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In-Situ Sensor-Based Damage Detection of Composite Materials for Structural

Health Monitoring

Article · April 2002

DOI: 10.2514/6.2002-1545

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 AIAA-2002-1545

IN-SITU SENSOR-BASED DAMAGE DETECTION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

FOR STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING
Seth S. Kessler and S. Mark Spearing
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

ABSTRACT* maintenance1 . New military fighter-craft such as the

Eurofighter, the Joint Strike Fighter and the F-22 all
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) denotes a incorporate Health Usage Monitoring Systems (HUMS),
system with the ability to detect and interpret adverse which record peak stress, strain and acceleration
“changes” in a structure in order to improve experienced in key components of the vehicle 2 . While
reliability and reduce life-cycle costs. The greatest these measurements provide useful information about the
challenge in designing a SHM system is knowing state of the vehicle between flights, the value of such a
what “changes” to look for and how to identify them. system could be greatly increased if continuous data could
The characteristics of damage in a particular structure be accessed instantaneously.
plays a key role in defining the architecture of the
SHM system. The resulting “changes,” or damage As companies strive to lower their operational costs,
signature, will dictate the type of sensors that are many SHM schemes have been developed by industry,
required, which in-turn determines the requirements universities and research institutes. In a collection of
for the rest of the components in the system. The papers written by Zimmerman, he suggests that an
present research project focuses on the relationship algorithmic approach could be used to enhance the model
between various sensors and their ability to detect correlation and health monitoring capabilities using
“changes” in a structure’s behavior. This paper frequency response methods3 . Minimum rank
presents part of an experimental and analytical survey perturbation theory is used to address the problem of
of candidate methods for in-situ damage detection of incomplete measurements, since a true structure does not
composite materials using piezoceramic sensors conform to ideal conditions. Other researchers have
(PZT). Results are presented for the application of developed algorithms to attempt to correlate modal
modal analysis, Lamb wave, acoustic emission and response under arbitrary excitation to models using a
strain monitoring techniques to quasi-isotropic probabilistic sub-space based approach4 . Recently,
graphite/epoxy specimens containing representative Boeing has been exploring the use of frequency response
damage modes, including delamination, transverse methods in SHM systems for composite helicopter
ply cracks and through-holes. blades 5 . Their system, which is called Active Damage
Interrogation (ADI), uses piezoelectric actuators and
INTRODUCTION sensors in various patterns to produce transfer functions in
components that are compared to baseline “healthy”
Structural health monitoring essentially involves the transfer functions to detect damage. Giurgiutiu used
embedding of an NDE system (or a set of NDE Lamb wave techniques to compare changes in thin
systems) into a structure to allow continuous remote
aluminum aircraft skins after various levels of usage to
monitoring for damage. There are several advantages detect changes, and used finite element techniques to
to using a SHM system over traditional inspection attempt to predict the level of damage with some success6 .
cycles, such as reduced down-time, elimination of
More detailed work was done by Cawley’s group at
component tear-down and the potential prevention of Imperial College, who used Lamb waves to examine
failure during operation. Aerospace structures have experimentally representative metallic aircraft
one of the highest payoffs for SHM applications
components such as lap joints, painted sections and
since damage can lead to catastrophic and expensive tapered thickness7 . This paper concludes that these
failures, and the vehicles involved undergo regular methods present good sensitivity to localized damage
costly inspections. Currently 27% of an average
sites, however the responses are often complicated to
aircraft’s life cycle cost, both for commercial and interpret, and many limitations exist for the
military vehicles, is spent on inspection and repair; a implementation of these methods over large areas.
figure that excludes the opportunity cost associated
Honeywell and NASA have been working in a
with the time the aircraft is grounded for scheduled collaborative project since the mid-1990’s to introduce an
acoustic emission-based SHM system into critical military
*
Copyright  2002 The American Institute of Aeronautics and aircraft components 8,9 . This program, which involved the
Astronautics Inc. All rights reserved

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
monitoring of T-38 and F/A-18 bulkheads, is one of V sine chirp signal, which was sent to the piezos through
the most thorough examples of a SHM system to a function generator to drive them between 0 Hz and 20
date. These experiments were able to demonstrate kHz. A table comparing the first six natural frequencies
successfully the collection of fatigue data and and mode-shapes of a control specimen and several other
triangulation of some cracks from metallic damaged specimens can be found in Table 1. The
components while in flight, which could then be velocity magnitude responses comparing the control and
analyzed post-flight to make decisions about flight- damaged specimens for a frequency range below 500 Hz
readiness. In another program Northrop had similar can be found in previously published papers 11-13 .
success using AE to monitor small aircraft 10 . They
suggested using between 100 and 1000 sensors to Finite element model
implement this system in a larger aircraft depending A finite element analysis was performed to predict the
on whether the entire structure is being monitored or frequency response of each specimen. Eight-node
just critical components. quadrilateral shell elements were used to model the
The primary goal of SHM is to be able to replace specimen, and the “Simultaneous Vector Iteration”
current inspection cycles with a continuously method was used to calculate the natural frequencies of
monitoring system. This would reduce the downtime the system up to 20 KHz, and their corresponding mode
of the vehicle, and increase the probability of damage shapes. A table comparing the first six natural
detection prior to catastrophic failure. Several parts frequencies and mode-shapes of each specimen can be
of SHM systems have been developed and tested found in Table 2. An example of a transfer function
successfully, however much work remains before comparison plot between a control model and one with a
these systems can be implemented reliably in an delamination is shown in Figure 1.
operational vehicle. The present research attempts to Discussion
fill some of the gaps remaining in SHM technologies.
NDE techniques with the highest likelihood of For both the numerical (FE) and experimental results it is
success were thoroughly examined, including evident that all the forms of damage investigated in this
frequency response, Lamb wave, acoustic emission study caused detectable changes in the natural frequencies
and strain monitoring methods. For each of these of a simple coupon. These changes are present in each of
methods, an analytical and experimental procedure the lower normal frequencies discovered, and become
was followed to optimize the testing parameters and more pronounced at higher frequencies. Good correlation
data interpretation. Their strength, limitations and was found between the model and the experimental
SHM implementation potential were evaluated, and results for low frequencies, however coalescing modes at
suggested roles for each are presented. The higher frequencies made comparison impractical. For
requirement of the other components necessary in an both the results, as published in the literature, a strong
SHM system are described, and recommendations are correlation existed between relative frequency reduction
offered for a structural health monitoring system and the area damaged by a particular mechanism,
architecture based on the results of this research. however it is difficult to draw any conclusions about the
criticality of the damage since there is no information
FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS regarding the form of the damage or its orientation.
Based on these results, it is likely that an observer can
Experimental procedures discern whether a structure has been damaged by
observing its frequency response, however it would be
The first damage detection methods surveyed during difficult to differentiate reliably between damage types,
the present research were the frequency response locations and orientations. This method appears to be
methods. Detailed results for these experiments have appropriate for detecting global changes in stiffness for
been presented in previous papers 11-13 . Narrow relatively large structures at a low power and weight cost.
rectangular quasi-isotropic [90/±45/0]s laminates
were manufactured of the AS4/3501-6 LAMB WAVE METHODS
graphite/epoxy system with various forms of damage
introduced to them, including matrix-cracks, Experimental procedures
delaminations and through-holes. PZT piezoceramic The next method explored during the present research
patches were affixed to each specimen using 3M examined the utility of using Lamb waves for damage
ThermoBond thermoplastic tape. In order to detection. Again, detailed results for this Lamb wave
measure the natural frequencies of the specimen an research has been presented in previous papers 13-17 . The
impedance meter was used, and the mode shapes experimental procedures followed a building block
were deduced used a scanning laser vibrometer. The approach, and the first set of experiments conducted on
specimens were excited using the PZT wafers by a 5

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narrow composite coupons presented in the previous delamination, a reproducible signal was transmitted
section. Both the actuation and the data acquisition across each of the intact portions while it was obvious that
were performed using a portable NI-Daqpad 6070E the signal traveling through the delaminated region was
data acquisition board, and a laptop running propagating at a different speed. Finally, in the composite
Labview as a virtual controller. A single pulse of sandwich cylinder the impacted region caused severe
3.5 sine waves under a Hanning window was sent to dispersion of the traveling Lamb wave, which in turn
the driving PZT at 15 kHz to stimulate an A0 mode attenuated the received signal further down the tube.
Lamb wave, and concurrently the strain-induced Lamb wave techniques have the potential to provide more
voltage outputs were recorded by a sensing PZT information than other methods since they are sensitive to
wafer. The results were compared by performing a the local effects of damage in a material. Similar to
Morlet wavelet decomposition centered at the driving frequency response methods, their results are limited at
frequency18 . This procedure was also carried out for higher frequencies, however their low frequency results
beam specimens, laminated plates with bonded should provide sufficient data to identify damage. The
stiffeners, and a sandwich construction cylinder. The disadvantage of Lamb wave methods is that they require
voltage time traces of each of the narrow coupons an active driving mechanism, and the resulting data can
along with their complementary wavelet be more complicated to interpret. Overall however, Lamb
decomposition plots can be found in previously wave methods have been found to be effective for the in-
published papers 13-17 . A summary comparing the situ determination of the presence and severity of damage
recorded times of flight for can be found in Table 3. in composite materials.
Probably the most significant result of the present OTHER PIEZO-BASED METHODS
research was the “blind test.” Four beam specimen
were tested, one with a known delamination while of Experimental procedures
the remaining three specimens it was unknown which
contained a disbond and which were undamaged. By There are many advantages to using piezoelectric sensors
comparing the wavelet plots in Figure 2, it was in SHM applications; they are light, can be conformable,
easily deduce that the two undamaged specimens are use little power and are sensitive to small strains and
the ones with much more transmitted energy, while accelerations. Previous sections of this paper have given
the third specimen (Control C) obviously has the a detailed account of the frequency response and Lamb
flaw. wave methods using piezo sensors. Both of these
methods have demonstrated useful sensitivity to damage,
Analytical procedure however they are most effectively implemented actively
by using powered actuators in a pulse-transmission or
Finite element models were created in ABAQUS to
pulse-echo mode. Perhaps the greatest advantage of using
represent each of the experiments, using 1 cm2 square piezoelectric material for sensors, is that they can be used
shell elements to predict the small changes in time of for a wide variety of detection techniques by simply
flight caused by damage. The results were visualized
altering the time scale of analysis or actuating signal.
as a movie file to measure the time of flight of the This section gives an overview of two further techniques,
Lamb waves across the specimens and record visual strain monitoring and acoustic emission, which could be
evidence of dispersion. Series of still shots of Lamb
implemented via the same piezoelectric sensors and
waves propagating in the control and damaged system infrastructure used for the previous two methods
models can be found in a previous work13 . A presented, to detect damage passively without the use of
summary comparing the recorded times of flight for
actuators.
each of the models can be found in Table 4.
In the first of these tests, a narrow coupon specimen was
Discussion tested in tension, to assess the accuracy of the
The results from the narrow coupon tests clearly piezoelectric sensors for the measurement of strain by
show the presence of damage in all of the specimens; contrasting them to foil-gauge results, shown in Figure 3.
this was made most obvious by comparing the The piezo data was nonlinear however, which can be
wavelet decomposition plots. The control specimens attributed to thermoplastic tape that attached the sensor to
retained over twice as much energy at the peak the specimens. A second test was performed on a
frequency as compared to all of the damaged laminated plate in order to explore using piezo sensors to
specimens. The loss of energy in the damaged monitor damage events using acoustic emission. Piezo
specimens was due to reflected energy and patches were affixed in the center of each of the sides
dispersion. Similar effects of damage were observed along the perimeter of the specimen, and data was
in each of the built-up composite structure cases. By collected at 50 Hz while a graphite pencil tip was broken
comparing the stiffened plates with and without a in several locations on the laminate. The voltage results

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from these tests are plotted in Figure 4, and from An overall SHM system architecture is necessary to
these plots one can see the acoustic event within the integrate strategically all of the other components for the
signal by the spikes present. At this data sampling most efficient operation. The requirements of the end
rate however, it was not possible to resolve the users are incorporated into the architecture in order to
arrival times of the voltage spikes accurately enough define the types of damage to be monitored, the critical
to perform a triangulation calculation. A reasonable flaw size, the weight and power budget for the system,
prediction of the pencil break site could be made and the level of importance of the various structural
from wavelet plots though, by comparing the members that need to be monitored. A SHM system
magnitude of the energy present for each piezo at the could operate in real-time continually monitoring a
time of the breakage. structure during operation, or discontinuously with that
data can only be accessed post-operation. Next,
Discussion characteristic damage signatures must be known for the
While conclusive results were not obtained from particular material and structure to select appropriate
either of the tests performed during this portion of sensors and sensing methods. Sensors can be used to
research, along with results that have been presented record variables such as strain, acceleration, sound waves,
in the literature these tests have proved the feasibility electrical or magnetic impedance, pressure or
of implementing other damage detection methods temperature. In the literature it has been estimated that a
within the infrastructure of sensors that were used for SHM system for an aerospace vehicle would require
the frequency response and Lamb wave methods. between 100 and 1000 sensors, depending on its size and
Using strain monitoring methods, measuring the peak desired coverage area10 . These sensing systems can
strain witnessed at the surface of a laminate could generally be divided into two classes: passive ones that
help to make a prediction of failure based upon the operate by detecting responses due to perturbations of
strain limitations of the material. Several researchers ambient conditions, and active sampling systems that
in the literature have successfully fabricated require externally supplied energy in the form of a stress
piezoelectric based strain gauges that are viable for or electromagnetic wave to properly function. Passive
acceptable strain rates and ranges. Additional techniques tend to be simpler to implement and operate
research would have to be performed to find a more within a SHM system and provide useful global damage
appropriate attachment mechanism for this method to detection capabilities, however generally active methods
be successful. Similarly, the literature has presented are more accurate in providing localized information
prior successful acoustic emission work that has been about a damaged area. Good references for selection of
performed using sampling rates between 300 kHz and actuators for various active systems can be found in a
3 MHz with optimized sensors. To monitor review paper in the literature 19 .
continuously, custom software would have to be used The data from the sensors must be communicated
to collect and purge small buffered series of data at between the sensors and to a processing unit. Some of
high acquisition rates to avoid collecting a large these transfers would only require local wiring, while
volume of data. Regardless, acoustic emission other may need wireless transmission. Local processors
methods have shown the potential to provide valuable would directly interface with the sensors providing
information to the system concerning the occurrence instructions and acquiring data, while a global processor
of an impact event and proximity to the sensor. would use algorithms to interpret this data and decide
Coupled with the results presented in the literature, what actions should be taken. Most of these components
this preliminary data demonstrated the possibility that require power to function, which becomes difficult when
the piezoelectric sensors could passively collect there are many components distributed throughout the
useful data with some additional software and data surface of the structure. Power could be supplied locally
processing capabilities. by batteries or energy harvesters, or provided from within
COMPONENTS OF AN SHM SYSTEM the vehicle via an electrical bus or transmissions to an
inductive loop. Lastly, some systems may require an
This section delineates the relevant considerations intervention mechanism as well to mitigate further
and components necessary for a complete SHM damage actively, or possibly even temporarily or
system. The focus of the previous chapters of this permanently repair the damage site. All of these
thesis has been on the sensors used for the actual components must work together to gather the information
damage detection in the structure, however perhaps about damage in the structure, and flawlessly relay this
of equal importance and challenge are the other information to an operator for the system to work reliably.
components used to convert, process and transmit the
data from these sensors.

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 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SHM the area of structure they are adhered over, to collect a
small database of the undamaged state, and to discern
The main focus of this research was to provide design where each patch was in spatial coordinates of the
recommendations and guidelines for the structure. In operation the sensors would passively
implementation of a structural health monitoring collect strain and acoustic emission data, passing their
system in a composite structure. A successful design data along to their local processing units. When abnormal
will use several different sensing methods, taking data is encountered, active transfer function frequency
advantage of both the strengths and weaknesses of response and Lamb wave methods would be initiated,
each. Using the sensor trade spaces shown in Figure using the same piezoelectric sensors, to verify the
5 and Figure 6 a SHM designer could determine presence of damage. Once damage is located within the
appropriate sensing methods based on the required patch region, the nearest neighbor patches would be
damage resolution and power budget. It can be seen contacted wirelessly to attempt to confirm the damage.
that they are all generally capable of detecting the This compiled, consolidated and compressed data would
same size of damage and can be implemented with then be passed patch to patch to the central processing
similar size and power sensors, however frequency unit to be interpreted, and the damage type, severity and
response and Lamb wave techniques are the only location would be indicated to the operator and ground
ones that can offer full surface coverage for a 1 x 1 m crew on a computer terminal along with suggested
plate. While some other methods, such as eddy actions. This system would function continuously during
currents, can offer better damage resolution, they are operation, and could also be automatically accessed by
only capable of detecting damage directly below the the operator or ground crew to perform a mid-air or
sensor, which would drive the system to use either ground inspection on demand. As a first step towards
very large sensors or a large volume of sensors. An acceptance of such a system, the operator could rely on it
estimate could also be made for sensor density based only to speed ground inspections by accessing the in -situ
on desired coverage area using the equations sensor patches via an ethernet connection to replace tear-
presented in previous papers 13-17 . The trade between down inspections.
redundancy and reliability is essential since missed
damage or false-positives could prove financially CONCLUSIONS
fatal. Using event-driven processing, such as a Structural health monitoring systems will be an important
passive system triggering a dormant active one could aspect of future aerospace vehicles in order to reduce their
reduce power and complexity, and further gains life-cycle costs. The present research has analytically and
could be reached by using ambient conditions to experimentally explored potential sensing methods for
provide power or actuation. Lastly, it would be damage detection. Modal analysis and Lamb wave
advantageous to design a system that was flexible techniques have been of particular interest since they
enough to be retrofitted into existing aging systems. provide sensitive and reliable indications of the presence
A design proposed by the authors would use of damage over a large coverage area. Moreover, these
relatively small (0.25 - 1.0 m2 ) autonomous sensor methods can be implemented with lightweight and
patches as its key elements. These patches would conformable piezoelectric sensors that can be used to
include multiple piezoelectric sensors around their perform other methods simultaneously, such as acoustic
perimeter, local wiring between the sensors (longest emission and strain monitoring. To bring SHM systems
length of 0.5 m), a data acquisition/processing device to fruition however, several of the other components
(capable of sampling around 1 MHz), a rechargeable described above need to be researched further. Future
polymer battery with an inductive coil for power research will also need to be performed at the
reception (50 mW required to power all components), architectural level to integrate these components together
and a short range wireless device (10 m transmission efficiently and on complex structures. To decide between
range). All of these components would be embedded architectural schemes, a designer will have to compare the
or deposited onto a conformable insulating polymer cost of development, the cost of implementation, the cost
sheet with a thermoplastic adhesive backing, so the of operation, and the impact to the production of the
patch could be removed if it were damaged or if the vehicle with the estimated savings in inspection and
structure required repair. These patches would be maintenance from traditional methods and the reliability
generic so that they could be placed in any region of and longevity gains. SHM systems will reduce vehicle
concern on a vehicle. Other sensor types could life-cycle costs by minimizing routine inspections,
possibly be deposited onto the polymer as well in averting both underuse and overuse, and predicting failure
certain regions, such as meandering wires for eddy in time for preventative care. Structural heath monitoring
current tests or differential parallel metal tracks for systems are likely to be an important component in future
thermocouple readings. A neural network algorithm designs of air and space-craft and in-situ piezoelectric-
could be used for the sensors to learn the topology of based NDE techniques will likely play a vital role.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 Frequency Response Methods.” Accepted for
REFERENCES publication by Composites Part B, June 2001.
1. Hall S.R. and T.J. Conquest. “The Total Data 13. Kessler S.S. “Piezoelectric-Based In-Situ Damage
Integrity Initiative—Structural Health Detection of Composite Materials for Structural
Monitoring, The Next Generation.” Proceedings Health Monitoring Systems.” Massachusetts Institute
of the USAF ASIP, 1999. 2nd ed. of Technology, Ph.D. thesis, January 2002.
2. Neumair M. “Requirements on Future Structural 14. Kessler S.S., Spearing, S.M. and C. Soutis. “Damage
Health Monitoring Systems.” Proceedings of the Detection in Composite Materials using Lamb Wave
7th RTO Meetings, May 1998. Methods.” Proceedings of the American Society for
3. Zimmerman D.C., Simmermacher T. and M. Composites, 9-12 September 2001, Blacksburg, VA.
Kaouk. “Model Correlation using Frequency 15. Kessler S.S., Spearing S.M. and C. Soutis.
Domain Measurements.” AIAA Journal, 1995, “Optimization of Lamb Wave Methods for Damage
3318-3325. Detection in Composite Materials.” Proceedings of
4. Abdelghani M., Goursat M. and T. Biolchini. the 3rd Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring,
“On-Line Modal Monitoring of Aircraft 12-14 September 2001, Stanford University.
Structures under Unknown Exication.” 16. Kessler S.S., Spearing S.M. and C. Soutis.
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, “Structural Health Monitoring in Composite
v.13, 1999, 839-853. Materials using Lamb Wave Methods.” Submitted to
5. Dunne J.P., Pitt D.M. and D.A. Sofge. “Recent Smart Materials and Structures, July 2001.
Advances in Active Damage Interrogation.” 17. Kessler S.S., and S.M. Spearing. “Damage Detection
Proceedings of the 42nd AIAA SDM in Built-Up Composite Structures using Lamb Wave
Conference, Seattle, WA, 2001. Methods.” Submitted to Journal of Intelligent
6. Giurgiutiu V., Bao J. and W. Zhao. “Active Materials Systems and Structures, December 2001.
Sensor Wave Propagation Health Monitoring of 18. Strang G. and T. Nguyen Wavelets and Filter Banks.
Beam and Plate Structures.” Proceedings of the Wellesley-Cambridge Press, Wellesley, Ma, 1996.
8th SPIE Symposium on Smart Structures and 19. Huber J.E., Fleck N.A. and M.F. Ashby. “The
Materials, Newport Beach, CA, 2001. Selection of Mechanical Actuators based on
7. Dalton R.P., Cawley P. and M.J.S. Lowe. “The Performance Indices.” Proceedings of the Royal
Potential of Guided Waves for Monitoring Society of London, 1997, 2185-2205.
Metallic Aircraft Fuselage Structure.” Journal of
Nondestructive Evaluation, v.20, 2001, 29-46.
8. Schoess J.N. “Distributed System Architecture
Alternatives for Condition Based Maintenance.”
Honeywell Technology Center Report, 1999.
9. Van Way C.B., Kudva J.N. and Schoess J.N.
“Aircraft Structural Health Monitoring System
Development—overview of the Air Force/Navy
Smart Metallic Structures Program.”
Proceedings of the SPIE Symposium on Smart
Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA, 1995.
10. Marantidis C., Van Way C.B. and J.N. Kudva.
“Acoustic-Emission Sensing in an On-Board
Smart Structural Health Monitoring System for
Military Aircraft.” Proceedings of the SPIE
Conference on Smart Structures and Integrated
Systems, v. 2191, 1994, 258-264.
11. Kessler S.S., Spearing S.M., Atalla M.J., Cesnik
C.E.S. and C. Soutis. “Damage Detection in
Composite Materials using Frequency Response
Methods.” Proceedings of the SPIE’s 8th
International Symposium on Smart Structures
and Materials, 4-8 March 2001, Newport Beach,
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12. Kessler S.S., Spearing S.M., Atalla M.J., Cesnik,
C.E.S. and C. Soutis. “Structural Health
Monitoring in Composite Materials using

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Figure 1: Frequency response transfer function plot from I-DEAS, range of 0-500 Hz

Figure 2: Wavelet coefficients for beam “blind test”; compares 50 kHz energy content for
control beam specimen and 2 specimen with delamination

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Figure 3: Rotated stress-strain plot for coupon with hole, piezo voltage data superimposed

Figure 4: Time-trace of voltage signal recorded by each piezo for tests #1 and #2

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Figure 5: Sensor selection space comparing size of detectable damage with sensor size for various sensing methods
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Figure 6: Sensor selection space comparing size of detectable damage with sensor power for various sensing methods
 Table 1: Natural frequencies and mode shapes as determined from scanning laser vibrometer data

(All Hz) Shape Control Hole Impact Delamination Fatigue Bend

Mode 1 1st Bending 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
Mode 2 2nd Bending 78.1 78.1 76.5 78.1 75.0 76.3
Mode 3 1st Torsion 157 148 147 137 146 137
Mode 4 3rd Bending 218 217 216 215 209 214
Mode 5 4th Bending 423 423 423 428 413 423
Mode 6 2nd Torsion 461 453 453 451 428 432

Table 2: Natural frequencies and mode shapes as determined from FEM in I-DEAS

(All Hz) Shape Control Hole Impact Delamination Fatigue Bend

Mode 1 1st Bending 12.5 12.4 12.5 12.1 12.1 12.3
Mode 2 2nd Bending 77.8 77.2 77.5 75.5 73.7 76.3
Mode 3 1st Torsion 157 155 156 149 150 154
Mode 4 3rd Bending 218 217 217 211 213 216
Mode 5 4th Bending 428 425 426 412 413 422
Mode 6 2nd Torsion 476 473 474 465 466 472

Table 3: Lamb wave times of flight and group velocities for narrow coupons as observed experimentally

(times in microseconds, TOF based on TOF based on Cg based on Cg based on ∆t from

velocities in m/s) initial arrival peak arrival initial arrival peak arrival undamaged
Undamaged 216 218 952 944 -
Center cracked region 238 233 864 883 22
Center 5mm hole 226 230 910 894 10
Center 50x50mm delam 261 258 788 797 45
Side 50x25mm delam 231 220 890 935 15

Table 4: Lamb wave times of flight and group velocities for narrow coupons as observed from FEM solutions

(times in microseconds, TOF based on TOF based on Cg based on Cg based on ∆t from

velocities in m/s) initial arrival peak arrival initial arrival peak arrival undamaged
Undamaged 230 230 894 894 -
Center cracked region 231 231 891 891 1
Center 5mm hole 237 231 868 891 7
Center 50x50mm delam 306 280 672 735 76
Side 50x25mm delam 292 354 704 581 62

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