals the number of electrons).
angles.
which repels the α-
Mass number (A): Total number of nucleons (protons +
particles
neutrons) in the nucleus.
Nucleus is very
Deflected back Relationship: Number of neutrons = A − Z .
Approximately 1 in small and dense
towards the source Nuclide notation: Atom X is represented as A
8000 α-particles
at large angles.
compared to the Z X , where

rest of the atom. A is the nucleon number and Z is the proton number.
Relative charge: Product of proton number (Z ) and the
Rutherford’s nuclear model charge of a proton.
Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in a Relative mass: Total mass of neutrons and protons;
small, dense nucleus. approximately A times the mass of a proton.
Electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance away.
Nucleus and electrons occupy about one-million-
millionth of the atom’s volume.
The nucleus

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Isotopes
Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce
Forms of the same element with the same number of energy.
protons but different number of neutrons. Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction.
Example: Chlorine has isotopes 35 37
17 Cl and 17 Cl while

Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission.
1 2
Hydrogen has isotopes 1 H , deuterium 1 H , and tritium

3H .
1

Isotopes have identical chemical properties

but different physical properties.

Nuclides

Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes or

radionuclides and have unstable nuclei.

Nuclear Energy

Einstein’s equation: E = mc2 , where E is energy, m is

mass, and c is the speed of light.
Mass loss in nuclear reactions results in energy release. 5.2. Types of Radioactivity
Nuclear reactions involve large energy changes
compared to other physical and chemical changes. Natural Background Radiation
Radiation sources include:
Nuclear fission
Cosmic rays (high-energy particles from the Sun) are
Uranium-235 is an isotope that undergoes fission when mostly absorbed by the atmosphere, but some reach the
struck by neutrons. Earth's surface.
Fission breaks the nucleus into smaller radioactive Radon gas present in the air.
nuclei, releasing additional neutrons and energy. Granite rocks in homes, particularly in Scotland, emit
Mass loss is converted into kinetic energy of fission radioactive radon gas that can accumulate in poorly
products. ventilated areas.
Neutrons from fission can trigger further fission Radioactive potassium-40 is present in food and
reactions. absorbed by our bodies.
Various radioisotopes are used in medical procedures.
Nuclear Reactor Radiation from nuclear power stations and fallout from
nuclear bomb testing

Ionising Effect of Radiation

The ability of radiation to make atoms lose or gain

electrons and become charged.
A charged electroscope discharges when a lighted match
or a radium source is brought near the cap.

Electroscope Discharge: Neutral Atom → Positive Ion

+ Electron

A lighted match knocks electrons out of air molecules,

creating positive ions.
Radiation causes ionisation by neutralising the charge on
the electroscope.

Ionisation: Neutral Atom + Electron → Negative Ion

Geiger–Müller (GM) Tube
The ionising effect of radiation is used to detect
radiation.
Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and Type of Penetrating Ionising
Mass Charge
electrons, which then cause more ionisation. Radiation Power Power
High (Helium Low (stopped
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation Alpha (α) +2 High
nucleus) by paper)
Moderate
Alpha Particles (α) (stopped by
The nucleus with two protons and two neutrons Beta (β) Low (electron) -1 Moderate
few mm of
Stopped by thick paper; range in air is a few aluminum)
centimetres. None High (stopped
The high ionising power of alpha particles is due to Gamma (γ
(electromagnetic 0 by several cm Low
) wave)
their increased mass (compared to gamma and beta), of lead)
so it's more likely to ionise an atom
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Particle Tracks
Represented as helium ions with a double positive
charge. Cloud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on
Beta Particles (β ) the ionisation they produce.
fast-moving electron Alpha Particles: Straight, thick tracks.
Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium; range in Beta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks.
air is several metres. Gamma Rays: Eject electrons which then produce
Lower ionising power than alpha particles. tracks similar to β particles.
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Electric deflection
Streams of high-energy electrons.
Gamma Radiation (γ ) The positive alpha particles are heavier and slowly
Electromagnetic radiation having high frequency deflect towards the negative plate.
Most penetrating The negative beta particles are lighter and quickly deflect
Stopped only by many centimetres of lead. towards the positive plate.
Least ionising power. The neutral electromagnetic gamma radiation remains
Not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. undeflected.
Electromagnetic radiation.

An α-particle is a helium nucleus with two protons and

two neutrons.
When an atom undergoes α-decay, its nucleon number
decreases by 4 and its proton number decreases by 2.
Example: When radium (226 88 Ra) emits and alpha particle,

it becomes radon (222

86 Rn) .

The equation for this decay is: 226 222

88 Ra →86 Rn +2 He
4

Beta Decay (β-decay)

In β-decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an

electron.
The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron is
Magnetic deflection emitted as a β-particle.
The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton
Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional
number increases by 1.
current.
Fleming’s left-hand rule is used with the middle finger Example: Radioactive carbon 146 C decays into nitrogen (

14
pointing in the direction of alpha particles. 7 N

) by β-emission.
Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the The equation for this decay is: 14 14 0
6 C →7 N +−1 e

middle finger, as they represent electron flow, which is Gamma Emission (γ-emission)
the opposite of conventional current.
Gamma radiation is not deflected. After α- or β-decay, some nuclei are left in an excited or
energetic state.
Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy
in the form of γ-emissions.
γ-emissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with
no mass or charge.

Nuclear Stability

Stability of a nucleus depends on the number of protons

(Z ) and neutrons (N ).
Stable nuclides fall within a specific stability level called
5.3. Radioactive decay and half-life the stability line.
For light nuclides, N = Z .
Radioactive Decay For heavier nuclides, N > Z .
Unstable nuclides decay to move towards the stability
Radioactive decay is the emission of an α-particle or a β- line.
particle from an unstable nucleus. Nuclides above the stability line decay by β-emission to
This changes the nucleus into that of a different element
decrease the N Z ratio.
until a stable element is formed.

Nuclides below the stability line decay by beta emission

These changes are spontaneous and random
(β+) to increase the N Z ratio.

Alpha Decay (α-decay) Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by α-
emission.

Half-Life

The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging,
nuclei in a sample to decay. but large doses are harmful to health.
It is a measure of the rate at which a radioactive Nuclear radiation's ionising effect damages cells and
substance decays. tissues, it can lead to gene mutations.
Each isotope has its own special half-life. Damage can cause cell death and cancers.
It can be from fractions of a second to millions of years. α-particles are less dangerous unless the source is
A decay curve plots the activity of a sample over time, ingested or inhaled.
showing the exponential decrease in activity. β- and γ-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye
The activity decreases by half in each half-life period cataracts, and cancer.
from the previous half-life period. Radiation hazard signs warn of the presence of
Example: If a sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it radioactive material.
will reduce to 40 in one half-life, then to 20 in the next,
and so on.
Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the
exact time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot
be determined.
The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable
pattern, called its half-life.

Safety Precautions

Minimize exposure time to radiation.

Keep a large distance between the radiation source and
individuals.
Use shielding materials that absorb radiation to protect
people.
In industry, sources are handled with long tongs and
5.4. Safety precautions transported in thick lead containers.
Workers are protected by lead and concrete walls and
Dangers of Nuclear Radiation wear radiation dose badges.
Radiation dose badges track the amount of radiation
exposure over a period, typically one month.
The badge has windows that allow different types of
radiation to expose photographic film, indicating
exposure levels when developed.

6. Space Physics
6.1. The Earth and the solar system

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Haresh at The Indian Public School on 20/01/25.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Motion of the Earth Waning (where the moon's illumination decreases) phases
follow, leading to the last quarter and old crescent
The Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night.
One complete rotation takes 24 hours.
Day is for the half of the Earth facing the Sun and night
for the half facing away.

Rising and setting of the Sun

Earth's rotation causes the Sun to appear to move east
to west daily.
Rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west at
equinoxes.
In northern hemisphere summer, rises north of east and
sets north of west.
In winter, rises and sets south of these points.
Orbital speed
The seasons
Average orbital speed: u = 2πr
T
Caused by Earth's motion around the Sun (365 days) and

r is the average radius of the orbit.

tilt of its axis.
T is the orbital period (time for one orbit)
Motion of the Moon The Moon travels in a circular path around the Earth
Distance traveled in one orbit is the circumference of
Moon is a satellite of Earth, orbiting approximately every the circle, 2πr
month Time taken for one orbit is T
Average distance from Earth is about 400,000 km. Speed is distance divided by time, so orbital speed is
Revolves on its axis, always showing the same side to 2πr
T
Earth

Reflects sunlight, has no atmosphere, weaker The Solar System

gravitational field (one-sixth of Earth)
It contains:
Phases of the Moon The sun as a star
Eight planets in elliptical orbits (slightly oval orbits)
Moon's appearance changes during its monthly orbit Dwarf planets and asteroids orbiting the Sun
New Moon: Moon between Sun and Earth, unlit side Moons orbiting many planets
faces Earth Smaller bodies like comets and natural satellites
Crescent appears and increases until the first quarter
(half of the Moon visible) Inner Planets
Full Moon: Moon opposite Earth from the Sun, fully
visible

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Dust embedded in ice made from water and methane
Small, similar size Orbits the Sun in highly elliptical paths
Solid and rocky with layered structures Develop a bright long tail when approaching the Sun due
High density to radiation pressure
Formed close to the Sun where it was too hot for gases
to condense, allowing only metals and silicates to form
solid bodies
In the early Solar System, the Sun's heat caused lighter
gases to evaporate, leaving only heavy elements like iron
and silicon to form solid planets.

Outer Planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Much larger and colder
Mainly consist of gases, low density
Many moons and rings of icy materials
Formed in cooler regions where gases could condense,
capturing even the lightest elements Elliptical Orbits
In the outer regions of the Solar System, lower
Planets, dwarf planets, and comets orbit the Sun in an
temperatures allowed gases like hydrogen and helium to
ellipse
remain in solid or liquid forms, leading to the formation
Sun is at one focus of the ellipse, not the center
of gas giants with thick atmospheres.
Comets have highly elliptical orbits, while planets' orbits
are more circular

Origin of the Solar System

Formed from gravitational attraction pulling together
clouds of hydrogen gas and dust (nebulae)
Solar System formed about 4500 million years ago
Planets formed from the disc of matter left over from the
Asteroids nebula that formed the Sun
Inner planets formed from materials with high melting
Pieces of rock of various sizes, mostly between Mars and temperatures like metals and silicates
Jupiter Outer planets formed from light molecules that existed
Orbit around the Sun in solid icy forms, growing large enough to capture
Similar density to inner planets hydrogen
Burn up in Earth's atmosphere as meteors

Comets

Travel Times

Distance from the Sun to Earth: approximately 150 Hot and dense enough for hydrogen to fuse into helium.
million km (1.5 × 108 km) Fusion process releases energy, maintaining high core
Speed of light: 300,000 kilometers per second (km/s) temperatures.
Some core energy moves to outer layers, which emit
Using the formula for time: electromagnetic radiation.
Time = Distance
Speed

Substitute the values: Light-years

8
Time = 1.5×10
300,000

Distance light travels in a vacuum in one year.

Calculate the time: 1 light-year = 9.5 × 10¹² km = 9.5 × 10¹⁵ m
8
Time ≈ 1.5×10
300,000
seconds ≈ 500 seconds
Galaxies

Convert the time from seconds to minutes:

Large collections of stars, gas, and dust.
Time ≈ 500 60 ≈ 8.33 minutes

It takes light from the sun around 8 minutes to reach the 6.3. Origin and life cycle of stars
Earth.
Formation
6.2. The sun Interstellar clouds of dust and gas collapse under
gravitational attraction.
Medium-sized star composed mainly of hydrogen and
A protostar forms as mass increases and core
helium.
temperature rises.
Emits energy in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet
Hydrogen fuses into helium when the core is hot
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
enough, resulting in a star.
Source of Energy
Star Types
Energy from nuclear reactions in the core.
Large mass: Blue or white stars.
Hydrogen undergoes nuclear fusion to form helium,
Smaller mass: Yellow or red dwarfs (e.g., the Sun).
releasing energy.
Energy from the core heats outer layers, causing them to Life Cycle of Stars
glow and emit radiation. Stable Phase

Forces of gravity inward balance with thermal pressure

outward.
Stable phase lasts up to 10 billion years.
Hydrogen converts to helium in the core.

Red Giant/Red Supergiant

As hydrogen depletes, the star becomes unstable.

Core collapses; outer layers expand and cool.
Star turns into a red giant (or red supergiant if massive).
Helium fuses into carbon in the core.

Low Mass Stars

Nuclear Reactions in Stars
Stars like the Sun are powered by nuclear fusion. End Stage
Core conditions Core collapses into a white dwarf after all helium is
used.
Outer layers expelled, forming a planetary nebula.
White dwarf cools into a black dwarf over about a
billion years.

High Mass Stars (more than 8 times the Sun’s mass)

End Stage Occurs when a source of waves (e.g., sound or light)

Use hydrogen rapidly, with a shorter stable phase moves relative to an observer.
(about 100 million years). Approaching Source: Waves are compressed, resulting in
After helium fusion, core collapses into a red a higher frequency and pitch (blue shift for light).
supergiant. Receding Source: Waves are stretched, resulting in a
Fusion of carbon into heavier elements occurs until lower frequency and pitch (red shift for light).
iron forms.
Supernova explosion releases energy and heavy
elements into space.
Neutron Star: Dense core, may act as a pulsar.
Black Hole: Extremely dense core with gravitational
field so strong that even light cannot escape;
identified by X-ray radiation from nearby material.

Speed of Recession

The speed at which distant galaxies are moving away can

be calculated from the amount of redshift observed.
Some of the most distant galaxies are receding at speeds
up to one-third the speed of light.
The observed redshift supports the idea that the
Universe is expanding, which is consistent with the Big
6.4. The universe Bang theory.
Big Bang Theory
Milky Way
Initial State: Proposes that the Universe began from an
Approximately 100,000 light-years in diameter.
extremely hot and dense state around 14 billion years
Contains around 800 billion or more stars.
ago.
A spiral galaxy with a central bulge and spiral arms.
Expansion: The Universe has been expanding ever since
Redshift the Big Bang.

The phenomenon where light from distant galaxies shifts Microwave Background Radiation
towards the red end of the spectrum (longer
This radiation is a remnant from the Big Bang and fills
wavelength).
the entire Universe.
Light emitted from stars in distant galaxies appears
The radiation has been redshifted into the microwave
redder compared to light from closer galaxies.
region due to the expansion of the Universe.
Doppler Effect Provides strong evidence for the Big Bang theory and
insights into the early Universe.

Age of the Universe

Hubble’s Law: The relationship between the speed of

recession (v ) and the distance (d) of galaxies is given by:
v = H0 × d

Hubble Constant (H0 ): H0 = vd

H0 measures the rate of the Universe's expansion. A

higher value indicates a faster rate of expansion.

H0 is estimated to be approximately 2.2 × 10−18 s−1

Age Estimation: The age of the Universe is

approximately: Age of the Universe ≈ H10

Detailed Calculation

Age of the Universe ≈ 2.2×101−18 s−1 ≈ 4.5 × 1017 s

4.5×1017 s
Age of the Universe ≈ 3.2×10 7 s/year ≈ 1.4 ×

1010 years ≈ 14 billion years

© ZNotes Education Ltd. & ZNotes Foundation 2024. All rights reserved.
This version was created by Haresh on Mon Jan 20 2025 for strictly personal use only.
These notes have been created by Shrey Agarwal and Reyansh Roy for the 2023-2025 syllabus.
The document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources available on the internet and printed books.
If you are the owner of such media, test or visual, utilized in this document and do not accept its usage then we urge you to contact us
and we would immediately replace said media. No part of this document may be copied or re-uploaded to another website.
Under no conditions may this document be distributed under the name of false author(s) or sold for financial gain.
"ZNotes" and the ZNotes logo are trademarks of ZNotes Education Limited (registration UK00003478331).

CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
51 pages
NDA PHYSICS Digital Notes
No ratings yet
NDA PHYSICS Digital Notes
54 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
52 pages
Physics Short Notes
No ratings yet
Physics Short Notes
51 pages
PHYSICS Digital Notes
No ratings yet
PHYSICS Digital Notes
44 pages
Motion 2023
No ratings yet
Motion 2023
19 pages
Forces and Motion: Questions
No ratings yet
Forces and Motion: Questions
10 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory1
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory1
52 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
53 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
51 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
52 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
52 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
48 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
51 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
52 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
47 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
51 pages
Theory
No ratings yet
Theory
62 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
52 pages
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Theory 670cdd81279c8b0cc208cbc0 260
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Theory 670cdd81279c8b0cc208cbc0 260
41 pages
Theory Physics
No ratings yet
Theory Physics
41 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
27 pages
General Science
No ratings yet
General Science
174 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
49 pages
Hysics Note
No ratings yet
Hysics Note
39 pages
Phy 1
No ratings yet
Phy 1
39 pages
Kinematics (Kec Kelajuan Jarak Perpindahan)
No ratings yet
Kinematics (Kec Kelajuan Jarak Perpindahan)
124 pages
Chapter 2a - Kinematics Linear Motion
No ratings yet
Chapter 2a - Kinematics Linear Motion
80 pages
Chapter 3 - Motion in One Dimension
No ratings yet
Chapter 3 - Motion in One Dimension
5 pages
Motion (CIE)
No ratings yet
Motion (CIE)
25 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory
15 pages
Caie Igcse Physics
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Physics
51 pages
Kinematics Orig
No ratings yet
Kinematics Orig
132 pages
GRD 10 Vectors & Motion
No ratings yet
GRD 10 Vectors & Motion
67 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
16 pages
IGCSE Physics - Motion - IGCSE Pro Revision Notes
No ratings yet
IGCSE Physics - Motion - IGCSE Pro Revision Notes
1 page
Class - 9 - Measurement, Force and Motion, Sound...
No ratings yet
Class - 9 - Measurement, Force and Motion, Sound...
22 pages
Chapter 2 - Describing Motion (Notes) (PHYSICS IGCSE)
100% (3)
Chapter 2 - Describing Motion (Notes) (PHYSICS IGCSE)
8 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
16 pages
UNIT 1 Chaptar 1 MOVEMENT AND POSITION (Repaired)
No ratings yet
UNIT 1 Chaptar 1 MOVEMENT AND POSITION (Repaired)
52 pages
Physics Notes Igcse
No ratings yet
Physics Notes Igcse
40 pages
Motion
No ratings yet
Motion
25 pages
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Theory 66c08a92e446f832d7597c6b 849
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Theory 66c08a92e446f832d7597c6b 849
13 pages
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration: Physics Notes GCE Study Buddy
No ratings yet
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration: Physics Notes GCE Study Buddy
14 pages
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Theory 66a9ece5d896316c42d192a3 781
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Theory 66a9ece5d896316c42d192a3 781
40 pages
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory
52 pages
2 Describing Motion
No ratings yet
2 Describing Motion
78 pages
Kinematics: Kinematics Is The Science of Describing The
No ratings yet
Kinematics: Kinematics Is The Science of Describing The
68 pages
Motion IX Notes
No ratings yet
Motion IX Notes
10 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory Short Notes
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Theory Short Notes
52 pages
p1 Motion
No ratings yet
p1 Motion
4 pages
Coke Bunker Design
No ratings yet
Coke Bunker Design
40 pages
Motion in One Dimension Notes
No ratings yet
Motion in One Dimension Notes
11 pages
9.7 Motion
No ratings yet
9.7 Motion
11 pages
Physics Topical Notes by C
No ratings yet
Physics Topical Notes by C
115 pages
Physics Movement Notes
No ratings yet
Physics Movement Notes
5 pages
Capacity Class 4
100% (1)
Capacity Class 4
17 pages
DC Contactor Catalogue
100% (1)
DC Contactor Catalogue
29 pages
Motion
No ratings yet
Motion
5 pages
Losses in T&D PDF
No ratings yet
Losses in T&D PDF
8 pages
Rectifiers
No ratings yet
Rectifiers
17 pages
3 Phase Motor FLA
No ratings yet
3 Phase Motor FLA
1 page
Unit 8 - Week 7: Assignment 7
No ratings yet
Unit 8 - Week 7: Assignment 7
4 pages
Synchronous Generator II PDF
No ratings yet
Synchronous Generator II PDF
20 pages
1 Introduction To Electrical Drive Systems
No ratings yet
1 Introduction To Electrical Drive Systems
30 pages
Icse Class 10 Physics Question Paper 2025
No ratings yet
Icse Class 10 Physics Question Paper 2025
16 pages
BASIC
No ratings yet
BASIC
6 pages
Marinov Divine Electromagnetism (1993)
No ratings yet
Marinov Divine Electromagnetism (1993)
290 pages
11 Science Sem-1 CH-1 Physical World
100% (1)
11 Science Sem-1 CH-1 Physical World
12 pages
Docu - Tips Transmission Fundamentals 2
No ratings yet
Docu - Tips Transmission Fundamentals 2
124 pages
CBECS 2018 CE Release 2 Flipbook
No ratings yet
CBECS 2018 CE Release 2 Flipbook
38 pages
Modelling Note
No ratings yet
Modelling Note
43 pages
Sr. Inter Physics Model Paper: Read The Following Instructions Carefully
No ratings yet
Sr. Inter Physics Model Paper: Read The Following Instructions Carefully
2 pages
List of Calibration Draft
No ratings yet
List of Calibration Draft
8 pages
SHS 100x6
No ratings yet
SHS 100x6
1 page
02 07thermo Electricity 189-197
100% (1)
02 07thermo Electricity 189-197
4 pages
Ho Phi Phong-20142243-Q5
No ratings yet
Ho Phi Phong-20142243-Q5
12 pages
Topic 1 - Introduction To Critical Phenomena and Phase Transitions - Course - Advanced Statistical Mechanics - 1er Sem - 2020
No ratings yet
Topic 1 - Introduction To Critical Phenomena and Phase Transitions - Course - Advanced Statistical Mechanics - 1er Sem - 2020
8 pages
PB Free Plating Product: Features
No ratings yet
PB Free Plating Product: Features
3 pages
Short Circuit Test of Transformer Suman
No ratings yet
Short Circuit Test of Transformer Suman
5 pages
Caracterizacion Led y Mosfet 2N700
No ratings yet
Caracterizacion Led y Mosfet 2N700
3 pages
BJT Large Signal Model and Analysis (Sections 4.4 To 4.5) : University of California, Santa Cruz April 24, 2007
No ratings yet
BJT Large Signal Model and Analysis (Sections 4.4 To 4.5) : University of California, Santa Cruz April 24, 2007
12 pages
Thermodynamics - Sheet 6 - M-1221 - DR - Tarek Adel Rev 001 25-12-2021
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics - Sheet 6 - M-1221 - DR - Tarek Adel Rev 001 25-12-2021
2 pages
1.3.3.a Thermodynamics
No ratings yet
1.3.3.a Thermodynamics
9 pages
Buoyancy: Archimedes' Principle
No ratings yet
Buoyancy: Archimedes' Principle
2 pages
Reading of Standard Reading of UUC: Temperature Average of Readings Deviation Deviation Up Down (Up) (Down)
No ratings yet
Reading of Standard Reading of UUC: Temperature Average of Readings Deviation Deviation Up Down (Up) (Down)
2 pages
A-level Physics Revision: Cheeky Revision Shortcuts
From Everand
A-level Physics Revision: Cheeky Revision Shortcuts
Scool Revision
3/5 (10)
A Study Of The Special Theory Of Relativity
From Everand
A Study Of The Special Theory Of Relativity
Richard Banner
No ratings yet
Calculations for Science Fiction Writers/Circular Orbits
From Everand
Calculations for Science Fiction Writers/Circular Orbits
William Haloupek
No ratings yet
Mechanics Principles V11 Home Study
From Everand
Mechanics Principles V11 Home Study
Clive W. Humphris
No ratings yet

CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory

Uploaded by

CAIE IGCSE Physics Theory

Uploaded by

ZNOTES.

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square

Multiples for large distances: Time

1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m Unit of time: second (s).

Note: Take ± readings for accuracy

Distance-Time Graph Examples

Angle θ between FX and F

When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time

1.2. Motion Gradient of the tangent at T:

When the velocity of an object changes, the object

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a

Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction

Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against

Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving

A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates

Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with

Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper

Acceleration of Free Fall

All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

Combining these, we get

Air Resistance and Free Fall

significantly when the parachutist deploys their

matter in it. It is a measure of the quantity of matter in

Floating and Sinking:

Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is

The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to

Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, resulting extension.

Friction and Air Resistance

Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to

Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by Newton’s Second Law

Acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the force (F )

Newton’s First Law Units and Constant (k )

Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of

Determining the Centre of Gravity

Stability and Toppling

The stability of an object depends on the position of its

due to their separation in an electric field.

Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the

2. Calculate final momentum (pfinal ): ​

of a force, like lifting a weight.

current, such as in batteries or electric motors.

Impulse Energy Forms

Force and Momentum:

Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum:

1.6. Energy, work and power

to its motion. Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a

Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its

position or condition or configuration.

due to gravity, and (h) is height.

transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin.

How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations

Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission

P = t where W is the work done in time t

% Efficiency formula for energy

% Efficiency formula for power Formula:

Efficiency (%) = ( Useful

Energy input = 400 J Liquid Pressure

Example b: Electric Drill

Power input to drill = 300 J/s

Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the

their container. The particles are further apart and can

Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids

its momentum, creating a force.

Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more,

Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with different

Specific heat capacity (c) is defined as the energy

raise their temperatures due to differences in specific

required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 Calculation:

Temperature and Thermal Energy c = 400J/(kg°C)

2. Calculate final momentum (pfinal ):

Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: V = PI

The combined resistance (R0 ) of resistors in parallel is