Important Questions:

Q1. What is the OSI model and what are its benefits?

The OSI or Open Systems Interconnection model is a fundamental

reference model that defines how different network
protocols communicate. It divides the network communication process
into seven layers. These are physical, data link, network, transport,
session, presentation, and application.

The benefits of the OSI model are:

 It assists in simplifying the network design and development

process.
 It allows troubleshooting and debugging of network problems.
 It allows changes at one layer without affecting the other layers,
offering modularity and flexibility.

Q2. What are the seven layers of the OSI model and explain their
basic functions?

The seven layers of the OSI model are:

1. Physical layer: It is responsible for transmitting as well as

receiving raw bits over a physical medium. The physical medium
can be cables, wires, or wireless signals.
2. Data link layer: This is the second layer of the OSI model. It is
mainly responsible for framing, addressing, error detection, and
error correction of data packets.
3. Network layer: It is responsible for functions like routing,
forwarding, addressing, and congestion control of data packets.
Apart from this, it also defines the logical structure as well as the
topology of the network.
4. Transport layer: This is the fourth layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for ensuring reliable, ordered, and error-free delivery of
packets between end-to-end applications. There are other
functionalities, such as assisting in defining the connection-oriented
or connectionless services and protocols for data transmission.
5. Session layer: It is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating sessions between applications. Apart from this, it also
defines the synchronization, authentication, authorization, and
encryption mechanisms for data exchange.
6. Presentation layer: This is the sixth layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for translating, formatting, compressing, and encrypting
 data between different formats and representations. The
presentation layer also defines syntax and semantics.
7. Application layer: This is the seventh and highest layer of the OSI
model, which offers various services and protocols for specific
applications on a network.

Q3. What are the different protocols used in each layer of the OSI
model?

Different protocols used in each layer of the OSI model are:

OSI Model
Protocols
Layers

ADSL, ISDN,
Physical layer
Bluetooth, Ethernet

Data link layer ARP, MAC, HDLC, STP

Network layer IP, ICMP, IGMP, RIP, BGP

Transport layer TCP, UDP, GRE

Session layer NFS

Presentation
SSL
layer

Application
SSH, DNS, DHCP, NTP, HTTP
layer

Q4. What is the difference between TCP and UDP protocol?

The basic difference between the two protocols i.e., TCP and UDP is:

Factors TCP UDP

Connection Connection-oriented, meaning it establishes a Connectionles

Type connection before data transfer establish a co

Data Maintains the order of data packets by assigning Does not mai
 Factors TCP UDP

Sequence sequence numbers to them packets

Guarantees the delivery of data packets by using Does not gua

Delivery
acknowledgment and retransmission mechanisms packets

Check for Performs error checking by using checksums and Performs min
Errors windowing techniques checksums on

Broadcasting Does not support broadcasting or multicasting Supports broa

Data
Retransmits the lost or corrupted data packets until Do not retran
Retransmissio
they are received correctly data packets
n

Slower than UDP due to more overhead and Faster than T

Speed
complexity simplicity

Q5. What are some examples of devices that operate at different

layers of the OSI model?

Some devices that operate at different layers of the OSI model are:

OSI Model
Devices
Layer

Physical layer Hub, repeater

Data link layer Switch, bridge, Network Interface Card

Network layer Router

Transport layer Gateway, firewall

Session layer Proxy server

Presentation
Encryption device
layer

Application
Web server, phones
layer
Q6. Is there any alternative model to the OSI model?

Yes, one possible alternative to the OSI model is the TCP/IP model. It is a
concise version of the OSI model that consists of four layers instead of
seven. The TCP/IP model is also known as the Internet model, as it
describes how the Internet works. The four layers of the TCP/IP model are:

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Layer

Q7. What are some common network problems that can occur at
different layers of the OSI model?

Some of the network problems that can occur at different layers of the OSI
model are:

OSI Model Layer Network Problems

Damaged cables, loose connectors, interference, signal

Physical layer
attenuation

Data link layer Frame errors, collisions, MAC address conflicts

Network layer IP address conflicts, routing loops, packet loss

Transport layer Port conflicts, connection timeouts, segment reordering

Session layer Session hijacking, session termination

Presentation
Data corruption, encryption errors
layer

Application layer Protocol mismatch, service unavailability

Q8. What is encapsulation and decapsulation in the context of the

OSI model?

Encapsulation is the process of adding headers and trailers to data at

each layer of the OSI model as it travels down from the application layer
to the physical layer. Each header contains information relevant to that
particular layer’s function (such as source and destination addresses,
sequence numbers, checksums, etc.). Each trailer contains information for
error detection and correction (such as CRC). Encapsulation allows each
layer to perform its function without worrying about the details of the
other layers.

Decapsulation is the reverse process of encapsulation, which involves

removing headers and trailers from data at each layer of the OSI model as
it travels up from the physical layer to the application layer. Each layer
reads and processes the information in the header and trailer, then passes
the data to the next higher layer. Decapsulation allows each layer to
retrieve the original data sent by the source application.

Q9. What is the difference between an IP address and a MAC

address?

The basic difference between an IP address and a MAC address is:

Factors IP Address MAC Add

Full Form Internet Protocol Address Media Acc

Number of Bytes 4 bytes for IPv4, 16 bytes for IPv6 6 bytes

IPv4: 192.168.1.1
Format 00-B0-D0-
IPv6: fe80::c504:e3c2:c49d:543b%5

Protocol used for

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) Address R
retrieval

Internet Service Provider (ISP) or network Network In

Provider
administrator manufactu

Operates
Operation Operates on the network layer of the OSI model
OSI model

Q10. What is a port number?

A port number is a logical address assigned to each application or process

that uses a network or the Internet to communicate. It uniquely identifies
a network-based application on a computer. Each application or program
is allocated a 16-bit integer port number. This number can be assigned
automatically by the operating system, manually by the user, or set as a
default for some popular applications.
Below are some examples of the protocols along with the port number.

Port
Protocols
Number

20, 21 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

22 Secure Shell (SSH)

23 Telnet Protocol

25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

53 Domain Name System (DNS)

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

67, 68
(DHCP)

80 HyperText Transfer Protocol

110 Post Office Protocol (POP3)

137 NetBIOS Name Service

143 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP4)

443 Secure HTTP (HTTPS)

Advanced OSI Questions and Answers:

Q11. What is port forwarding, and why do network administrators

use it?

Port forwarding, also known as port mapping, is a technique used in

networking to allow external devices to communicate with devices on a
local network. It works by forwarding incoming traffic from a specific port
on a router to a particular port on a device within the local network. This
enables devices within the local network to be accessible from outside the
network.

Network Administrators use it for many purposes. Some of these are:

  Remote access: Suppose you’re at the office and want to connect
to your home computer. By port forwarding SSH (port 22) in your
router to your computer’s IP address, anyone trying to SSH to your
public IP address will be forwarded to your home computer.
 Hosting services: If you want to host a website or run a Minecraft
server on your computer, port forwarding HTTP (port 80) or HTTPS
(port 443) allows others on the internet to access these services
hosted on your machine.

Q12. How does a router function at the Network layer?

A router functions at the Network layer of the OSI model. Its primary role
is to manage traffic between different networks by forwarding data
packets to their intended IP addresses. Apart from this, routers allow
multiple devices to use the same Internet connection. Some of the
functions of the router are:

 Routing: A router determines the best path for data transmission

from the source to its destination. It doesn’t just transmit packets; it
selects the optimal route.
 Logical Address Assignment: The network layer assigns logical
addresses (such as IP addresses) to devices sending or receiving
data packets. These addresses uniquely identify devices within a
network. Logical addressing ensures data integrity by confirming
that packets are sent by authorized senders and received by the
intended recipients.
 Host-to-Host Delivery (Forwarding): This process involves
transmitting or forwarding data packets via routers along the
determined path.

Q13. What is Unicasting, Multicasting, and Broadcasting in a

network?

Unicast – Unicast is a communication method where a message is sent

from one sender to one receiver. It’s essentially a one-to-one
transmission.

For example, if a device with IP address ‘10.1.2.0’ wants to send data

packets to a device with IP address ‘20.12.4.2’ in another network, unicast
comes into play.
Broadcast – Broadcasting involves transmitting data from one or more
senders to all receivers within the same network or across other networks.

It’s useful for network management packets such as ARP (Address

Resolution Protocol) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol), where all
devices must receive the data.

Multicast – Multicast involves transmitting data from a single source host

to a specific group of hosts interested in receiving that data. It lies
between unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all) methods. You can
also find the differences between Broadcast and Multicast.

Q14. What is “segmentation” in the context of the Transport

layer?

Segmentation in the context of the Transport layer refers to the process of

dividing a data packet into smaller units for transmission over a network.
This happens at layer four of the OSI model, which is the transport layer.

When data arrives at the transport layer from the upper layers, it is
divided into segments. These segments are smaller units that allow
efficient network transmission. Each segment contains a sequence
number, enabling the transport layer to reassemble the message at its
destination correctly. If any packets are lost during transmission, this
process identifies and replaces them.

Q15. How can you use the ping command for troubleshooting?

When you “ping” something on a network, you send an internet packet

(specifically, an ICMP echo request) to a destination computer or network
device. The target device responds by sending a packet back to you. Most
commonly, we want to know how long the reply takes, expressed in
milliseconds (lower numbers are better).

Now, how to use the ping?

On Windows:

1. Open the Start Menu, search for “Command Prompt,” and select it.
2. Type ‘ping’ followed by either:
o The IP address of the device (e.g., ‘ping 8.8.8.8’).
o The URL of a site (e.g., ‘ping google.com’).
3. Ping will send four packets of data.
 4. If any packets show “request timed out,” your computer didn’t
receive a reply from the target.

Q16. What is the difference between flow control and error

control?

The basic difference between the flow control and error control is:

Factors Flow Control Error Control

Ensures proper transmission of data from

Purpose Delivers error-free and relia
sender to receiver

Approach Feedback-based Flow Control Rate-based Detecting errors: Parity che

es Flow Control Code (CRC), and checksum

Prevents overrunning of receiver buffers

Impact Detects and corrects errors
and data loss

sliding window protocol, stop-and-wait Stop & Wait ARQ – Sliding W

Impact
protocol Selected Repeat ARQ)

Q17. What is the role of the firewall in the OSI model’s context?

In the context of the OSI model, a firewall plays a crucial role in securing
computer networks. Let’s understand the functions of firewalls and how
they operate within the layers of the OSI model.

 Network Layer (Layer 3)

Firewalls primarily work as static packet filtering at the network layer.

These firewalls are responsible for examining individual data packets
which are based on the packet’s source and destination address.

 Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Apart from the functioning of firewalls at the network layer, it also

functions at the transport layer. At this layer, firewalls inspect TCP and
UDP traffic.

 Application Layer (Layer 7)

Most of the firewall functions at the lower layers of the OSI model. There
are some advanced ones that can understand the application layer. At this
layer, they usually deal with specific applications as well as protocols.
Q18. What is CRC and at which layer does CRC work?

CRC stands for Cyclic Redundancy Check, an error-detecting code

commonly used in digital networks and storage devices to detect
accidental changes to digital data.

CRCs are good at detecting common errors that are mainly caused by
noise in transmission channels. The check value generated by CRCs has a
fixed length and is occasionally used as a hash function.

CRC operates at the Data link layer of the OSI model.

Q19. What is the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex?

The difference between the two i.e., half-duplex and full duplex is:

Factors Half-duplex Full-duplex

Data Flow Two-directional, but one at a time Two-directional and sim

Utilizes one channel for data Uses two channels due

Channel Usage
transmission sending and receiving

Provides less performance than full-

Performance Offers better performan
duplex mode

Bandwidth Less utilization of bandwidth during

Doubles bandwidth util
Utilization transmission

Communication Saves bandwidth by alternating Utilizes the entire capa

channel between both sides on a single channel for simultaneous bidire

Q20. Which layer provides the logical addressing that routers will
use for path determination?

The network layer provides the logical addressing in the form of IP

addresses. The routers use this for path determination. This layer is
mainly responsible for routing data packets from the source to the
destination based on these logical addresses. With the use of IP addresses
and routing, routers can determine the best path to transmit the data.
Extra Questions on OSI Model with answers-

Q1- What does the acronym OSI stand for ?

Ans- Open System Interconnection. The OSI reference model is used as a
guide for teaching and understanding the way networks operate.

Q2- What are the layers of the OSI model?

Ans- Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, DataLink,
Physical. An easy way to remember the order of the layers is: A-ll P-
eople S-eem T-o N-eed D-ata P-rocessing .
Q3- At which layer of the OSI model is a path decision made
based upon an IP address ?
Ans- Network. At the network layer, data is transported in the form of a
packet.

Q4- Which of the following takes place at the presentation layer ?

Ans- Encryption. The presentation layer encrypts data to be sent across
the network, and decrypts it so that it can be accessed by the application
layer on the receiving end.
Q5- Which is NOT a function of the Application layer ?
Ans- Windowing. Quality of Service and user authentication are also
handled by the application layer.

Q6- Which layer of the OSI model contains the LLC sublayer and
the MAC sublayer ?
Ans- Data Link Layer. The LLC and MAC sublayers allow for different layer
2 protocols to be used, such as Ethernet, Token Ring and FDDI.
Q7- How can data be transported in different layers ?
Ans- Data is transported in bits at the Physical layer . A bit is simply a
binary digit. Either a 0 or a 1 . Data is transported in segments at the Data
Link layer . At the data link layer, user data is encapsulated in a frame.

Q8- What is the function of Network Layer ?

Ans- The network layer establishes the route between the sender and
receiver across switching points, which are typically routers. The most
ubiquitous example of this layer is the IP protocol in TCP/IP. IPX, SNA and
AppleTalk are other examples of routable protocols, which means that
they include a network address and a station address in their addressing
system. This layer is also the switching function of the dial-up telephone
system. If all stations are contained within a single network segment, then
the routing capability in this layer is not required.

Q9- The link for a switch connection is isolated from other data
traffic except for what type of messages?
Ans- Following are the types of messages-
i. Multicast Messages – Message are sent to a specific group of hosts on
the network.
ii. Broadcast Messages – Message is sent to all devices connected to the
LAN.

Q10- Why are the layers of the OSI model important to the
network administrator?
Ans- The Layers of OSI Model are important for the network administrator
in the following manner-
i. To troubleshoot network problems by verifying functionality of each
layer.
ii. In many cases it requires the network administrator to isolate at what
layer the network problem occurs.