❖ Foundations, Soil and Superstructures

➢ Foundations are essential to transfer the loads coming from the

Second Semester
superstructures such as buildings, bridges, dams, highways, walls, tunnels,
towers and for that matter every engineering structure.
2024-2025 ➢ Generally, that part of the structure above the foundation and extending
above the ground level is referred to as the superstructure. The foundations in

PC 5: FOUNDATION AND
turn are supported by soil medium below.

RETAINING WALL DESIGN ➢ The substructure is generally below the superstructure and refers to that part
of the system that is below ground level.

➢ Thus, soil is also the foundation for the structure and bears the entire load
coming from above. Hence, the structural foundation and the soil together are
also referred to as the substructure.

❖ Complex Soil Behaviors

1. Natural soil media are usually not linear and do not have a unique constitutive (stress–strain
relationship.

2. Soil is generally nonhomogeneous, anisotropic and location dependent.

3. Soil behavior is influenced by environment, pressure, time and several other parameters.

4. Because the soil is belowground, its prototype behavior cannot be seen in its entirety and has
to be estimated on the basis of small samples taken from random locations (as per provisions
and guidelines).

5. Most soils are very sensitive to disturbances due to sampling. Accordingly, their predicted
behavior as per laboratory samples could be very much different from the in situ soil.
 ❖ Classification of Foundations
Description Shallow Foundations Deep Foundations
Shallow foundations are those that are built The term “deep foundation” refers to a foundation
Definition close to the earth’s surface or transfer loads at a that is set at a higher depth or transfers loads to deep
shallow depth. strata.

Structures with relatively mild, symmetrical, For constructions that require more stability and
static loads that do not cause significant stresses resistance to lateral forces, such as those with heavy,
Mechanism of Load or strains in the earth. asymmetrical, or dynamic loads.
Transfer Shallow foundations transfer loads mostly by Deep foundations rely both on end bearing and skin
Cost Itend
is cheaper.
bearing. friction, withThey
few are most expensive.
exceptions like end-bearing pile.

Feasibility Easily constructible More complex to construct.

Construction materials are readily available, less A deeper foundation offers lateral stability and resists
Advantages labour is required, the process is straightforward uplift, it works when a shallow foundation is
and reasonably priced, etc. impossible, it can sustain a large amount of weight,
etc.
Settlement potential, is typically present in light Deep foundations might be more expensive, require
Disadvantages structures that are vulnerable to lateral loads, expert workers, involve intricate construction
etc. techniques, take longer to complete, etc.

DETERMINATION OF FOUNDATION CLASSIFICATION:

DF
A. IF < 1, THE FOUNDATIONS ARE CALLED SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS,
B
WHERE DF = DEPTH OF FOUNDATION BELOW GROUND LEVEL, AND
B = WIDTH OF FOUNDATION (LEAST DIMENSION).

DF
B. IF > 1, THE FOUNDATIONS ARE CALLED DEEP FOUNDATIONS,
B
WHERE DF = DEPTH OF FOUNDATION BELOW GROUND LEVEL, AND
B = WIDTH OF FOUNDATION (LEAST DIMENSION).
❖ Shallow Foundations
❖Isolated/Spread Footing
1. Isolated Footing - supports a single column load. May be classified as square, rectangular, or any
regular-shaped polygon.

2. Combined footing - supports two to four columns in one row. Combined footing may be
classified as rectangular and trapezoidal.

3. Wall Footing – supports a concrete or masonry (load or non-load bearing) wall. Required to
support direct concentric loads.

4. Raft or mat foundation - a special footing used to support several randomly spaced columns or
to support several rows of parallel columns and may underlie a portion of or the entire
building. Bases are foundations supporting machinery and other equipment.

5. Strap Footing - When the footing's edge cannot be extended across the property line, a strap
footing—a type of combination footing—is utilized. The strap beam connects the separately
constructed foundation beneath the columns.

❖Isolated/Spread Footing ❖Combined Footing

❖Shallow Foundations
❖ Deep Foundations

1. Pile foundation - Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of

1. Drilled Shafts - also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has
an action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity
cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft
resistance, toe resistance and/or combination of both of these.
❖ Selection of Foundation Type
General Guidelines for Design
Following broad guidelines may be useful for foundation design and construction, depending on site.

1. Footings should be constructed at an adequate depth below ground level to avoid passive failure of the adjacent soil by
heaving.

2. The footing depth should be preferably below the zone of seasonal volume changes due to freezing, thawing, frost
action, ground water and so on.

3. Adequate precautions have to be taken to cater for expansive soils causing swelling pressure (upward pressure on the
footing).

4. The stability of the footing has to be ensured against overturning, sliding, uplift (floatation), tension at the contact
surface (base of the footing), excessive settlement and bearing capacity of soil.

5. The foundation needs to be protected against corrosion and other harmful materials that may be present in the soil at
site.

6. The design should have enough flexibility to take care of modifications of the superstructure at a later stage or
unanticipated site conditions.

❖ NSCP 2015 Provision for Foundation

Soil Explorations
Excavations - Footing