UNIT-II

MACHINES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

MACHINES:
Introduction:
The machine which generates electrical energy is called Generator. It uses
mechanical energy as an input and converts electrical energy and the medium
of conversion is through “Electro Magnetic Induction”.

Similarly, an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy is called Motor.

If mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy in the form of DC the

machine is called DC Generator. If electrical energy in the form of DC is
converted into mechanical energy that machine is called D.C Motor.

CONSTRUCTION AND PARTS OF DC GENERATOR/DC MOTOR:

 A practical DC generator consists of the following essential parts:
1. Eye bolt.
2. yoke
3. Pole core and pole shoes
4. Field coils or pole coils
5. Armature core
6. Armature winding or armature conductors.
7. Commutator
8. Interpoles
9. Brushes and brush holder
10. Bearings
11. Shaft and pulley
12. Cooling fan
13. End cover
14. Terminal box
15. Ventilating ducts
16. Base plate.

PARTS OF DC GENERATOR/DC MOTOR AND ITS MATERIALS

S.NO Name of the part Material used Function

Eye bolt Cast iron Lifting the machine from
1. one place another

Yoke Cast iron or cast steel Provides protection of the

2. machine

Pole core pole Silicon steel thin Produces magnetic flux

3. shoe laminations of spread out uniform flux on
0.25mm to 1mm. conductors
 Field coils or pole Enamel coated copper To magnetise the main
4. coils pole

Armature core Silicon steel Houses the conductors to

5. laminations of 0.3mm produce dynamically
to 0.5mm induced emf

Armature winding Copper Emf induced in it

6.

Commutator Hard drawn copper Converts alternating

7. current into
direct current

Inter poles Siliconsteel Reduce cross magnetizing

8. laminations effect

Brushes Carbon or copper or Collects current from

9. graphite commutator segments

Bearings Alloy of steel as high Reduce friction between

10. carbon steel rotating and stationary
parts at the machine

Shaft Mild steel Bears the whole machine

11.
 Cooling fan Cast iron or thick mild Provides cooling protects
12. steel

End cover or side Cast iron or cast steel Protects the machine from
13. cover external effects

Terminal box Cast iron All terminals are brought

14. at to this place

Ventilating ducts Cast iron For cooling

15.

Base plate Cast iron or cast steel Support the machine to

16. have the facility of
foundation

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF D.C GENERATOR:

A D.C Generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical

energy. The energy conversion is based on the principle of dynamically induced
emf.
The D.C Machine works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction.
“Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux lines causes a dynamically induced emf
is produced in that conductor”. This induced emf causes a current to flow, if the
conductor circuit is closed.
The essential requirements for a D.C. machine are:
a) Conductor
b) Magnetic flux
c) Relative motion between conductor and the magnetic field.
FLEMING'S RIGHT HAND RULE:
The rule is mainly used to find the Direction of induced emf in a conductor placed
in a magnetic field.
Statement: Stretch the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand so as
to mutually perpendicular to each other. “If the fore finger indicates the direction of
magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor then
automatically the middle finger indicates the direction of the induced emf in a
conductor.”

WORKING OF DC GENERATOR:

1) A DC generator is machine which converts mechanical energy into unidirectional

electrical energy. The conversion process is based on the dynamically induced EMF.
2) The basic requirements are:
a) Conductor
b) Flux
c) Motion of a conductor in magnetic flux.
3) For small machines permanent magnets are employed for production of flux. For
larger capacity machine a part of the generated current is utilized for the production
of flux (For that a coil is required).
4) To have a uniform distribution of flux over the conductor a pole made of
magnetic material is required. The pole and the coil are attached to the frame called
Yoke.
5) The armature containing conductors is mounted on the shaft.
6) The shaft of the DC generator is rotated by means of a prime mover.
7) Since the conductors are fixed on the periphery of the armature core and moves
through the flux an EMF is induced in the conductor according to Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction.
8) The current is collected through the commutator (converts alternating e.m.f. into
dc) and the brush conveys to the external circuit
Applications:

1.Lighting and Power supply purposes,

2.For charging the batteries
3. Arc lighting, series incandescent lighting
4.Emergency power supply
5. arc welding

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DC MOTOR:

D.C. Motor is a rotating machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The construction of DC motor is similar to DC generator

Working Principle of DC motor:

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

This rule is mainly used to find the direction of force on the conductor placed in a
magnetic field.

Statement: Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand so as to
mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger indicates the Direction of the
magnetic field, Middle finger (second finger) indicates the Direction of current, then
automatically Thumb indicates the Direction of the motion (force) of the conductor.
WORKING OF DC MOTOR:

1) The DC motor works on the principle that, when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a mechanical force tending it to move
from position of higher flux linkages to the position of lower flux linkages and the
direction of force is obtained by Fleming’s left hand rule.
2) The magnetic field is set up by the field winding.
3) When the supply is given to the armature conductors, the current will flow
through conductors, then the armature will experience a mechanical force and starts
to rotate.
4) Current direction of the conductors under North Pole is assumed to be downwards
and of conductors under South Pole assumed to be Upwards.

5) The direction of force on each conductor is obtained from Flemings Left Hand
rule.
6) The forces on all conductors collectively produce a driving torque which makes
the armature rotating.

Applications:

1. Electric locomotives 9.Elevators and Conveyors

2. Trolley cars 10. Rolling mills
3. Canes and Hoists 11. Crushers
4. Conveyors
5.Lathes and Printing Presses
6. Centrifugal pumps
7. Blowers and fans
8. Machine Tools
Transformer: Transformer is a static device which transfers electric power form
one alternating circuit to another alternating circuit without change in frequency.

CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER:
A transformer consists of three major parts namely
1.primary winding
2.secondary winding
3.magnetic core.
The primary winding is one connected input the supply and secondary winding is
one connected load/output. The magnetic core is used to confine the magnetic flux to
a definite path

 The core of the transformer is made up of high grade silicon steel which has
high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
 The core is laminated to minimize the eddy current loss.
 primary winding & secondary winding are made up copper material

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER:

Transformer Definition: Transformer is a static device which transfers electric

power form one alternating circuit to another alternating circuit without change in
frequency.
The operation of the transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction and mutual induction between two coils (windings) which are linked by a
common magnetic flux.
It mainly consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in Fig.
Working of Transformer:

When the primary winding is energized with AC source supply, a magnetic flux is
established in the primary winding. This flux is linked with both primary and
secondary windings because the core provides a low reluctance path for the
magnetic flux. Hence, most of the flux produced by the primary winding links with
the secondary winding.
According to the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, this flux linkage
with both primary and secondary windings induces EMFs in them. This EMF
induced in each winding is proportional to the number of turns in it.
The coil connected to the supply mains, is called primary winding and the coil
connected to the load circuit is called secondary winding.
When the transformer raises the voltage i. e., when the output voltage of a
transformer is higher than its input voltage, it is called the step-up transformer and
when it lowers the voltage i. e., when its output voltage is less than input voltage, it
is called step-down transformer.

Applications:

o It is used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power

applications.
o The transformer used in voltmeter, ammeters, protective relay etc.
o The transformer used for step up low voltage in case of measurement.
o The transformer used for step down high voltage for safety.
o The transformer used in rectifier.
o It is used in voltage regulators, voltage stabilizers, power supplies etc.
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

MOVING COIL (MC) INSTRUMENTS:

In this type of instruments (ammeters and voltmeters) the iron core the current
carrying coil rotates, hence the name moving coil instruments.
There are two types of such instruments, they are:
(i) Permanent Magnet type, which is used for D.C work only.
(ii) Dynamometer type, which can be used for both A.C and D.C

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT (PMMC):

The operation of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument is based on
the principle that, “whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field mechanical force acts on the conductor”.
Construction:
1. It mainly consists of a permanent magnet and a rectangular moving coil.
2. The permanent magnet has 'U-shaped' soft iron poles (marked N and S) between
which a cylindrical iron core is mounted.
3. A light rectangular coil of many turns of fine wire is wound on an aluminium
former inside which is an iron core as shown in Fig.
4. The function of iron core is to make the field uniform.
5. The coil is fixed on a spindle which is pivoted upon jeweled bearings in such a
way
6. Two hair spiral springs of phosphor bronze are mounted one above and the other
below the coil.
7. The springs serves two purposes, it leads the current into and out of the coil and
also provides the controlling torque.
8. A light pointer is attached to the spindle, which moves over a calibrated scale.
9. The damping torque is provided by eddy currents induced in the aluminium
former.

Working:
1. When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the
operating current flows through the coil,
2. When the current is passes through the coil, a deflecting torque is produced due to
the reaction between permanent magnet field and the magnetic field of the coil.
3. This deflecting torque is proportional to the value of current in the coil i.e.
Td α I.
4. Due to this torque the coil moves and the pointer deflects over the calibrated
scale.
5. When the coil moves, the springs are twisted or rewound, thus the spring offer a
controlling torque to the moving system.
6. The controlling torque due to spring is directly proportional to the deflecting of
the moving part i.e. Tc α θ.
7. When the deflecting and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer comes
to rest at its final position, hence θ α I.
8. Since the deflection (θ) is directly proportional to the current (I), these instruments
have uniform scale.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PERMANENT MAGNET

MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS
The Moving Coil (M.C) instruments have the following advantages and
disadvantages.
Advantages:
1. Uniform scale.
2. The power consumption is very low, hence the efficiency is high.
3. High torque/weight ratio.
4. No hysteresis loss.
5. They have very effective and efficient eddy current damping.
6. Very accurate and reliable.
7. It can be used for wide range of current and voltage by using shunt and multiplier.
8. High sensitivity.
9. These instruments can be used vertically on horizontally because of spring
control.

Disadvantages:
1. They cannot be used for A.C measurements (used only for D.C measurements)
2. These are more costlier than Moving Iron (M.I) instruments.
3. The ageing of permanent magnet and control spring may affect the reading.
4. Develops also errors due to friction, mechanical unbalance and temperature
coefficient etc.

APPLICATIONS OF MOVING COIL M.C INSTRUMENTS:

1. In the measurement of direct currents and voltages.
2. In D.C galvanometers to detect small currents.
3. In ballastic galvanometers used mainly for measuring changes of magnetic
linkages.
4. In conjunction with rectifiers or thermo-junctions for A.C measurements over
wide range of frequencies.
5. Due to self-shielding magnets mechanism these are particularly used in aircraft
and aerospace applications.
 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS:
In this type of instruments (ammeters and voltmeters), the current carrying coil
is stationary, but the iron core rotates, hence it is called as Moving Iron (M.I)
instruments.
These instruments are mostly used to measure the current and voltage in an
alternating and direct current circuits.
There are two types of Moving Iron instruments.
(i) Attractive Type: These operate on the principle of attraction of a single piece of
soft iron into a magnetic field.
(ii) Repulsion Type: These operate on the principle of repulsion of two adjacent
iron pieces magnetized by the same magnetic field.

Attractive Type Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments:

It works on the principle of attraction of a single piece of soft iron into a
magnetic field.
Construction:
1. It consists of a fixed coil or solenoid through which the current is passed.
2. An oval-shaped soft iron is attached to the spindle in such a way that it can move
in and out of the coil.
3. A pointer is attached to the spindle, so that it may deflect along with the moving
iron over a calibrated scale.
4. The spindle is pivoted in jeweled bearings at both the ends.
5. A spiral spring is attached to the spindle to provide controlling torque.
6. An aluminium vane is attached to the spindle which moves in a closed air-
chamber to provide damping torque.
Working:
1. When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or the
operating current flows through the coil.
2. Whenever current flows through the electromagnetic field is set up along its axis.
3. In other words, the coil behaves like a magnet and therefore it attracts the soft iron
piece towards it, thus providing the deflecting torque (Td).
4. The deflecting torque causes the pointer attached to the moving system moves
from zero position over a calibrated scale.
5. The deflecting torque depends upon the value of magnetic flux or in other words
the current flowing through the coil.
6. The spiral spring offers the controlling torque (Tc) which depends upon the angle
of twist.
7. When the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque (Td = Tc), the
pointer will come to rest at a position.
8. The deflecting torque 'Td' is proportional to square of the current 'I2' and
controlling torque 'Tc' is proportional to angle of twist ' θ '.
9. At a steady position of deflection Td = Tc, hence θ α I2.
10. In case of A.C measurement θ α 𝐼2 .
11. Hence, the scale is not uniform, being crowded at the beginning and spread out
near the finishing end of the scale.

Repulsion type Moving Iron (M.I.) Instrument:

It works on the principle of magnetic repulsion.
When two adjacent iron pieces are magnetized by the same magnetic field, these
will be magnetised with similar polarities and pole strength.
Hence, because of same polarity, these will experience a force of repulsion.
Construction:
1. It consists of a fixed cylindrical hollow coil inside which there are two soft iron
pieces A and B.
2. The iron A is fixed and iron B is movable which carries a pointer that moves over
a calibrated scale.
3. The controlling torque is provided by one spiral spring at the top of the
instrument.
4. The damping is provided by air friction due motion of the piston in an air-
chamber.
Working:
1. When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or Voltage, the
operating current flows through the coil.
2. When the current is passed through the coil of the instrument, the magnetic field
is produced.
3. As the both soft-iron pieces are in the same magnetic field, this magnetic field
magnetizes the two iron pieces in the same directions i.e., similar polarities are
developed on the both iron pieces.
4. Because of same polarity, the two iron pieces repel each other.
5. Hence, the movable iron moves which cause the pointer to move from its zero
position over a calibrated scale, thus providing the deflecting torque (Td).
6. The pointer will come to rest at a position when deflecting torque is equal to the
controlling torque i.e., (Td=Tc).
7. The deflecting torque is proportional to the force of repulsion.
8. The force of repulsion is directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths.
9. If the two iron pieces having the same pole strengths of m1 and m2 respectively,
then

Deflecting torque α m1m2 α H2 (Since pole strength 'm' α field strength 'H')
α I2 (Since H α 𝑁𝐼𝐿 or H α I)
Since the instrument is spring controlled, controlling torque, Tc α θ
At steady position of deflection, Tc = Td
θ α I ------ for DC
θ α 𝐼2𝑟𝑚𝑠 ---- For AC
Since, the deflection is proportional to the square of the current through the coil; the
scale of such instruments is not uniform. The scale is crowded in the beginning and
spread out neat the finishing end.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MOVING IRON

INSTRUMENTS:
Advantages:
1. These instruments can be used for both A.C and D.C measurements.
2. These are cheap, robust and simple in construction.
3. These instruments have high operating torque.
4. These are reasonably accurate.
5. Can be used in any position.
6. The coil is fixed, hence there is less possibility of faults.
7. They give reliable service.
8. They can withstand overload momentarily.

Disadvantages:
1. The scale is not uniform.
2. Power consumption is higher for low voltage range.
3. The stiffness of the spring decreases with the increase in temperature.
4. Errors are developed due to change in frequency in case of A.C measurements.
5. Errors are introduced due to hysteresis and stray magnetic field.
COMPARISION BETWEEN MC AND MI INSTRUMENTS:

S.
no M.C Instruments M.I. Instruments
.
Iron core is stationary but the current
Current carrying coil is stationary
1.
carrying coil rotates but the iron core rotates
2. Complex and delicate in construction Simple and robust in construction
3. Expensive in cost Cheaper in cost
4. Eddy current damping is provided Air — friction damping is provided
5. Consumes less power Consumes more power
6. Have uniform scale (θαI) Have non uniform scale ( θ α I2 )
7. More sensitive Less sensitive
8. More accurate and reliable Less accurate and not reliable
Used for both D.C and A.C
9. Used for A.C measurements only
measurements
10 Moving system is not effected by Moving system may be effected by
. hysteresis and stray magnetic field hysteresis and stray magnetic fields

Wheatstone Bridge

Definition: The device uses for the measurement of unknown resistance with the
help of comparison method is known Resistance as the Wheatstone bridge.

The value of unknown resistance is determined by comparing it with the known

resistance. The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the
ratio of their resistances are equal, and no current flows through the galvanometer.
The bridge is very reliable and gives an accurate result.

In normal condition, the bridge remains in the unbalanced condition, i.e. the current
flow through the galvanometer. When zero current passes through the galvanometer,
then the bridge is said to be in balanced condition. This can be done by adjusting the
known resistance P, Q and the variable resistance S.

The working of the bridge is similar to the potentiometer. The Wheatstone bridge is
only used for determining the medium resistance. For measuring the high resistance,
the sensitive ammeter is used in the circuit.
Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

The basic circuit of the Wheatstone bridge is shown in the figure below. The bridge
has four arms which consist two known resistance, one variable resistance and the one
unknown resistance along with the emf source and galvanometer.

The emf supply is attached between point a and c, and the galvanometer is connected
between point b and d. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential
difference across it.

Working of Galvanometer

The bridge is in balance condition when no current flows through the coil or the
potential difference across the galvanometer is zero. This condition occurs when the
potential difference across the a to b and a to d are equal, and the potential differences
across the b to c and c to d remain same.

The current enters into the galvanometer divides into I1 and I2, and their magnitude
remains same. The following condition exists when the current through the
galvanometer is zero.

I1P = I2R

In balanced condition, the terms and quantities in the balanced conditions are
represented as,

I1 = I3= E / P+Q

I2 = I4 = E / R+S
Where, E = emf of the battery, and

PE / P+Q = RE / R+S

P / P+Q = R / R+S

P(R+S) = R(P+Q)

PR+PS = PR+QR

PS = RQ

R = PS / Q

And in this equation,

R = Unknown Resistance
S = Standard Arm of the Bridge
P/Q = Ratio Arm of Bridge

Applications of Wheatstone Bridge

 In order to measure the UNKNOWN resistance in a circuit.

 Other important quantities such as Capacitance, Impedance, and Inductance, can
also be calculated using Wheatstone Bridge.
 By using an optional amplifier, in the Wheatstone bridge, we will be able to
measure physical parameters like Strain, Light, and Temperature.
Three Phase Induction Motor

The three phase induction motor is one of the A.C. motors, which is widely used for
various purposes in industry. These motors never run at a Synchronous speed but a
little less than the synchronous speed. The speed of these motors depends upon the
supply frequency.

Therefore, these motors are not generally used for speed control. However, we prefer
D.C. motors where large variations of speed are required. These motors are preferred
in industry because they have low price, simple & rugged construction, can be
manufactured with characteristics to suit the industrial requirement.

Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor:

It can be better understood if we see the construction of three phase induction motor
which has two major parts :

1. Stationary part, known as Stator

2. Rotating part, known as Rotor

Stator sectional view

1. Stator

It is the stationary part of the motor. It has three main parts :

2.Frame or Yoke

It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function of the frame is
to support the stator core & stator winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides
protection & mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the three phase induction
motor.

3.Stator core

The main function of stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the
eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated. The core is made up of thin silicon steel
laminations. These are insulated from each other by varnish, the slots are cut on inner
periphery of core stampings. The stator windings are placed in these slots.

4.Stator windings

Stator winding is made up of super enamelled copper wire. Three phase windings are
placed in the stator core slots & six terminals are brought out. They may be star
connected or may be delta connected. The windings are connected in star at starting.

2. Rotor

It is a rotating part of the motor. It is mounted on the shaft. It consists of hollow

laminated core having slots on its outer periphery. The windings placed in these slots
(rotor winding) may be one of the following two types :

1. Squirrel cage rotor

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
1. Squirrel cage rotor:

The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the
rotor conductors. The squirrel cage rotor consists of a aluminium, brass or copper
bars. These aluminium, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors & are placed
in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted
by the copper, or aluminum rings called the end rings. To provide mechanical
strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring & hence form a complete
closed circuit resembling like a cage & hence got its name as squirrel cage induction
motor.

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor:

The wound rotor consists a slotted armature. Insulated conductors are put in the slots &
connected to form a three phase double layer distributed winding similar to the stator
winding. The rotor windings are connected in star.
 The open end of the start circuit are brought outside the rotor and connected to
the insulated slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes testing on
them. The brushes are connected to three phase variable resistors connected in star.
The purpose of slip rings & brushes is to provide a means for connecting external
resistors in the circuit.
Principle of Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motor:

The three phase induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When a three-phase supply is given to three-phase winding of the motor, a magnetic
field is produced which rotates at synchronous speed. The rotating flux passes through
the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors which are at rest. The rotor winding is short
circuited, therefore, the current will flow in the rotor winding due to induced emf & a
magnetic field is setup.

Now these two magnetic field interact, a torque is produced. According to Lenz’s
law under the influence of this torque, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as
the rotating magnetic field.

The speed of the rotor will be always less than the speed of the field. The emf in the
rotor is induced by the law of electromagnetic induction, therefore, this motor is
called induction motor.

Three Phase Induction Motor Advantages:

(i) It has simple and rugged construction.
(ii) It is relatively cheap.
(iii) It requires little maintenance.
(iv) It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.
(v) It has self starting torque.
Three Phase Induction Motor Disadvantages:
(i) It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be changed easily.
(ii) Its starting torque is inferior to dc shunt motor.

Applications of three-phase induction motors

Three-phase induction motors are used for commercial and industrial purposes, ideal
for higher-power applications.

 Lifts
 Cranes
 Hoists
 Large exhaust fans
 Lathe machines
 Crushers
 Oil extracting mills
 Textiles
Alternator (or) Synchronous Generator:

A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine which converts mechanical

power into AC electric power through the process of electromagnetic induction.

Synchronous generators are also referred to as alternators or AC generators. The

term "alternator" is used since it produces AC power. It is called synchronous
generator because it must be driven at synchronous speed to produce AC power of the
desired frequency.

Construction of Synchronous Generator or Alternator

As alternator consists of two main parts viz.

 Stator – The stator is the stationary part of the alternator. It carries the armature
winding in which the voltage is generated. The output of the alternator is taken
form the stator.
 Rotor – The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. The rotor produces the
main field flux.
Stator Construction of Alternator

The stator of the alternator includes several parts, viz. the frame, stator core, stator or
armature windings, and cooling arrangement.

 The stator frame may be made up of cast iron for small-size machines and of
welded steel for large-size machines.
 The stator core is assembled with high-grade silicon content steel laminations.
These silicon steel laminations reduce the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in
the stator core.
 The slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core. A 3-phase armature
winding is put in these slots.
 The armature winding of the alternator is star connected. The winding of each
phase is distributed over several slots. When current flows through the
distributed armature winding, it produces an essential sinusoidal space
distribution of EMF.

Rotor Construction of Alternator

The rotor of the alternator carries the field winding which is supplied with direct
current through two slip rings by a separate DC source (also called exciter). The
exciter is generally a small DC shunt generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.

For the alternator, there are two types of rotor constructions are used viz. the salient-
pole type and the cylindrical rotor type.
Working Principle and Operation of Alternator

An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of electromagnetic

induction, i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the
conductor. When the armature winding of alternator subjected to the rotating magnetic
field, the voltage will be generated in the armature winding.

When the rotor field winding of the alternator is energised from the DC exciter, the
alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in the
anticlockwise direction by a prime mover, the armature conductors placed on the stator
are cut by the magnetic field of the rotor poles. As a result, the EMF is induced in the
armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction. This induced EMF is
alternating one because the N and S poles of the rotor pass the armature conductors
alternatively.
The direction of the generated EMF can be determined by the Fleming’s right rule and
the frequency of it is given by,

Ns = 120f / P

f=Ns P / 120

Where,

 Ns is the synchronous speed in RP

 P is the number of rotor poles.

The magnitude of the generated voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor
and the DC field excitation current. For the balanced condition, the generated voltage
in each phase of the winding is the same but differ in phase by 120° electrical.

Applications of Alternator
An alternator is mainly used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy in
various applications such as:
 In automobiles
 In locomotives
 Power generation plants
 In Marine and navy boats
 Radiofrequency transmission