®

F u n da me nt a l of Ma t h em at i cs

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
1.0 Algebraic formulae
AL

If a, b, c Î C
2 2 2 2
(i ) (a + b) = a + 2ab + b = (a – b) + 4ab
2 2 2 2
(ii) (a – b) = a – 2ab + b = (a + b) – 4ab
2 2
(iii) a – b = (a + b) (a – b)
3 3 3
(iv) (a + b) = a + b + 3ab (a + b)
3 3 3
(v) (a – b) = a – b – 3ab (a – b)
3 3 3 2 2
(vi) a + b = (a + b) – 3ab (a + b) = (a + b) (a + b – ab)
3 3 3 2 2
(vii) a – b = (a – b) + 3ab (a – b) = (a – b) (a + b + ab)
æ 1 1 1ö
(viii) (a + b + c) = a + b + c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca = a + b + c + 2abc ç + + ÷
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
èa b cø
2 2 2 2 2 2
(ix) a + b + c – ab – bc – ca = 1/2 [(a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) ]
3 3 3 2 2 2
(x) a + b + c – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a + b + c – ab – bc – ca)
2 2 2
= 1/2 (a + b + c) [(a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) ]
4 4 2 2
(xi) a – b = (a + b) (a – b) (a + b )
4 2 2 2 2 2 2
(xii) a + a + 1 = (a + 1) – a = (1 + a + a ) (1 – a + a )
l Cyclic Factors
If an expression remain same after replacing a by b, b by c & c by a, then it is called cyclic expression
and its factors are called cyclic factors. e.g. a(b – c) + b(c – a) + c(a – b)

1 2 1 3 1 4 1
Illustration 1. If x = 3 + 2 , then find the value of x + , x + 2 , x + 3 ,x +
x x x x4
1 1 3- 2
Solution x= 3+ 2, = × = 3- 2
x 3+ 2 3- 2
1
(i) x+ = 3+ 2+ 3- 2 = 2 3
x
2
æ 1ö 1 1 1
(ii) ç x + ÷ = x2 + 2 + 2.x. Þ (2 3 )2 = x +
2
+2
è xø x x x2
2 1 2 1
Þ 12 – 2 = x + 2 Þ x + = 10
x x2
3 1
(iii) x +
x3
3
æ 1ö 1 1 æx + 1ö
Þ ç x + ÷ = x3 + 3 + 3.x. ç ÷
è x ø x x è xø
3 1 3 1
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Þ ( 2 3 )3 = x + 3 + 3 × 2 3 Þ 24 3 = x + + 6 3
x x3
3 1 3 1
Þ 24 3 - 6 3 = x + 3 Þ 3 (24 – 6) = x +
x x3
3 1 3 1
Þ 18 3 = x + 3 \ x + = 18 3
x x3
4 1
(iv) x + 4
x
2
æ 2 1 ö 1 1
Þ ç x + 2 ÷ = x4 + 4 + 2.x 2. 2
è x ø x x

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2 4 1 4 1
Þ (10) = x + 4 +2 Þ 100 – 2 = x +
x x4
1 4 4 1
Þ 98 = x + \ x + 4 = 98
x4 x
2 2
Illustration 2. Suppose that a, b are two real numbers such that a + b + 8a – 14 b + 65 = 0
find a and b
2 2
Solution a + 8a + 16 + b – 14b + 49 = 0
2 2
Þ (a + 4) + (b – 7) = 0
which is possible only when
a = –4 and b = 7

(a 2 - b 2 )3 + (b 2 - c 2 )3 + (c 2 - a 2 )3
Illustration 3. Simplify the expression E =
(a - b)3 + (b - c )3 + (c - a)3
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution Since, (a – b ) + (b – c ) + (c – a ) = 0 and (a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) = 0
(a 2 - b 2 )3 + (b 2 - c 2 )3 + (c 2 - a 2 )3
E=
(a - b)3 + (b - c )3 + (c - a)3

3(a 2 - b 2 )(b 2 - c 2 )(c 2 - a 2 )

=
3(a - b)(b - c )(c - a)
= (a + b) (b + c) (c + a)

3 3
Illustration 4. Solve the equation a + b +3ab = 1 and find the relation between the real numbers a and b.
3 3 3 3 3
Solution a + b +3ab = 1 Þ a + b +(-1) = 3ab(-1) Þ a + b +(–1) = 0 or a = b = –1

4 2 4
Illustration 5. Factorize (i) x + 5x + 9 (ii) x + 4
4 2 2 2 2 2
Solution (i) (x + 6x + 9) – x = (x + 3) – x
2 2
= (x + 3 + x) (x + 3 – x)

4 4 2 2
(ii) x +4 Þ(x + 4x + 4) – 4x
2 2 2 2 2
Þ (x + 2) – (2x) Þ(x + 2 – 2x) (x + 2 + 2x)

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION
1 æ 3 1 ö æ 2 1 ö
1. If x - = 3 , then find the value of the expression 2 ç x - 3 ÷ – 3 ç x + 2 ÷ – 39 :
x è x ø è x ø

2. If x = 1 + 2 then find the value of the expression x 4 - x 3 - 2x 2 - 3x + 1

2 2 2 a+b
3. If a + b + c – ab – bc – ca £ 0, (where a, b, c are non-zero real number) then value of is :
c
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2.0 INTERVALS
AL

Intervals are basically subsets of R and are commonly used in solving inequalities or in finding
domains. If there are two numbers a, b Î R such that a < b, we can define three types of intervals
as follows :

2.1 Open Interval

(a, b) = {x : a < x < b} i.e. end points are not included.
Example: 1 < x < 2

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cavity
Þ x Î (1, 2) ® paranthesis or x Î ]1, 2[
1 2

2 . 2 Cl osed Inter v al
[a, b] = {x : a £ x £ b} i.e. end points are also included. This is possible only when both a and b are finite.
Example: 1 £ x £ 2

Þ x Î [1, 2] ® square bracket

1 2

2 . 3 Semi Open Semi Closed Inter val

(a, b] = {x : a < x £ b}
Example: 1 < x £ 2

Þ x Î (1, 2]
1 2

2 . 4 Semi Closed Semi Open Inter val

[a, b) = {x : a £ x < b}
Example: 1 £ x < 2

Þ x Î [1, 2)
1 2
The infinite intervals are defined as follows :
(i) (a, ¥) = {x : x > a}
(ii) [a, ¥) = {x : x ³ a}
(iii) (– ¥, b) = {x : x < b}
(iv) (– ¥, b] = {x : x £ b}
(v) (– ¥, ¥) = {x : x Î R}

Discrete set – If there are discrete points in a set then they are represented in curly bracket.
Example: x = 2, 3, 4, – 2 , – 7

Þ x Î {– 7, – 2 , 2, 3, 4} ®curly bracket

l Some more examples

3 £ x £ 5, x Î [3, 5]
3 < x < 5, x Î (3, 5) or ]3, 5[
3 £ x < 5, x Î [3, 5) or [3, 5[
3 < x £ 5, x Î (3, 5] or ]3, 5]
x ³ 3, x Î [3, ¥) or [3, ¥[
x > 3, x Î (3, ¥) or ]3, ¥[
x £ 3, x Î (– ¥, 3] or ]– ¥, 3]
x < 3, x Î (– ¥, 3) or ]– ¥, 3[
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x Î R, x Î (– ¥, ¥) or ]– ¥, ¥[

If there is no solution then, x Î f (Null set or Empty set or Void set)

Subset (symbol Í ) and Proper subset (symbol Ì )

e.g., A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {1, 2, 3}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B Í A ® True
B Ì A ® True

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C Í A ® True
C Ì A ® False

2 . 5 Union & Intersection

These are phenomenon of set theory, whenever there are numbers defined in one or more intervals and associated
with the statement ‘OR’ Union of the set of numbers gives the result. And if the sets of numbers are
associated with the statement ‘AND’ Intersection of the numbers gives the result.

e.g. 1 £ x £ 3 OR 2 < x < ¥ Þ x Î [ 1 , 3 ] OR x Î ( 2 , ¥ )

(Union of Intervals)

1 2 3

1 £ x £ 3 AND 2 < x < ¥ Þ x Î [1 , 3 ] AND x Î ( 2 , ¥ )

(Intersection of Intervals)

1 2 3

Illustration 6. True/False
(i) 3 Î (3, 5) ® False (ii) – 7 Î (– 2, 9) ® False
(iii) – 2 Ï {– 1, –2, –3, –4} ® False (iv) (2, 3) Ì [2, 3] ® True
(v) (2, 3) Í (2, 3) ® True (vi) – 1 Î [–1, 3) ® True

Illustration 7. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4} then find (i) A È B (ii) A Ç B

Solution A È B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A Ç B = {2, 3}

3. 0 VARIOUS TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

AL

3.1 Rational Function

A rational function is a function of the form,
g(x)
y = f (x) = , where g (x) & h (x) are polynomial functions.
h(x)
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3.2 Absolute Value Function / Modulus Function

The symbol of modulus function is f (x) = x and is defined as:
ì x if x³0
y= x =í .
î- x if x<0

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3.3 Greatest Integer Function or Step Up Function

The function y = f (x) = [x] is called the greatest integer function, where [x] equals to the greatest integer
less than or equal to x. For example :
[0.8] = 0 , [1.5] = 1 , [7.8] = 7 , [–1. 2] = – 2 etc.

3.4 Exponent ial Functi on

x x In a
A function f(x) = a = e (where a > 0, a ¹ 1, x Î R) is called an exponential function. Graph of
exponential function can be as follows :

Case - I Case - II
For a > 1 For 0 < a < 1

4.0 RATIONAL INEQUALITY

AL

4.1 Method Of Interval

For solving rational inequalities of the following type :

( x – a1 )n
1
(x – a 2 )n2 ..... ( x – a m )
nm

<0
( x – b1 )p
1
(x – b2 )p2 ..... ( x – b m )
pm

(or > 0 , ³ 0, £ 0), where a 1, a 2,......a m, b1, b2,....bm are real number and n1, n2....nm, p1, p2 ,
....pm are natural number. We analyse change of sign at every zero of numerator and denaninator.
On real number line (x – 1) (x – 2) > 0

(x–2)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - o + + + + + + +

(x–1)- - - - - - - - - - - - o + + + + + + + + + +

1 2
For the above inequality we can easily see x = 1 and 2 are critical points expression (x – 1) and (x
– 2) changes sign at their critical point respectively and it divides the real number line in 3 intervals
clearly solution set is x Î (–¥, 1) È (2, ¥).
Similary (x – 1) (x – 2) < 0 Þ xÎ (1, 2)
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(x – 1) (x – 2) ³ 0 Þ xÎ (–¥, 1] È [2, ¥)
(x – 1) (x – 2) £ 0 Þ xÎ [1, 2]

4.2 Wavy Curve Method

The above analysis shows a direct approach of solving rational inequality in following steps. Locate
critical point on real number line. Start a wave from extreme right critical point above the real number line
which pass through all critical points making trough & crest above and below real number line as shown
in figure. Above shows positive and below shows negative.

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+ +
1 – 2

Clearly, (x – 1) (x – 2) > 0 Þ xÎ (–¥, 1) È (2, ¥)

(x – 1) (x – 2) > 0 Þ xÎ (1, 2)
If rational inequality consisits of natural powers of linear factors, then for even power wave touches
real number line and for odd power wave cuts real numbers line as shown in figures for given
example.
(x – 1)2 (x – 2)3
£ 0, x ¹ 3, 4
(x – 3)4 (x – 4)7

+ +
– –
1 2 3 4

Hence solution set is xÎ {1} U [2, 3) U (3, 4)

Note that x = 1 is in the soluton set which fulfills equality only

llustration 8. Solve for x :

6x - 5 1
(i) <0 x¹–
4x +1 4 + +
–1/4 5/6
+
æ 1 5ö
Þ x Î çè - , ÷
4 6ø

2x - 3 7
(ii) >0 x¹ + +
3x - 7 3
3/2 7/3
–
æ 3ö æ7 ö
Þ x Î çè -¥, ÷ø È çè , ¥ø÷
2 3
4 2
(iii) x – 5x + 4 < 0
2 2 2 2
Þ (x ) – 4x – x + 4 < 0
2 2
Þ (x – 4) (x – 1) < 0
Þ (x – 2) (x + 2)(x – 1) (x + 1) < 0
–2 –1 1 2
Þ x Î (–2, –1) È (1, 2)
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llustration 9. Solve for x :

3
(i) <1 x¹2
x-2
3-x+2 5-x
Þ <0 Þ <0
x-2 x-2
x-5
Þ >0
x-2 2 5
\ x Î (– ¥, 2) È (5, ¥)

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x4 + x 2 + 1
(ii) <0
x 2 - 4x - 5

x2 + x2 + 1
Þ <0
x - 5x + x - 5

x4 + x 2 + 1
Þ <0
(x + 1)(x - 5)
Þ x Î (–1, 5)

x -1 x - 1 - x2 - x
(iii) –x<0; <0
x +1 x +1 ¥
–1 0

-x 2 - 1 x2 + 1
Þ <0 Þ >0
x +1 x +1
\ x Î (–1, ¥)

2(x - 3) 1 2(x - 3)(x - 1) - (x 2 - 6x)

(iv) – £0 Þ £0
x(x - 6) x -1 x(x - 6)(x - 1)

2x 2 - 8x + 6 - x 2 + 6x x 2 - 2x + 6
Þ £0 Þ £0
x(x - 6)(x - 1) x(x - 6)(x - 1)

+ +
x Î (– ¥, 0) È (1, 6) –¥ – – ¥
0 1 6

x 2 + 6x - 7
Illustration 10. Solve £2
x2 + 1

x 2 + 6x - 7
Solution £2
x2 + 1
2 2
Þ x + 6x – 7 £ 2x + 2
2
Þ x – 6x + 9 ³ 0
2
Þ (x – 3) ³ 0
Þ xÎR

POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONAL INEQUALITIES

(x - 5)
1. Solve >0
(x + x + 5)(x2 - 4x - 5)
2
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1 1
2. Solve >
x -1 x +1

2x 1
3. Solve £
x2 - 9 x+2

5.0 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION / MODULUS FUNCTION

AL

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ì x if x ³ 0
The symbol of modulus function is |x| and is defined as : y = |x| = í
î- x if x < 0

Properties of Modulus :
For any a, b Î R
(a) |a| ³ 0 (b) |a| = |–a|

a |a|
(c) |ab| = |a||b| (d) =
b |b|
(e) |a + b| £ |a|+|b| (f) |a|–|b|£|a – b|
(g) ||a|–|b|| = |a – b| iff ab ³ 0

5.1 Modulus Equation

Equation consisting of variable with in modulus.
Following points to be remembered.
ìx = ±a, a > 0
ï
|x|= a Þ íx = 0, a = 0
ï x Îø a<0
î
It can also be seen graphically.

Illustration 11. If ||x–1| – 2| = 5, then find x.

Solution |x – 1| – 2 = ± 5
|x – 1| = 7, – 3
Case–I When |x – 1| = 7
Þ x – 1 = ± 7 Þ x = 8, –6
Case–II When |x – 1| = –3 (reject)

Illustration 12. If |x – 1| + |x + 1| = 2, then find x.

Solution Case–I If x £ –1
–(x – 1) – (x + 1) = 2
Þ –x + 1 – x – 1 = 2
Þ –2x = 2 Þ x = –1 .... (i)
Case–II If – 1 < x < 1
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–(x – 1) + (x + 1) = 2
Þ –x+1+x+1=2
Þ 2=2 Þ –1 < x < 1 .... (ii)
Case–III If x ³ 1
x–1+x+1=2
Þ x=1 .... (iii)
Thus from (i), (ii) and (iii) – 1 £ x £ 1

Illustration 13. Solve : x |x + 3| + 2 |x + 2| = 0

Solution Case–I x < – 3

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–x(x + 3) – 2 (x + 2) = 0
2
x + 5x + 4 = 0
Þ x = –1, –4
Þ x = –4. Q x = –1 (reject)
Case–II –3 < x < – 2
(x) (x + 3) – 2x –4 = 0
2
x +x–4=0

-1 + 17 -1 - 17 -1 - 17
Þ x= , Þ x=
2 2 2

-1 + 17
Q x= (reject)
2
Case–III x > –2
x (x + 3) + 2x + 4 = 0
2
x + 5x + 4 = 0
Þ x = –1, – 4.
Þ x = –1 Q x = –4 (reject)

-1 - 17
Hence x = –4, , –1.
2

Illustration 14. Solve the following equation

(i) |x – 3| = 4 (ii) ||x – 1| + 1| = 4 (iii) |x| – |x – 2| = 2
Solution (i) |x – 3| = 4
Þ (x – 3) = ± 4
Þ x =3 ± 4
Þ x = 7, –1 (these values satisfy the original equation).
Final Solution x Î {7 , -1}
(ii) | |x – 1| + 1| = 4
Þ |x – 1| + 1 = ± 4
Þ |x – 1| = ± 4 – 1
x
Þ |x – 1| = 3 – 5
Þ |x – 1| = 3
Þ (x – 1) = ± 3
Þ x=1±3
Þ x = 4, – 2 (these values satisfy the original equation).
(iii) |x| – |x – 2| – 2
ìx, x³0
We know that |x| = í
î- x , x<0

ì ( x - 2) x ³ 2
|x – 2| = í
î - ( x - 2) x < 2
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Here x = 0, 2 are two critical points hence there are three intervals.
I II III
–¥ (–, –) 0 (+, –) 2 (+,+) ¥

Case–1 when – ¥ < x < 0

|x| – |x – 2| = 2
Þ –x+x–2=2
Þ –2=2 it is not possible
Hence x Î [2, ¥)
Case–2 when 0 £ x < 2
|x| – |x – 2| = 2

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Þ x – {–(x – 2)} = 2
Þ x+x–2=2
Þ 2x = 4
Þ x = 2 not in the taken interval \ no solution x Î f
Case–3 when 2 £ x < ¥
|x| – |x – 2| = 2
Þ x – (x – 2) = 2
Þ x–x+2=2
Þ 2 = 2 it is an identity
Hence all the value in this interval. \ x Î [2, ¥)
Final solution x Î [2, ¥)

Illustration 15. Solve the equation

2
(i) x + 7|x| + 10 = 0 (ii) |3x – 2| + x = 11
Solution (i) Method 1
2
x + 7|x| + 10 > 0 " x Î R
2
Hence x + 7|x| + 10 = 0
xÎf
Method 2
2 2
x = |x|
2
|x| + 7|x| + 10 = 0
2
|x| + 5|x| + 2|x| + 10 = 0
|x| = – 2, – 5. (Absurd)
Þ xÎf
(ii) |3x – 2| + x = 11
Method–1 Here critical point is x = 2/3 so consider two cases:
2
Case–1 – ¥ < x <
3
– (3x – 2) + x = 11
9
x=– permissible
2
2
Case–2 £ x < ¥
3
+ 3x – 2 + x = 11
13
Þ x=
4
ì 9 13 ü
Final Solution x Î í- , ý
î 2 4þ
Method–2
|3x – 2| + x = 11 Þ|3x – 2| = 11 – x Þ (3x – 2) = ± (11 – x)
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Taking +ve sign

13
3x – 2 = 11 – x Þ3x + x = 13 Þ x=
4
Taking –ve sign
9
(3x – 2) = – 11 + xÞ3x – x = –11 + 2 Þ x=–
2
ì 9 13 ü
Final Solution x Î í- , ý
î 2 4þ
Illustration 16. Find the value of x, |x – 3| + 2 |x + 1| = 4

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Solution Here critical point are 3, – 1
Case–I if x ³ 3
| x – 3| + 2|x + 1| = 4
Þ (x – 3) + 2 (x + 1) = 4
Þ 3x – 1 = 4
4 +1 5
x= = = 1.666 (approximate)
3 3
but here x ³ 3 Hence , there is no value of x in this interval
Case–II if – 1 £ x < 3
|x – 3| + 2 |x + 1| = 4
Þ – (x – 3) + 2 (x + 1) = 4
Þ – x + 3 + 2x + 2 = 4
Þ x+5=4
Þ x=–5+4=–1
\ x=–1
Case–III if x < –1
|x – 3| + 2 |x + 1| = 4
Þ – x + 3 – 2x – 2 = 4
Þ – 3x + 1 = 4
Þ – 3x = 3
Þ x=–1
but x < – 1, Hence there is no value of x in this interval
Taking union of all the three cases final solution is x Î {–1}

MODULUS EQUALITY
Solve the following equations

1. |x + 3| = 2(5 – x)

2. x|x| + 7x – 8 = 0

3. x +2=3

4. x - 2x + 5 = 0

5. x x =4

6. x -1 - 2 =1
7. |x – 3| + 2|x + 1| = 4
8. x–1 –2 = x–3
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5.2 Modulus Inequality

Inequality that consist of variable in modulus.
Following point to be remembered :

ì –a < x < a, a > 0

| x |< a Þ í
îxÎø a£ 0

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ì –a £ x £ a, a > 0
ï
|x| £ a Þ íx = 0, a=0
ïxÎø, a< 0
î

ì x Î (– ¥, –a)U(a, ¥), a > 0

ï
|x|> a Þ í x Î R – {0}, a=0
ï x Î R, a< 0
î

ì x Î (– ¥, –a)U(a, ¥), a > 0

| x |³ a Þ í
î x Î R, a£ 0
It can also be seen graphically.

Illustration 17. Solve |2x – 1| < 5

Solution |x| < a
Þ –a < x < a
Þ –5 < 2x – 1 < 5
Þ –4 < 2x < 6
Þ –2<x<3

x2 + x + 1
Illustration 18. Solve > 0.
| x + 1|

x2 + x + 1
Solution > 0.
|x + 1|
\ |x + 1| > 0
" x Î R – {–1}
2
\ x +x+1>0
\ D=1–4=–3<0
2
\ x +x+1>0"xÎR
\ x Î (– ¥, – 1) È (– 1, ¥)

x 2 - 3x - 1
Illustration 19. < 3.
x2 + x + 1

| x 2 - 3x - 1 |
Solution < 3.
x2 + x + 1
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2
Q in x + x + 1
D=1–4=–3<0
2
\ x +x+1>0"xÎR
2 2
\ |x – 3x – 1| < 3(x + x + 1)
2 2 2 2
Þ (x – 3x – 1) – {3(x + x + 1)} < 0
2 2
Þ (4x + 2) (– 2x – 6x – 4) < 0
2
Þ (2x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1) > 0
Þ x Î (– ¥, – 2) È (– 1, ¥)

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MODULUS INEQUALITIES
Solve the following inequalities
2x - 1
1. | |x–1| + 2| £ 4 2. >2
x -1
|x - 1|
3. |x – 3| + |x + 4| ³ 12 4. <1
x+2

6.0 LOGARITHM
AL

l Definition
x
Every positive real number N can be expressed in exponential form as a = N where 'a' is also a positive
real number different than unity and is called the base and 'x' is called an exponent.
x x
We can write the relation a = N in logarithmic form as logaN = x. Hence a = N Û logaN = x.

Hence logarithm of a number to some base is the exponent by which the base must be raised in order
to get that number.
Limitations of logarithm – logaN is defined only when
(i) N> 0 (ii) a > 0 (iii) a ¹ 1
NOTE
(i) For a given value of N, logaN will give us a unique value.
(ii) Logarithm of zero does not exist.
(iii) Logarithm of negative reals are not defined in the system of real numbers.

l Basic Definition of Logarithm

Using the basic definition of logarithm we have 3 important deductions :
(a) loga1 = 0 i.e. logarithm of unity to any base is zero.
(b) logNN = 1 i.e. logarithm of a number to the same base is 1.

1
(c) log 1 N = -1 = logN i.e. logarithm of a number to the base as its reciprocal is –1.
N
N

Note : N = ( a )
loga N
e.g. 2log2 7 = 7
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Illustration 20. The value of N, satisfying loga[1 + logb{1 + logc(1 + logpN)}] = 0 is -

(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 1
0
Solution 1 + logb{1 + logc(1 + logpN)} = a = 1
Þ logb{1 + logc(1 + logpN)} = 0
Þ 1 + logc(1 + logpN) = 1
Þ logc(1 + logpN) = 0
Þ 1 + logpN = 1

13
 ®

Þ logpN = 0
Þ N=1 Ans. (D)

p4 q4 2a–1
Illustration 21. If log5p = a and log2q = a, then prove that = 100
100
a
Solution log5p = a Þ p = 5
a
log2q = a Þ q = 2
p4q4 5 4a.24a
Þ =
100 100

(10)4a (100)2a
= = = 1002a -1
100 100

DEFINITION OF LOGARITHM
1. Express the following in logarithmic form :
4 –3 1/7
(a) 81 = 3 (b) 0.001 = 10 (c) 2 = 128
2. Express the following in exponential form :
(a) log232 = 5 (b) log 2
4=4 (c) log100.01 = –2

3. If log4m = 1.5, then find the value of m.

4. If log2 3
1728 = x , then find x.

5 Find the value of the following :

log2 5
æ1ö
(a) logcot 22 1 ° (sec x - tan x) (b) log1.43 43
2 2
(c) ç ÷
2 30 è2ø

6. If 4log2 2x = 36 , then find x.

æ 11 ö
7. If log35 = x and log2511 = y then the value of log 3 ç ÷ in terms of x and y is
è 3ø

l The Principal Properties of Logarithms

If m,n are arbitrary positive numbers where a > 0, a ¹ 1, then-
(1) logamn= logam + logan
m
(2) loga = log a m - loga n
n
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l Base Changing Theorem

It can be stated as "quotient of the logarithm of two numbers is independent of their common base."
log a m
Symbolically, log b m = where a > 0, a ¹ 1, b > 0, b ¹ 1
log a b
NOTE
log a log b 1
(i) logba. logab = . = 1; hence logb a = log b
log b log a a

(ii) a logb c = c log b a

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F u n da me nt a l of Ma t h em at i cs

1
(iii) Base power formula - loga k m = loga m
k

(iv) The base of the logarithm can be any positive number other than 1, but in normal practice, only two
bases are popular, these are 10 and e(=2.718 approx). Logarithms of numbers to the base 10 are
named as 'common logarithm' and the logarithms of numbers to the base e are called Natural or Napierian
logarithm. We will consider logx as logex or lnx.

(v) Conversion of base e to base 10 & viceversa :

log10 a loge a
loge a = = 2.303 ´ log10 a ; log10 a = = log10 e ´ loge a = 0.434log e a
log10 e loge 10

16 25 81
Illustration 22. Prove that 7log + 5log + 3 log = log2
15 24 80

16 25 81
Solution 7log + 5 log + 3 log
15 24 80
7 5 3
æ 16 ö æ 25 ö æ 81 ö æ æ 16 ö æ 25 ö æ 81 ö
7 5 3
ö
= log ç ÷ + log ç ÷ + log ç 80 ÷ = log ç ç ´ ´ ÷
15
è ø è 24 ø è ø ç è 15 ÷ø çè 24 ÷ø çè 80 ø÷ ÷
è ø

é æ 24 ö æ 5 2 ö æ 3 4 ö
7 5 3
ù é 28 510 312 ù
= log êç ÷ ´ç 3 ÷ ´ç 4 ÷ ú = log ê 2 ´ 15 ´ 12 3ú
êëè 3 ´ 5 ø è 2 ´ 3 ø è 2 ´ 5 ø úû ë3 ´ 5 2 ´ 3 2 ´ 5 û
7 7 5

= log éë228 -15 -12 ´ 510 -7 -3 ´ 312 -7- 5 ùû = log(21 × 50 × 30) = log 2

2 2 (a + b) 1
Illustration 23. If a + b = 23ab, then prove that log = (log a + log b) " a, b > 0.
5 2
2 2 2
Solution a + b = (a + b) –2ab = 23ab
2
Þ (a + b) = 25ab Þ a+b = 5 ab ....(i)
Using (i)
(a + b) 5 ab 1 1
L.H.S. = log = log = log ab = (log a + log b) = R.H.S.
5 5 2 2

2 +
Illustration 24. If logax = p and logbx = q, then logx ab is equal to (where a, b, x Î R – {1}) -
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(A) + (B) + (C) + (D) +
p q 2p q p 2q 2p 2q
p 1/p
Solution logax = p Þ a = x Þ a = x .
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q 2 2/q
similarly b = x Þ b = x
æ1 2ö 1
ç + ÷. 1 1
Now, log x ab = log x x1 / p x 2 / q = logx x è p qø 2 = +
2p q

Illustration 25. If a, b, c are distinct positive real numbers different from 1 such that
(logba . logca – logaa) + (logab . logcb – logbb) + (logac . logbc – logcc ) = 0, then abc is equal to-
(A) 0 (B) e (C) 1 (D) none of these
Solution (logba logca – 1) + (logab . logcb – 1) + (logac logbc – 1) = 0

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 ®

log a log a log b log b log c log c

Þ . + . + . =3
log b log c log a log c log a log b
3 3 3
Þ (log a) + (log b) + (log c) = 3loga logb logc
3 3 3
Þ (loga + logb + logc) = 0 [QIf a + b + c – 3abc= 0, then a + b + c= 0 if a ¹ b ¹ c]
Þ log abc = log 1 Þ abc = 1

Illustration 26. Evaluate : 811 / log5 3 + 27log9 36 + 34 / log7 9

Solution 81log3 5 + 33 log9 36 + 34 log9 7

3 /2 2
= 3 4 log3 5 + 3log3 (36) + 3log3 7
= 625 + 216 + 49 = 890.

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHM

1 1
1. Show that log9 + 2log 6 + log81 - log12 = 3log 3
2 4
b- c c-a a -b
æxö æyö æzö
2. If logex – logey = a , logey – logez = b & logez – logex = c, then find the value of ç ÷ ´ç ÷ ´ç ÷
èyø èzø èxø

log3 135 log 3 5

3. Evaluate : -
log15 3 log 405 3

4. Evaluate : log927 – log279

5. Evaluate : 2log3 5 - 5log3 2

6. Evaluate : log34 . log45 . log56 . log67 . log78 . log89

7. Let S = log 2 ( )
7 + 5 , then find the value of log
2 ( 7- 5 ) in terms of S :
8. If logb125 = c then logb25 is what percent of the value of c, is (b > 1)

l Graph of Logarithmic Functions

Graph of y = loga x
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y y

(1,0)
O (1,0) x O x

When a > 1 When 0 < a < 1

l Points to remember
(i) If base of logarithm is greater than 1 then logarithm of greater number is greater. i.e. log28 = 3,
log24 = 2 etc. and if base of logarithm is between 0 and 1 then logarithm of greater number is smaller.
i.e. log1/28 = –3, log1/24 = –2 etc.
é x < y if a > 1
loga x < logay Û ê
ë x > y if 0 < a < 1
(ii) It must be noted that whenever the number and the base are on the same side of unity then logarithm
of that number to that base is positive, however if the number and the base are located on different
side of unity then logarithm of that number to that base is negative.
1 æ1ö æ 1 ö
e.g. log10 10 =
3
log 7 49 = 4 ; log 1 ç ÷ = 3 ;
; log2 ç ÷ = -5; log10(0.001) = –3
3 2 8ø
è è 32 ø
1 1
(iii) x+ ³ 2 if x is positive real number and x + £ -2 if x is negative real number
x x

(iv) n ³ 2, n Î N
th
n
a = a1 / n Þ n root of 'a' ('a' is a non negative number)
Some important values : log102 = 0.3010; log103 = 0.4771; ln2 = 0.693, ln10 = 2.303

l Characteristic and Mantissa

For any given number N, logarithm can be expressed as logaN = Integer + Fraction
The integer part is called characteristic and the fractional part is called mantissa. When the value of log n
is given, then to find digits of 'n' we use only the mantissa part. The characteristic is used only in determining
the number of digits in the integral part (if n ³ 1) or the number of zeros after decimal & before first non-
zero digit in the number (if 0 < n < 1).
NOTE
(i) The mantissa part of logarithm of a number is always positive (0 £ m < 1)
(ii) If the characteristic of log10N be n, then the number of digits in N is (n + 1)
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(iii) If the characteristic of log10N be (–n), then there exist (n – 1) zeros after decimal in N.

l Antilogarithm
The positive real number 'n' is called the antilogarithm of a number 'm' if log n = m
Thus, log n = m Û n = antilog m

l Logarithm Equation
Any equation consisting of variable with logarithmic function.

17
 ®

Illustration 27. log3 (x + 1) + log3 (x + 3) = 1

Solution log3 (x + 1) + log3(x + 3) = 1 .....(i)
Þ log3(x + 1) (x + 3) = 1
2
Þ x + 4x + 3 = 3
Þ x (x + 4) = 0
Þ x = 0, – 4
But x = – 4 does not satisfy the equation (i)
\ x=0

Illustration 28. log2 (3 – x) + log2 (1 – x) = 3

Solution log2 (3 – x) + log2 (1 – x) = 3 .....(i)
Þ log2 (3 – x) (1 – x) = 3
2
Þ 3 – 4x + x = 8
2
Þ x – 4x – 5 = 0
Þ (x – 5) (x + 1) = 0
Þ x = 5, –1
but x = 5 does note satisfy the equation (i)
x=–1

Illustration 29. log2 log4 log5x = 0

Solution log2 log4 log5x = 0
Þ log4 log5 x = 1
Þ log5x = 4
4
Þ x = 5 = 625
1
Illustration 30. log4 [2log3 [1 + log2(1 + 3log3x)]] =
2
1
Solution log4 [2log3 [1 + log2 (1 + 3 log3x)]] =
2
Þ 2log3 [1 + log2 (1 + 3 log3 x)] = 2
Þ 1 + log2 (1 + 3 log3x) = 3
Þ log2 (1 + 3log3x ) = 2
Þ 1 + 3 log3x = 4
Þ 3log3x = 3
Þ log3x = 1
Þ x=3

Illustration 31. Find the value of x , log3[ 5 + 4 log3 (x – 1)] = 2

Solution log3[ 5 + 4 log3 (x – 1)] = 2
Þ 5 + 4 log3 (x – 1) = 9
Þ 4 log3 (x – 1) = 4
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Þ log3 (x – 1) = 1
Þ x–1=3
Þ x=4

Illustration 32. Find the value of x , 5 2 log5 x – x – 6 = 0

Solution 5 2 log5 x – x – 6 = 0 ....(i)

Þ
2
5log5 x – x – 6 = 0
2
Þ x –x–6=0
Þ (x – 3) (x + 2) = 0
Þ x = 3, – 2
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F u n da me nt a l of Ma t h em at i cs
since x = – 2 does not satisfy the equation (i)
Hence, x = 3

Illustration 33.
2
Find the value of x, 5log5 x – x – 6 = 0

Solution
2
5log5 x – x – 6 = 0
2
Þ x –x–6=0
Þ (x – 3) (x + 2) = 0
Þ x = 3, – 2

Illustration 34. Find the value of x, log4 (x + 3) – log4(x – 1) = log48 – 2.

Solution log4 (x + 3) – log4(x – 1) = log48 – 2 ......(i)
x+3
Þ log4 . =–2
8( x - 1)

x+3 1
Þ =
8( x + 1) 16
Þ 2x + 6 = x + 1
Þ x=–7
since x = – 7 does not satisfy the equation (i)
Hence, there is no value of x
xÎf

CHARACTERISTIC AND MANTISSA AND LOGARITHM EQUATION

6
1. Evaluate : log(0.06)

20
2. Find number of digits in 18
200
æ1ö
3. Determine number of cyphers (zeros) between decimal & first significant digit in ç ÷
è6ø
5
4. Find antilog of to the base 64.
6

5. Given that log 2 = 0.301, find the number of digits before decimal in the solution to the equation
log 5 ( log 4 (log 3 (log 2 x )) = 0 .

2
6. The value(s) of x satisfying the equation log x + log(x – 2) = log (x – 2x), is
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7. The solution x of the equation log4(3x + 7) – log4(x – 5) = 2 satisfy ?

(A) 0 £ x £ 3 (B) 3 £ x £ 6 (C) 6 £ x £ 9 (D) 9 £ x £ 12

l Logarithmic Inequality
Logarithmic inequality : Inequality consisting of variable with logarithmic function.
Following points to be remembered.

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 ®

ïìx > a ,
p
a >1
(i) logax > p Þ í
ïî0 < x < a , 0 < a < 1
p

ïì0 < x < a ,

p
a >1
(ii) loga x < p Þ í
ïîx > a , 0 < a <1
p

ì0 < x < y, a >1

(iii) logax < logay Þ íx > y > 0, 0< a <1
î

ì0 < x < y, a >1

(iv) logax < logay Þ í
îx > y > 0, 0 <a <1

Illustration 35. Solve log1/ 2 (2x - 1) < 2

1
Solution 2x – 1 > 0 Þ x > ... (1)
2

1
Also log1/ 2 (2x - 1) < 2 Þ 2x - 1 >
4

5
x> ... (2)
8
By (1) and (2)

5
Þ x>
8
Illustration 36. Solve log2(2x – 5) < 3
Solution 2x – 5 > 0 and 2x – 5 < 8
5 13
Þ x> and x <
2 2

æ 5 13 ö
Þ x Îç , ÷
è2 2ø

LOGARITHMIC INEQUATION

2 - 3x
1. log 1 ³ -1 2. log2 log4 log5 x > 0
3
x
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æ x - 1ö
3. çè log 2 ÷ >0
x + 2ø

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SOME WORKED OUT ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustration 1. Show that log418 is an irrational number.
2
Solution log418 = log4(3 × 2) = 2log43 + log42
log2 3 1 1
=2 + = log2 3 +
log2 4 log2 4 2
assume the contrary, that this number log23 is rational number.
p
Þ log23 = . Since log23 > 0 and p,q, ÎI, p & q are coprimes,
q
p/q p q
Þ 3=2 Þ 2 =3
But this is not possible for any natural number p and q. The resulting contradiction completes the
proof.

Illustration 2. If in a right angled triangle, a and b are the lengths of sides and c is the length of hypotenuse and
c – b ¹ 1, c + b ¹ 1, then show that
logc+ba + logc–ba = 2logc+ba . logc–ba.
Solution We know that in a right angled triangle
2 2 2
c =a +b
2 2 2
c –b =a .......... (i)
1 1
LHS = +
loga (c + b) log a (c - b)

loga (c - b) + loga (c + b) log a (c2 - b2 )

=
loga (c + b).log a (c - b) = log a (c + b).log a (c - b)

loga a2
= (using (i))
loga (c + b).loga (c - b)

2
= log (c + b).log (c - b)
a a

= 2log(c+b)a . log(c – b) a = RHS

2
Illustration 3. log(x + 1)x = 4 log (x + 1)
2
Solution log(x + 1)x = 4 log(x + 1) ...(i)
2
Þ x log (x + 1) – 4. log (x + 1) = 0
2
Þ log (x + 1) [(x – 4)] = 0
2
log (x + 1) = 0 or x –4=0
2
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Þ x+1=1 Þ x =4
Þ x=0 Þ x = ±2
since x = – 2 does not satisfy the equation (i)
Hence x = 0 , 2

1 + logx
Illustration 4. Find the value of x, x = 10x

23
 ®

1 + logx
Solution x = 10x
Taking log in both sides
1 + log x
log x = log (10x)
Þ (1 + log x) log x = log 10 + log x
Þ (1 + log x) log x – (1 + log x) = 0
Þ (1 + log x) (log x – 1) = 0
\ 1 + log x = 0 or log x – 1 = 0
Þ log x = – 1 Þ log x = 1
1
Þ x=
10
1
\ x = 10,
10
log (x + 1) 2
Illustration 5. Find the value of x, x =x
log (x + 1) 2
Solution x =x
Taking log in both sides
log (x + 1) 2
Þ log x = log x
Þ log (x + 1) . log x = 2 log x
Þ log x [log (x + 1) – 2] = 0
log x = 0 or log (x + 1) = 2
Þ x=1 Þ x + 1 = 100
Þ x = 99
\ x = 1, 99

Illustration 6. Find the value of x, 2 × x log 4 3 + 3log4 x = 27

Solution 2 × x log 4 3 + 3log4 x = 27
1
log 3 log 4
Þ 2 . ( x x ) x + 3 log4 x = 27

Þ 2 . 3 log4 x + 3 log4 x = 27
2
Þ 3 log4 x = 9 Þ 3 log4 x = 3
Þ log4x = 2 Þ x = 16
x
Illustration 7. Find the value of x, log2 (9 + 2 ) = 3
x
Solution log2 (9 + 2 ) = 3
x
Þ 9+2 =8
x
Þ 2 =–1
it is not true for any value of x
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Hence, there is no solution of x

æ 1ö
Illustration 8. Find the value of x , log 4 + çè 1 + ø÷ log 3 = log ( x 3 + 27 )
2x

æ 1ö
Solution log 4 + çè 1 + ÷ø log 3 = log ( x 3 + 27)
2x
æ 1ö
ç1 + ÷ 1/x
Þ log 4 + log 3è 2x ø = log (3 + 27)
1/2x 1/x
Þ log (4 × 3 × 3 ) = log (3 + 27)

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F u n da me nt a l of Ma t h em at i cs
1/2x 1/x
Þ 12.3 = 3 + 27
1/2x
Let 3 =a
2
Þ 12a = a + 27
2
Þ a – 12a + 27 = 0
Þ (a – 9) (a – 3) = 0
Þ a = 9, 3
1/2x 2
Þ 3 =3,3
1
Þ = 2, 1
2x
1 1
x= ,
4 2
Since for 3 to be valid x > 2 (x Î N )
x

Hence there is no solution

é n a = a1 / n n ³ 2, nÎN ù
Note– ê 1/ n ú
ë a =y " nÎR û

Illustration 9. Find the value of x, log5x + log25x = log1/5 3

Solution log5x + log25x = logx/5 3

1 1
Þ log5x + log5x = - log53
2 2
3 1
Þ log5x = - log53
2 2

3 1
Þ log5x = log5
3

3 1
Þ x =
3
1/ 3
æ 1ö
Þ x= ç ÷
è 3ø

ìïæ 1 ö 1 / 3 üï
\ x Î íèç 3 ÷ø ý
îï þï
1
Illustration 10. Find the value of x, log 2 x - = log2 x
2
1
Solution log 2 x - = log2 x
2
1 1
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Þ log 2 x - = log2x
2 2
Þ 2 a -1 = a Let log2x = a
Þ a– 2 a +1=0
Þ ( a - 1)2 = 0
Þ a=1
Þ x=2
Þ log2x = 1
\ x Î {2}

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Fundamental of Mathematics

EXERCISE-1

SINGLE CHOICE CORRECT QUESTIONS

1 1 1 1
1. The sum of the series : + + + .... + is equal to
(1 ´ 2) ( 2 ´ 3 ) ( 3 ´ 4 ) (100 ´ 101)
200 100 50 25
(A) (B) (C) (D)
101 101 101 101

1 3 1
2. If x + = 2, then x + 3 is equal to
x x
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3

2 2 2 2 2
3. The number of real roots of the equation, (x - 1) + (x - 2) + (x - 3) + (x–4) +.....+ (x – n) = 0,
(n > 1) is :
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3

4. If p, q, r are real and distinct numbers, then the value of

(p - q)3 + (q - r)3 + (r - p)3 is
(p - q).(q - r).(r - p)
(A) 1 (B) p q r (C) 2 (D) 3

3 2 3
5. The polynomials P(x) = kx + 3x – 3 and Q(x) = 2x – 5x + k, when divided by (x – 4) leave the same re-
mainder. The value of k is
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) –1

6. Solution of |4x + 3| + |3x – 4| = 12 is

7 3 5 2 11 13 3 7
(A) x = – , (B) x = – , (C) x = – , (D) x = – ,
3 7 2 5 7 7 7 5

2
7. The number of real roots of the equation x -5 x + 6 = 0 is :
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

8. The value of [p] – [–e] is, where [.] denotes greatest integer function
(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 7 (D) 8

9. If 3 2 log 3 x - 2 x - 3 = 0, then the number of values of 'x' satisfying the equation is

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(A) zero (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) more than 2

10. Number of real solutions of the equation log10 ( - x ) = log 10 x 2 is :

(A) none (B) exactly 1 (C) exactly 2 (D) 4

(x - 1)(x + 1)(x - 2)2 (e 3x - 1)

11. If £ 0, the complete solution set of values of x is
x(3 - x)3 (x - 1)2 (x + 3)
(A) (–¥, –3) È (3, ¥) (B) (–¥, –3) È [–1, 1) È (3, ¥) È {2} – {0}
(C) (–¥, –3) È (–1, 1) È (3, ¥) (D) None of these

1
 ®

1 – a – b
+ a b
12. Let a, b Î R for which 60 = 3 and 60 = 5, then 12 2(1– b)
is equal to
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 12

-100
æ5ö
13. Number of cyphers after decimal before a significant figure comes in ç ÷ is -
è3ø
(A) 21 (B) 22 (C) 23 (D) None of these

1 1 1
14. + + has the value equal to -
log bc
abc log ca
abc log ab
abc
(A) 1/2 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 4

15. The value of 3log4 5 + 4log5 3 - 5log4 3 - 3log5 4 is -

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) None of -these

12
16. logAB ,where B = and A = 1 + 2 + 5 - 10 is -
3+ 5 + 8
(A) a negative integer (B) a prime integer
(C) a positive integer (D) an even–natural number

17. Number of integral solution of the equation, 4 log

x 2 ( x ) + 2log (x ) = 3 log (x ) . is :
4x
2
2x
3

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) None of these

18. If logpq + logqr + logrp vanishes where p, q and r are positive reals different than unity then the value of
3 3 3
(logpq) + (logqr) + (logrp) is -
(A) an odd prime (B) an even prime (C) an odd composite (D) an irrational number

JPR\COMP.18\D\Allen(IIT-JEE Wing)\2019-20\Nurture\Maths\UNIT - 1\ Fundamental of Mathematics

2
 ®
Fundamental of Mathematics

EXERCISE-2

SECTION - 1 : NUMERICAL ANSWER BASED QUESTIONS

1
1. The value of b satisfying log 8
b= 3 is _____________.
3

2. Solution set of the equation, log 10

2
x + log 10 x 2 = log 10
2
2 – 1 is _____________ .

3. The expression log20.5 8 has the value equal to _____________.

log (0.1)
4. The expression (0.05) 20
is a perfect square of the natural number _____________.

(where 0.1 denotes 0.111111 ......... ¥ )

5. Let p be the integral part of log3 108 and q be the integral part of log 5375 then |p + q – pq| has the value equal
to _____________.

(a 3 - 1)( b 3 - 1) - 1
6. log(a + b) = logab (a, b > 0), then is_____________.
ba (a + b)

7. Calculate : 7log 3 5 + 3log 5 7 - 5 log 3 7 - 7log 5 3

A B C
8. If 4 + 9 = 10 , where A = log 164, B = log 39 & C = logx83, then find x.

9. log4 log3 log2 x = 0

1
10. log3 æç log 9 x + + 9x ÷ö = 2x.
è 2 ø

2
11. log 102 x + log10x = log 102 3 - 1
JPR\COMP.18\D\Allen(IIT-JEE Wing)\2019-20\Nurture\Maths\UNIT - 1\ Fundamental of Mathematics

12. If a = log12 18 & b = log24 54 then find the value of ab + 5 (a – b).

13. If logba.logca + logab.logcb + loga c.logbc = 3 (where a, b, c are different positive real numbers ¹ 1), then
find the value of abc.

1
14. Solve the following equation for x & y : log100 x + y = , log10y – log10|x|= log1004.
2