UNIT-II

MACHINES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Syllabus
Machines: Construction, principle and operation of (i) DC Motor, (ii) DC
Generator, (iii) Single Phase Transformer, (iv) Three Phase Induction Motor and
(v) Alternator, Applications of electrical machines.
Measuring Instruments: Construction and working principle of Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) Instruments and Wheat Stone
bridge.
Text Books:
[1] Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Rajendra Prasad,PHI publishers, 2014, 3rd Ed.
[2] Basic Electrical Engineering, D.P.Kothari, I.J.Nagrath, McGrawHill, 2019, 4th Ed.
[3] Electrical Technology volume-II AC and DC Machines by B.L.Theraja, S.Chand Publ.
Abbreviations
1Ø: Single Phase
3Ø: Three Phase
DC: Direct Current
f : Frequency(Hertz)
I: Current (units: Amperes)
MC: Moving coil
PMMC: Permanent magnet Moving Coil
RMF: Rotating magnetic field
V: Voltage (volts)
S.No. Contents Page
Machines
2.1 Introduction, applications of electrical machines 1
2.2 DC Generator: Construction, principle and working 4
2.3 DC Motor 7
2.4 Single Phase Transformer 9
2.5 Three Phase Induction Motor 11
2.6 Alternator 13
Measuring Instruments
2.7 Construction and working principle of 15
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
2.8 Moving Iron (MI) Instruments 16
2.9 Wheat Stone bridge. 18

2.1 Introduction
Electrical energy system accounts for generation, transmission, distribution and
utilization of electrical energy. At every stage, different electrical machineries
(static and rotating machines) serve specific purpose.

An electrical machine is used to convert the electrical energy into mechanical

energy and vice versa. The rotating machine which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy is called Generator. Based on the type of emf generated, it is
classified as alternating current (AC) generator and a direct current (DC)
generator. Transformer is a static electrical machine which changes the value of
the AC voltage without changing frequency for transmission and distribution
systems. The rotating machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy is called electrical motor.

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 Electrical
Principle construction Input Output
Machine
electromagnetic, Stator winding,
Lorentz force, Rotor winding,
DC Motor Electrical Mechanical
Flemings left hand Split rings,
rule Brushes,
Stator winding,
Electromagnetic, Mechanical,
Rotor winding, Electrical
DC Generator Flemings right hand DC
Split rings, (DC power)
rule excitation
Brushes,
Electrical
Faradays laws of Core,
(Step-up/
Transformer electromagnetic Primary winding, Electrical
step-down
induction Secondary winding
Voltage)
Stator winding,
3Ø induction Electromagnetic
Rotor winding, Electrical Mechanical
motor induction
Slip rings.
Stator winding, Mechanical,
Electromagnetic Electrical
Alternator Rotor winding, DC
induction (AC power)
Slip rings. excitation

Applications of electrical machines

DC Generator:
 Battery charging in vehicles,
 Power generation in small-scale renewable energy systems,
 Electroplating processes,
 Welding equipment,
 Electric traction systems,
 Electric vehicles, fans, food processors, Robotics.
DC Motor:
 Electric vehicles (EVs)
 Industrial machinery (conveyors, pumps, fans)
 Household appliances (blenders, vacuum cleaners)
 Robotics
 Aerospace (actuators, control surfaces)
Transformers:
 Power distribution,
 Voltage regulation,
 Electrical isolation,
 Power conversion,
 Instrumentation.
3Ø Induction motors:
 Industrial pumps, Machine tools
 Electric vehicles
 Fans, air conditioners, and refrigerators.
 Agriculture, Mining
 Marine applications
 Renewable energy
 Elevators and escalators, conveyor systems
Alternators:
 Power generation,
 Wind turbines,
 Hydroelectric generators,
 Aircraft engines.
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 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
First Law: This law states that “Whenever a conductor cuts across the
magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
consider a coil placed near a bar magnet and a galvanometer connected across
the coil, as shown in Fig. When the bar magnet (N-pole) is taken nearer to the
coil [see Fig.(a)], there is deflection in the needle of the galvanometer. If now the
bar magnet (N-pole) is taken away from the coil [see Fig.(b)], again there is
deflection in the needle of galvanometer but in opposite direction. The
deflection in the needle of galvanometer indicates that emf is induced in the
coil.
Second Law: This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil
is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
d
e  N
dt

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: (Generator action)

This rule is applied to determine the direction of induced emf in a
conductor moving across the field.
“Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand
mutually perpendicular to each other.
First finger: Direction of magnetic field,
Thumb: direction of motion of conductor then
Second finger: direction of induced emf in the conductor.”

Fleming’s Left-hand Rule: (motor action)

This rule is used to determine the direction of force acting on a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
First finger magnetic field,
Second finger direction of current and
Thumb direction of force acting on the conductor (Fig.)

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 2.3 DC GENERATOR
Electrical generators are standalone machines that provide electricity when
power from the local grid is unavailable. These generators supply backup
power to businesses and homes during power outages. Generators do not
create electrical energy, but they convert mechanical or chemical energy into
electrical energy. Based on the output, generators are classified into two types
as AC generators and DC generators. In this article, we will be discussing DC
generators in detail. You can check out our article on the AC generator to
understand its working principle, construction and more.

Principle: DC generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical

energy into electricity. When the conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf will
be generated based on the Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction.
This electromotive force can cause a flow of current when the conductor circuit
is closed.
Construction
A DC generator can also be used as a DC motor without changing its
construction. Therefore, a DC motor, otherwise a DC generator, can be
generally called a DC machine.

(i) Stator: Provides the magnetic field in which the rotor spins, consisting of
two opposite magnets.
(ii) Rotor: Made of stacked iron laminations with slots, it forms the armature
core & reduces eddy current losses.
(iii) Armature Windings: A closed circuit of windings, connected in series or
parallel to increase the total current output.
(iv) Yoke: The outer structure of the DC generator, made of cast iron (or) steel,
providing mechanical support and carrying magnetic flux.
(v) Poles: Hold the field windings, which are connected in series or parallel
with the armature windings.
(vi) Pole Shoe: Spreads magnetic flux and prevents the field coil from falling.
(vii) Commutator: Acts as a rectifier, converting AC to DC in the armature
winding, made of copper segments insulated by mica sheets.
(viii) Brushes: Ensure electrical contact between the commutator and the external circuit.
(ix) Shaft: Transfers mechanical power to the machine, connecting rotating
parts like the armature core and commutator.
Working
 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that
when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field,
an emf is induced in the conductor.
 According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced
current changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor
changes.

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  Let us consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the
left moving upwards. When the armature completes a half rotation, the
direction of the motion of the conductor will be reversed downward.
Hence, the direction of the current in every armature will be alternating.
 But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature
conductors get reversed when a current reversal occurs. Therefore, we
get a unidirectional current at the terminals.

Losses in DC Generator
The input power is not fully transformed into the output power in a DC
machine. Some part of input power gets wasted in various forms. In a DC
machine, the losses are broadly classified into four types:
(i) Copper Loss Copper loss takes place when the current flows through the
winding. These losses occur due to the resistance in the winding. The copper
loss is categorized into three forms armature loss, the field winding loss and
brush contact resistance loss.
(ii) Core Losses (or) Iron Losses Some losses in the iron core occur when the
armature rotates in the magnetic field. These losses are known as core losses.
These losses are categorized into two losses as Hysteresis loss and Eddy
current loss.
3. Mechanical Losses: These losses are related to the physical movement of the machine.
(a) Friction loss: Occurs at the bearings and between the brushes & commutator.
(b) Windage loss: Due to air resistance as the armature rotates.

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 (i) Separately Excited
The field coils are energized from an independent exterior DC source in a
separately excited type generator.
(ii) Self Excited
In a self-excited type, the field coils are energized from the generated current
within the generator. These types of generators can further be classified into a
series of wounds, shunt-wound & compound wound.

EMF Equation
In a DC generator, when the armature core is rotated using the prime mover in the
magnetic field, an induced emf is generated in the armature windings. This
induced emf in the armature windings is called generated emf, denoted as Eg. An
expression for Eg is obtained as follows:

Let P = total number of poles of the DC generator,

  be the flux produced per pole in Webers,
Z = total number of armature conductors,
N = armature speed in rpm,
A = number of parallel paths existing in the armature winding.

In one revolution of armature core, the total flux cut by one conductor of the
armature is given by dT  P  eq (2.1)
The time taken by the armature core to complete one revolution is given by
60
dt  eq (2.2)
N
According to Faraday’s law, the average emf induced in one armature conductor is
d
given by, eg  T eq (2.3)
dt
PN
Substituting Eqns. (2.1) and (2.2) in the above equation, we get e g  eq (2.4)
60
Since the total number of conductors connected in series, per parallel path, is
Z
given by Z/A, the average emf induced in the armature is given by E g  e g x
A
Substituting Eqn. (2.4) in the above equation, we get the generated emf in the
 ZNP
armature of DC generator as E g 
60 A
Therefore, from the above equation, it is clear that the induced emf in the DC
generator is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. Hence, changing
the direction of the magnetic field or the direction of the rotating armature core
can change the polarity of the induced emf. But if both the magnetic field and
armature core rotation are reversed, then the polarity of the induced emf remains
the same.
Case (i) If the armature windings are lap wound, then A = P, from Eqn. (2.5),
 ZN
the induced emf in the DC generator becomes E g 
60
Case (ii) If the armature windings are wave wound, then A = 2, from Eqn. (2.5),
 ZNP
the induced emf in the DC generator becomes E g 
120

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 2.2 DC MOTOR
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct
current which is transformed into the mechanical rotation.
Construction

Construction
(i) Armature (or) Rotor The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic
laminations that are insulated from one another. The armature is perpendicular to
the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating part that rotates on its axis and
is separated from the field coil by an air gap.
(ii) Field Coil (or) Stator A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which
winding is wound to produce a magnetic field. This electro-magnet has a
cylindrical cavity between its poles.
(iii) Commutator The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is
made of copper segments stacked together but insulated from each other using
mica. The primary function of a commutator is to supply electrical current to the
armature winding.
(iv) Brushes The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon
structure. These brushes conduct electric current from the external circuit to the
rotating commutator. Hence, the commutator & brush unit are concerned with
transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically
rotating region or the rotor.
Working
DC motor works on the principle that “when a current-carrying conductor is
kept in a magnetic field, it will develops an electromagnetic torque”
A magnetic field develops in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is
energized. The created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the
armature. The magnetic field enters the armature from the North pole side of the
field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole side.
The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same
intensity but in the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque
that causes the motor armature to rotate.

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 Types of DC motors
DC motors are classified into different types based on the field winding
connections to the armature as:
(i) Separately Excited DC Motor
(ii) Self Excited DC Motor
(a) Shunt wound DC motor
(b) Series wound DC motor
(c) Compound wound DC motor
(i) Separately Excited DC Motor: In a separately excited DC motor, the field coils
are energised from an external source of DC supply as shown in the figure.

V  Eb  Ia R a
Ia  IL
 f  If

(a) Shunt wound DC motor: In a shunt wound motor, the field winding is
connected parallel to the armature as shown in the figure.

V  Eb  Ia R a
V
ISh 
R Sh
Sh  ISh

(b) Series wound DC motor: In a series wound DC motor, the field winding is
connected in series with the armature winding as shown in the figure.

V  Eb  Ia  R a  R Se 
Ia  IL  ISe
Se  ISe  Ia

(c) Compound wound DC motor: DC motors having both shunt and series field
winding is known as Compound DC motor, as shown in the figure. The compound
motor is further divided into:
 Cumulative Compound Motor
 Differential Compound Motor
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the
windings is in the same direction.
In a differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is
opposite to the flux produced by the shunt field winding.

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 2.4 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one
circuit to the other at the same frequency but it changes the voltage levels.

Principle Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

A 1Ǿ transformer consists of 2 windings placed over a laminated silicon steel
core. The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding
and the winding having more number of turns is called high voltage winding.
Working

Fig. 2.2 (a) 1Ø transformer (core and windings)

(b) Flux linking with primary and secondary
 The winding connected to the AC supply is the primary winding, and the
winding connected to the load is the secondary winding.
 When AC voltage (V1) is applied to the primary winding, it creates an
alternating magnetic flux in the core, which induces voltages (emf) in both the
primary (E1) and secondary (E2) windings.
 These induced emf’s oppose the applied voltage (V1) due to Lenz’s law. The emf
in the primary is also called back emf because it opposes the input voltage.
 Even though there is no direct electrical connection between the primary and
secondary windings, power is transferred through magnetic coupling through
alternating flux in the core.
 The amount of induced emf in each winding depends on the rate of change of
magnetic flux and the number of turns in the coil. The induced emf in the
primary (E1) is proportional to its turns (N1), and the emf in the secondary (E2)
is proportional to its turns (N2).
 When N2 > N1, the transformer is called a step-up transformer,
when N2 < N1 the transformer is called step-down transformer.
EMF equation of transformer:
E1  4.44 f m N 1
E 2  4.44 f m N 2
Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e.,
N
turn ratio  1
N2

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 Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is
called voltage transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.
V E N I
K  2  2  2  1
V1 E1 N1 I 2
Transformer on load:

Construction: The main parts of a transformer are:

(i) Core: Provides an easy path for magnetic flux.

(ii) Windings: Copper coils on the core; the primary winding connects to the
supply, and the secondary winding connects to the load.
(iii) Tank: The container that holds the transformer core and windings.
(iv) Transformer Oil: An insulating oil in the tank that:
Removes heat from the core and windings.
Provides extra insulation for windings.
Protects insulation from dust and moisture.
(iv) Conservator: Maintains oil level & allows space for oil expansion as the
temperature rises.
(v) Breather: Keeps moisture out and allows dry air into the transformer,
preventing oil from losing its insulating ability.
(vi) Terminal Bushings: Insulated connections that bring transformer
windings out of the tank.
(vii) Explosion Vent: Quickly releases dangerous pressure to prevent explosions.
(viii) Oil Gauge: Shows the oil level in the conservator and ensures it stays
above the minimum level.
(ix) Buchholz Relay: Protects the transformer from internal faults below the oil level.
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 2.5 3Ø INDUCTION MOTOR
Principle: In induction motor torque is produced by electromagnetic
induction. The rotor can be a squirrel cage rotor (or) a wound rotor. They
found applications in the range from a few watts rating domestic motors to
hundreds of kilowatts industrial drive due to their simple and robust
construction and rare demand of any maintenance.

In contrast, the synchronous & DC motor involves complex design

constraints and regular monitoring. The DC motors found a rare use in the
form of some constant speed industrial drives with a need for exquisite control
of speed but still they need converters to feed them, and the main issue with
the DC motors is the commutator, that makes the design very complicated in
addition to that it needs a proper design of rotor and stator winding, but most
of the induction motors are using the squirrel cage rotor in which the rotor
bars are simply short-circuited at both ends.

For synchronous motor it needs the excitation at the stator as well as the
rotor to maintain the field winding, for the field excitation again we need either
the static converter or a DC generator to supply the Direct current. The
polyphase induction motor is a singly excited machine, there is no need for a
commutator. The stator of the motor is fed from the A.C mains and the rotor
will energize from the stator by means of electromagnetic induction.
Construction
Induction motor contains a stationary part stator that accommodates the 3Ø
winding in its slots, and the rotating component is a rotor that drives the
mechanical load.
Stator: It contains an outer frame that acts as a protective
covering for the entire machine, made of cast iron or
aluminum and the hallow stator core that is made up of
high-grade silicon steel laminations containing slots at the
inner periphery. The slots contain the 3Ø winding that is
uniformly distributed among them.
Generally, there are three types of slots namely
 Open type slots
 Closed type slots
 Semi-closed type slots
In case of open type slots, it will increase the effective air gap between the
stator and rotor, which demands a high magnetizing current, but they can help
in the prevention of leakage flux as they will offer the reluctance to the leakage
path, and it is simple to attend for the maintenance and repair of this kind of
slots.
In case of closed type slots, they can reduce the magnetizing current, but the
issue is the significant leakage of the flux can overshadow that advantage.
Hence to maintain a fine balance between the magnetizing current and flux
leakage we generally prefer the semi-closed slots.
Rotor
There are 2 types of rotors (a) Squirrel-cage rotor
(b) Slip-ring rotor
(a) Squirrel Cage Rotor
The squirrel cage rotor contains a cylindrical rotor
core made of steel or silicon steel laminations that
are thick as the induction motor will operate at low-
frequency conditions (50 Hz or 60 Hz).
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 It contains the semi-closed slots that contain the cast aluminum (or) the alloy
copper bars solidly short-circuited at both ends using two metal rings. The
slots of the rotor are skewed to reduce the effects of crawling and cogging. The
slots are designed for less depth to minimize the rotor reactance that affects
1
the maximum torque of the motor since Tmax 
2X2
This rotor offers superior running characteristics, but the major drawback of
this motor is its low starting torque.
(b) Slip Ring Rotor
The rotor core of the slip ring rotor appears like the armature core of a DC
motor. It is made up of silicon steel laminations with semi-closed slots which
are skewed. The rotor windings are placed in slots that are an exact mirror
image of the stator winding but preferably star-connected. In each phase of the
rotor inserted with an external resistance of suitable value to increase the
starting torque as the starting torque of the induction motor is proportional to
its rotor resistance up to a suitable value.
TSt  R 2 (upto suitable value)

Under running conditions, the slip ring will be lifted out and short circuit using
a metal collar arrangement in the shaft. The rotor is essentially designed with
the same number of poles as the stator, unlike the squirrel cage rotor which
can be designed with any number of poles. The slip ring rotors are rarely
preferred in applications that demand high starting torque. Around 90 percent
of industrial motors and all 1Ø induction motors are of the squirrel cage type
only.
Rotating Magnetic Field (R.M.F)
When 3Ø supply (with 120° displacement) is given a 3Ø winding (with 120°
displacement), the 3Ø currents will produce the 3Ø fluxes to produce a net flux
that rotates at the synchronous speed in a particular direction with a resultant
magnitude of 1.5 times the peak value of the fundamental flux, the direction of
rotation will depend on the phase sequence.
Working
 When a 3Ø supply is given to the 3Ø winding a rotating magnetic field is
produced which rotates at a synchronous speed.
 The rotating magnetic field will cut the stationary rotor conductors at a relative
speed to induce voltage and produce the current in the rotor as it is essentially
a closed circuit.
 Therefore, the rotor will start the rotation, and the direction of rotation of the
rotor can be explained with Lenz’s law.
 According to Lenz’s law, the result (rotor rotation) will oppose the cause
(relative speed), hence the rotor starts to oppose the relative speed by rotating
in the direction of R.M.F. and start accelerating to meet the speed of R.M.F
(Ns), but could not meet R.M.F and slips back to run with a speed near to the
synchronous speed.
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  Like this, in the entire operation, it tries to reach but falls back due to the rotor
copper loss occurring inside the rotor.
Slip:
In an induction motor, the speed of rotor is always less than synchronous speed.
The difference between the speed of revolving field (Ns) and the rotor speed (N)
expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed (Ns) is called slip S.
N N
Mathematically, % Slip, %S  S x100
NS
NS  N
S
NS
Rotor speed, N  NS 1  S
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed
i.e., Slip speed = Ns – N
Problem: A 3Ø, 6-pole induction motor is supplied from a 50 Hz, 400 V supply.
Calculate (a) the synchronous speed (b) the speed of the rotor
when the slip is 4 %.
120f 120x50
Ans) Synchronous speed, Ns = = =1000rpm
P 6
N -N
% Slip, %S = S r x100
NS
1000 - Nr
4= x100  Nr = 960rpm
1000
2.6 ALTERNATOR
AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The AC
Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas
turbines and combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in
the form of alternating voltage and current.
Principle: AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that electromotive
force(EMF/voltage) is generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a
uniform magnetic field.
 This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a static magnetic
field or rotating the magnetic field containing the stationary conductor.
 The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to
draw induced alternating current from a stationary armature coil than from a
rotating coil.
 The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic
field strength, and the speed of the rotating field.

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 Construction
(i) Field The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source
and produce magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to
produce a voltage. This voltage is the output voltage of the AC generator.
(ii) Armature The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known
as an armature. This component primarily consists of coils of wire that are large
enough to carry the full-load current of the generator.
(iii) Prime Mover The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime
mover. The prime mover could either be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
(iv) Rotor The rotating component of the generator is known as a rotor. The
generator’s prime mover drive the rotor.
From construction point of view, there are two types of rotors named as
(i) Salient pole type rotor; (ii) Non-salient pole type rotor.

(v) Stator The stator is the stationary part of an AC generator. The stator core comprises
a lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron to minimise the eddy current losses.
(vi) Slip Rings Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro
from the rotor of an AC generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of
current from a stationary device to a rotating one.
Working
When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes
continuously. As a result, an electric current flows through the galvanometer and the
slip rings and brushes. The galvanometer swings between positive and negative
values. This indicates that there is an alternating current flowing through the
galvanometer. The direction of the induced current can be identified using Fleming’s
Right-Hand Rule.
Advantages
 AC generators can be easily stepped-up and stepped-down through transformers.
 The transmission link size in AC Generators is thinner because of the step-up feature.
 Losses in AC generators are relatively lesser than in DC machines
 The size of an AC generator is smaller than a DC generator
Relation between Frequency, Speed and Number of Poles
Consider a machine having P number of poles on the rotor revolving at a speed at Ns
rpm When a conductor passes through a pair of poles one cycle of emf is induced in it.
One cycle is produced when a coil passes through a pair of poles
P
No. of cycle made per revolution 
2
NS
No. of revolutions made per second 
60
No. of cycles made per second = No. of cycles/revolution × No. of revolutions/s
P NS PNS
f= x = cycles/sec  or  Hz
2 60 120
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 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments are classified as follows:
S.No. Measuring quantity instrument
Depending on the quantity Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter,
1
measured Energy meter, Ohmmeter.
Depending on the different Moving Iron type, Moving coil type,
2
principles Dynamometer type, Induction type.
Deflecting type, Integrating type,
3 Depending on how the quantity
Measured, Recording type.
The more common electric metres may be roughly divided into the following classes:
1. According to the function performed as
i. Ammeters
ii. Voltmeters
iii. Ohm meters
iv. Watt meters
2. According to the circuit in which they are used as
i. Direct current
ii. Alternating current
3. According to the principle of operation as
i. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
ii. Dynamo metre
iii. Magnetic vane
iv. Induction.
The essential parts of these instruments generally include
1. Means for providing a deflection torque (obtained by the interaction of
magnetic fields);
2. A spring or other means to provide a counter torque; and
3. A pointer to indicate the resultant position of the moving element of the metre.
2.7 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMMC) INSTRUMENT

Two spiral springs of phosphor bronze are mounted one above the other below
the coil. The springs serves 2 purposes. It leads the current into and out of the
coil and also provides the controlling torque. A light pointer is attached to the
spindle which moves over a calibrated scale. The damping torque is provided by
eddy currents induced in the aluminium former.
BEEE (23EC2T04) MIC23 Unit-2 Machines and Measuring Instruments 15
 Working
 When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current and
voltage, the operating current flows through the coil.
 When the current is passed through the coil, a deflecting torque is produced due
to the reaction between permanent magnetic field and the magnetic field of the
coil. This deflecting torque is proportional to the value of current in the coil
Td  I .
 Due to this torque, the coil moves and the pointer deflects over the calibrated
scale. When the coil moves, the springs are twisted or rewound, thus the spring
offers a controlling torque to the moving system.
 The controlling torque due to spring is directly proportional to the deflecting of
the moving part TC   . When the deflecting and controlling torque are equal
Td  TC
 The pointer comes to rest at its final position, hence,   I . Since the deflection
   is directly proportional to the current  I  , these instruments have uniform
scale.
Deflecting torque: It is directly proportional to the current or the voltage to be
measured. So, the instrument can be used to measure direct current and DC
voltage.
Control torque : The torque which controls the deflecting torque is called
control torque(Spring control).It brings the pointer back to zero position when
the deflecting torque is removed.
Damping torque: Eddy current damping. When the moving coil made of
aluminium former is moved due to the force exerted on it, it cuts the magnetic
flux lines produced by the permanent magnet. Hence, eddy currents are
induced in the former.
Applications:
It is used as ammeter.
It is used as voltmeter.
It is used in ohmmeter.
It is used as galvanometer.
It is used to detect small currents in DC galvanometers.
It is used to measure the change in magnetic flux linkage in galvanometer.
2.8 MOVING IRON (MI) INSTRUMENTS
In this type of instruments ammeters and voltmeters the current carrying coil
is stationary but the iron core rotates hence it is called moving iron
instruments. These instruments are mostly used to measure the current and
voltage in an alternating and direct current circuits. Therefore there are 2 types
of moving iron instruments
(i) Attractive type: These operate on the principle of attraction of a single piece
of soft iron into a magnetic field
(ii) Repulsion type: It operate on the principle of repulsion of 2 adjacent iron
pieces magnetized by the same magnetic field
Attraction type moving iron instrument:
It works on the principle of attraction of a single piece of soft iron towards a
magnetic field.
Construction: The figure shows the construction of an attraction-type
moving iron instrument. It has a fixed coil or solenoid through which current
flows. An oval-shaped soft iron piece is attached to a spindle, allowing it to
move in and out of the coil. A pointer is connected to the spindle to indicate
readings on a calibrated scale. The spindle is pivoted in jewel bearings at both
BEEE (23EC2T04) MIC23 Unit-2 Machines and Measuring Instruments 16
 ends for smooth movement. A spiral spring provides controlling torque, while
an aluminum vane, moving in a closed air chamber, provides damping torque.

Working:
 When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage,
the operating current flows through the coil.
 Whenever current flows through the coil the electromagnetic field is set up
along its axis. In other words, the coil behaves like a magnet and therefore it
attracts the soft iron piece towards it, thus providing the deflecting torque  Td 
 The deflecting torque causes the pointer attached to the moving system moves
from zero position over a calibrated scale. The deflecting torque depends upon
the value of magnetic flux (current flowing through the coil).
 The spiral spring offers the controlling torque which depends upon the angle of
twist. When the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque  Td  TC  the
pointer will come to rest at a position.
 The deflecting torque  Td  is proportional to square off the current I 2 and
controlling torque  TC  is proportional to angle of twist ‘  ’. At a steady position
of deflection, Td  TC , hence   I 2 . In case of AC measurement,   I 2rms .
 Hence, the scale is not uniform, being crowded at the beginning and spread out
near the finishing end of the scale .
Applications:
Used in Voltmeters
Used in Ammeters
Used in Power factor meters

BEEE (23EC2T04) MIC23 Unit-2 Machines and Measuring Instruments 17

 2.9 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances is the
Wheatstone bridge. A Wheatstone bridge has been in use longer than almost
any electrical measuring instrument. It is still an accurate and reliable
instrument and is extensively used in industry.
 The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument for making comparison measurements
and operates upon a null indication principle. This means the indication is
independent of the calibration of the null indicating instrument or any of its
characteristics.
 For this reason, very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved using
Wheatstone bridge. Accuracy of 0.1% is quite common with a Wheatstone
bridge as opposed to accuracies of 3% to 5% with ordinary ohmmeter for
measurement of medium resistances.
 This is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes
the unknown component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.

 In the figure, RX is the unknown resistance to be measured; R1 , R2 and R3 are

resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable.
R 
 If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg  2  is equal to the ratio of
 R1 
R 
the two in the unknown leg  3  , then the voltage between the two midpoints
 RX 
(B and C) will be zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer V.
 If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates whether R2 is
too high or too low. R2 is varied until there is no current through the
galvanometer, which then reads zero.

Fig. shows the basic circuit of a Wheatstone bridge. It has four resistive
arms, consisting of resistances R1,R2, R3 and RX together with a source of emf
(a battery) and a null detector, usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive
current meter. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential
difference between points c and d.
The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through
the galvanometer or when the potential difference across the galvanometer is
zero.
RR
At the point of balance, R X = 1 3
R2

BEEE (23EC2T04) MIC23 Unit-2 Machines and Measuring Instruments 18