DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION

PROFESSIONAL STUDIES
SYLLABUS “A”

WRITERS

Magwanyangwanya S. Murwira T.
Chiwere E. Taruvinga V.
Chinakidzwa A. Chidhuri L.
Chasara E. Chamboko L.
OVERVIEW

The Professional Studies Module is important for pre-service teachers for them to
become life-long competent professional teachers of primary school pupils. It focuses on
preparation, development and sustenance of skills of actual teaching, enabling them to
link theory with practice. It also aims at developing a competent professional teacher who
is reflective, innovative and effective in the teaching-learning situations.

The module is made up of nine units. Unit one is on Professionalism and

professionalization of teaching revealing to you the nature and purpose of’ Professional
Studies, the concept of teaching as a profession, professional ethics and other aspects.

Unit two focuses on curriculum and innovation beginning with curriculum formulation
up to curriculum implementation up to syllabus interpretation. Scheming, lesson planning
and lesson delivery techniques are also suggested.

Chapter 3 looks at the qualities and processes of effective or reflective teaching in the
primary school.

Unit four is on class and classroom management and innovation. It looks at individual
differences, managing the child, children’s learning difficulties teacher intervention,
principles of grouping and organisation for learning, record keeping and others. We need
to acquire knowledge and skills on how to organise physical and social environments as
well as control pupil’s behaviour for effective learning.

General teaching methods and approaches are explained in Unit five. Emphasis is on
child - centred methods of teaching and learning. The effectiveness of the method and
approaches is discussed.

Unit Six looks at the nature and purpose of assessment and evaluation, assessment
devices, evaluation techniques and types of tests.

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Unit seven discusses on educational media technology and innovation that a teacher can
construct prepare and use during the teaching -learning process in order to promote
effective teaching. Communication models are also discussed. Handwriting skills are also
explained.

Unit eight focuses on educational administration looking at concepts such as school

organisation, structure and functions of member’s education and/ any, planning and
managing professional meetings, managing change and conflict. It also looks at financial
management in primary schools.

Lastly chapter nine looks at effective communication in educational administration. The

module does not exhaust all Professional studies area hence there is need for you to
supplement with some books. It is nonetheless vital in preparing you for both Teaching
Practice and PS examination.

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Contents
OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................... ii
Contents ............................................................................................................................. iv
UNIT 1 ................................................................................................................................ 1
PROFESSIONALISM AND PROFESSIONALISATION OF TEACHING .................... 1
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Unit Objectives ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Definition of Terms.................................................................................................. 2
Professionalism ................................................................................................................... 2
Professional Studies (PS). ................................................................................................... 3
1.3 The Nature and Purpose of Professional Studies ..................................................... 3
Activity 1.1 ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 The Concept of Teaching As A Profession.............................................................. 7
Activity 1.2 ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Teaching As A Profession .......................................................................................... 10
General Characteristics Of A Profession. ......................................................................... 10
Activity 1.3 ....................................................................................................................... 11
Professional Ethics or Code of Conduct for Teaching...................................................... 11
An example of a code of conduct for Teachers ................................................................ 13
To the Profession .............................................................................................................. 13
To the child ....................................................................................................................... 14
To the community ............................................................................................................. 14
To the employer ................................................................................................................ 14
Intoxicating drinks ............................................................................................................ 15
Department ........................................................................................................................ 15
Relationship with students ................................................................................................ 15
Relationship between teachers and colleagues ................................................................. 15
Activity 1.4 ....................................................................................................................... 16
1.6 Professional Autonomy and Public Accountability .................................................... 16
The concept and aspects of professional autonomy of the teacher ................................... 16

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Activity.1.5 ....................................................................................................................... 17
The Concept And Context Of Public Accountability In Education And ....... Elements Of
School Based Accountability. 17
Activity 1.6 ....................................................................................................................... 19
1.7 Professional Teachers’ Organisations ......................................................................... 19
Activity 1.7 ..................................................................................................................... 21
1.8 General Principles Which Guide Teachers As Professionals ..................................... 21
Activity l.8 ........................................................................................................................ 22
1.9 Summary ................................................................................................................. 22
References ..................................................................................................................... 23
UNIT 2 .......................................................................................................................... 24
CURRICULUM AND INNOVATION ........................................................................ 24
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 24
2.1 Unit Objectives ........................................................................................................ 24
2.2 What is Curriculum? ............................................................................................... 24
2.3 Types of Curricula. .................................................................................................. 25
2.4 Formal Curriculum / Centralised Curriculum ......................................................... 26
2.5 Informal/ Decentralised/Hidden Curriculum .......................................................... 27
2.6 Types of hidden curriculum that a Primary School Teacher Can Experience ........ 27
2.7 Elements of the Curriculum .................................................................................... 28
ACTIVITY 2.1 .............................................................................................................. 28
2.8 The Teacher Education Curriculum ....................................................................... 28
2.9 Quality Assurance for Teacher Development ......................................................... 28
2.10 Formal /Planned Curriculum ................................................................................. 29
2.11 Core-Curriculum ................................................................................................... 29
2.12 Weighting for Section IV Components ................................................................ 29
2.13 Effective Curriculum Implementation .................................................................. 30
2.14 Competency Based Curriculum ............................................................................ 31
What is Ccompetence Based Curriculum...................................................................... 31
The Competence Based Curriculum seeks: ................................................................... 31
2.15 The 6 Main Principles Of Competency-Based Curriculum .................................. 32

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2.16 How is the competency based curriculum organized ............................................ 33
What are the Learning Areas (subjects) for each level. ................................................ 33
Infant school .................................................................................................................. 33
Junior school ................................................................................................................. 33
Justification Of The Competency Based Curriculum ................................................... 34
2.17 Curriculum Implementation .................................................................................. 34
Process of Centralised Curriculum Planning and Implementation ............................... 35
2.18 Curriculum Implementation By The At Teacher At School Level ....................... 36
2.19 The Syllabus .......................................................................................................... 36
Components of the syllabus .......................................................................................... 37
Preamble ........................................................................................................................ 37
2.20 Syllabus Interpretation .......................................................................................... 37
Content Analysis: .......................................................................................................... 38
Activity 2.2 .................................................................................................................... 38
2.21 Schemes of work ................................................................................................... 38
Effective scheming ........................................................................................................ 39
Pupil’s ability age, interests and needs.......................................................................... 39
School calendar ............................................................................................................. 39
Timetable....................................................................................................................... 40
A logical order of topics ................................................................................................ 40
Seasonal changes in the year. ........................................................................................ 40
Activity 2.3 .................................................................................................................... 40
Evaluation of scheme of work ....................................................................................... 41
Activity 2.4 .................................................................................................................... 41
2.22 The Lesson Plan .................................................................................................... 41
Rationale for Lesson Planning ...................................................................................... 42
Considerations when Planning ...................................................................................... 42
Activity 2.5 .................................................................................................................. 42
The Importance of Lesson Planning.............................................................................. 42
The Administration ....................................................................................................... 43

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 The teacher .................................................................................................................... 43
The Pupils...................................................................................................................... 43
Some of Major Components of a Good Lesson Plan. ....................................................... 43
Objectives: ........................................................................................................................ 44
Characteristics of behavioural objectives ......................................................................... 44
Rationale for Specification of Objectives ......................................................................... 45
Lesson Introduction .......................................................................................................... 45
What is introduction.......................................................................................................... 45
Functions of an Introduction ............................................................................................. 46
Activity 2.6 ....................................................................................................................... 46
2.23 Lesson Delivering Techniques .................................................................................. 46
Preparation ........................................................................................................................ 46
Preview Stage: .................................................................................................................. 47
Presentation Stage or Lesson Development ...................................................................... 47
Product - Conclusion: ....................................................................................................... 47
Preview - Set Induction:.................................................................................................... 47
Purpose of the Set Induction or Introduction:................................................................... 47
Ways of Introducing a Lesson .......................................................................................... 48
What to consider when choosing an introduction technique ............................................ 49
Presentation of Lesson Development: .............................................................................. 49
Stimulus variation ............................................................................................................. 50
Some Stimulus Variation Techniques:.............................................................................. 51
The Product Stage of the lesson -Conclusion ................................................................... 52
Some of the ways of concluding a lesson: ........................................................................ 52
2.24 Evaluation of a Lesson Plan...................................................................................... 53
What to evaluate in a Lesson Plan. ................................................................................... 53
Strengths of the Lesson ..................................................................................................... 54
Weaknesses of the Lesson. ............................................................................................... 54
Suggestions for improvement / Remedial Strategies. ....................................................... 54
2.25 Summary ................................................................................................................... 55

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References ......................................................................................................................... 56
UNIT 3 .............................................................................................................................. 58
EFFECTIVE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHING ............................................................ 58
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 58
3.1 Unit Objectives ........................................................................................................... 58
3.2 What is effective teaching? ......................................................................................... 58
Activity 3.1 ....................................................................................................................... 59
3.3 The Effective Teacher. ................................................................................................ 59
Intelligences ...................................................................................................................... 60
Eloquence .......................................................................................................................... 61
Dedication ......................................................................................................................... 62
Magnanimity ..................................................................................................................... 62
Wisdom ............................................................................................................................. 62
Teaching Strategies ........................................................................................................... 63
Lesson Preparation ............................................................................................................ 63
Lesson Presentation .......................................................................................................... 63
Class Records .................................................................................................................... 64
Activity 3.2 ....................................................................................................................... 64
3.4 Didactic Principles for Effective Teaching ................................................................. 64
Defining didactics ............................................................................................................. 64
Motivation ......................................................................................................................... 65
Individualisation ............................................................................................................... 66
Perception ......................................................................................................................... 67
Activity ............................................................................................................................. 67
Control .............................................................................................................................. 68
Planning ............................................................................................................................ 69
Socialisation ...................................................................................................................... 70
Activity 3.3 ....................................................................................................................... 70
3.5 Reflective teaching...................................................................................................... 71
Activity 3.4 ...................................................................................................................... 72

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3.6 Context Process and Product Variables of the Teaching- Learning Process .............. 72
Content Variables.............................................................................................................. 73
Process Variables .............................................................................................................. 73
Product variables ............................................................................................................... 74
Activity 3.5 ....................................................................................................................... 75
3.7 Factors For Effective Teaching ................................................................................... 75
Psychological Principles of Effective Teaching ............................................................... 75
Conclusion .........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Activity ............................................................................................................................. 82
References ......................................................................................................................... 83
UNIT 4 .............................................................................................................................. 84
CLASS AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND INNOVATION ......................... 84
4.0Introduction .................................................................................................................. 84
4.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 84
Activity 4.1 ....................................................................................................................... 84
4.2 Individualised instruction............................................................................................ 85
Basic principles of individualised instruction ................................................................... 85
The rationale for individualised instruction ...................................................................... 86
Procedures on individualised instruction .......................................................................... 86
Advantages of individualised instruction.......................................................................... 87
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................... 87
Activity 4.3 ....................................................................................................................... 88
4.3 Discipline in the Primary School ................................................................................ 88
Justification of discipline .................................................................................................. 88
Principles of discipline ...................................................................................................... 88
Signs of indiscipline in a school ....................................................................................... 89
Causes of misbehaviour .................................................................................................... 90
How good classroom discipline can be promoted ............................................................ 90
4.4 Punishments. ............................................................................................................... 91
Activity 4.4 ....................................................................................................................... 93

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4.5 Principles of grouping and organisation for learning. ................................................ 93
What is grouping? ............................................................................................................. 93
When should we use a group? .......................................................................................... 93
Types of groups................................................................................................................. 94
Seating groups ................................................................................................................... 94
Working groups ................................................................................................................ 94
Collaboration groups ......................................................................................................... 94
Cooperative groups. .......................................................................................................... 95
Way of grouping pupils .................................................................................................... 95
What size should your group be? ...................................................................................... 96
The smaller the group ....................................................................................................... 96
Groups of between two and five are very common .......................................................... 96
Organising for group work................................................................................................ 97
Advantages of group work ................................................................................................ 98
Disadvantages of group work ........................................................................................... 98
Activity 4.5 ....................................................................................................................... 99
4.5 Record keeping ............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Definition of terms ............................................................................................................ 99
Rationale for Record Keeping .......................................................................................... 99
Characteristics of good Records ..................................................................................... 100
Types of records .............................................................................................................. 101
Records keeping skills .................................................................................................... 101
Social records / individual. ............................................................................................. 101
The test record................................................................................................................. 102
The progress record......................................................................................................... 102
Remedial record .............................................................................................................. 102
Reading Record ............................................................................................................... 103
Reading approaches include ........................................................................................... 103
Class Inventory ............................................................................................................... 104
Activity 4.6 ..................................................................................................................... 104

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4.6 Learning Centre ........................................................................................................ 104
What are learning centres? .............................................................................................. 104
What are the instructional value/benefits? ...................................................................... 105
Examples of Centres ....................................................................................................... 105
Literacy centres. .............................................................................................................. 105
Listening and Speaking ................................................................................................... 106
Writing ............................................................................................................................ 106
Research Centres ............................................................................................................. 106
Examples of Research Centres........................................................................................ 106
Grade 6/7 Research Centre ............................................................................................. 106
Exploratory and Interest Centres .................................................................................... 106
Examples of Interest, Exploratory Centres ..................................................................... 107
Subject Area Centres....................................................................................................... 107
How to start a learning centre ......................................................................................... 108
Management strategies of learning Centres .................................................................... 110
Designing activities ......................................................................................................... 110
How do I evaluate and monitor student work? ............................................................... 111
How do students keep track of their work and progress? ............................................... 111
Activity 4.7 ..................................................................................................................... 111
References ....................................................................................................................... 112
UNIT 5 ............................................................................................................................ 113
GENERAL TEACHING METHODS AND APPROACHES ....................................... 113
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 113
5.1Unit Objectives .......................................................................................................... 114
5.2 Definition of a Teaching Method .............................................................................. 114
Activity 5.1 ................................................................................................................... 114
Types of Teaching Methods............................................................................................ 115
Teacher Centred Methods ............................................................................................... 115
Learner — Centred Methods .......................................................................................... 116
Activity 5.2 ..................................................................................................................... 116

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5.3The Inductive And Deductive Learning .................................................................... 117
The inductive approach ................................................................................................... 117
The Deductive Approach ................................................................................................ 118
5.4 The Discussion Method ............................................................................................ 118
Advantages of the discussion method ............................................................................. 119
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 119
5.5 The story telling method ........................................................................................... 119
Advantages of the story telling method .......................................................................... 120
Disadvantages ....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.6 The lecture method ................................................................................................... 120
Advantages of lecture methods ....................................................................................... 122
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 122
5.7 The Demonstration Method ...................................................................................... 122
Advantages of demonstration ......................................................................................... 123
Disadvantages of demonstration ..................................................................................... 123
Activity 5.3 .................................................................................................................... 123
5.7 The Question and Answer Method ........................................................................... 123
Advantages of the questioning method. .......................................................................... 124
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 124
Activity 5.4 ..................................................................................................................... 124
5.8The Discovery Method .............................................................................................. 124
Advantages of the discovery method .............................................................................. 125
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 125
Activity 5.5 ..................................................................................................................... 125
5.9 Role Playing Method ................................................................................................ 125
5.10 The Dramatisation Method ..................................................................................... 126
Advantages of Role Playing and Dramatisation ............................................................. 126
5.11 The Problem Solving Method ................................................................................. 127
The procedure ................................................................................................................. 127
Role of the teacher .......................................................................................................... 127

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Examples of Problem-Solving Activities........................................................................ 127
Advantages of the Problems Solving Method ................................................................ 127
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 128
5.12 The Field Trip Method ............................................................................................ 128
Advantages of the Field Trip Method ............................................................................. 128
Disadvantages It’s not cost effective in terms of time. .................................................. 129
5.13 The Project Method................................................................................................. 129
Advantages of the Project Method. ................................................................................. 130
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 130
Activity 5.6 ..................................................................................................................... 130
5.14 The Thematic approach........................................................................................... 130
Thematic teaching ........................................................................................................... 131
Advantages of the approach ............................................................................................ 132
Pitfalls in Thematic Approach (Teaching) ...................................................................... 132
Conclusion .........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.15 Resource Person ...................................................................................................... 132
Using Resource Persons .................................................................................................. 133
Inviting the resource person ............................................................................................ 133
Clarift the purposes of the visit ....................................................................................... 133
Arrange the follow up ..................................................................................................... 134
5.16 The Multi- Sensory Approach ................................................................................ 135
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 135
What is Multi Sensory Approach? .................................................................................. 135
See it! Hear it! Do it! and Touch it ! Why? .............................................................. 135
Why use multi sensory approach? We remember: ......................................................... 136
Key benefits of the multisensory approach are: .............................................................. 136
Limitations of the multisensory approach....................................................................... 136
Conclusion .........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ....................................................................................................................... 138
UNIT 6 ............................................................................................................................ 139

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ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION .......................................................................... 139
6.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 139
6.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 139
6.2 Definition Of Terms .................................................................................................. 139
ACTIVITY 6.1 ................................................................................................................ 140
6.3 Evaluation ................................................................................................................. 140
ACTIVITY 6.2 .............................................................................................................. 141
6.4 Nature And Purpose Of Assessment ......................................................................... 141
ACTIVITY 6.3 ................................................................................................................ 144
6.5 Philosophy Of Evaluation ......................................................................................... 144
ACTIVITY 6.4 ................................................................................................................ 145
6.6 The Psychology Of Evaluation ................................................................................. 145
ACTIVITY 6.5 ................................................................................................................ 146
6.7 Types Of Evaluation ................................................................................................. 146
Formative Evaluation ...................................................................................................... 146
Summative Evaluation .................................................................................................... 147
Programme Evaluation.................................................................................................... 147
ACTIVITY 6.6 ................................................................................................................ 148
6.8 Evaluation Devices ................................................................................................... 148
6.9 Types of test items .................................................................................................... 148
Oral Tests ........................................................................................................................ 149
Essay Tests ...................................................................................................................... 150
Advantages Of Essay Tests ............................................................................................. 150
Disadvantages Of Essay Tests ........................................................................................ 151
ACTIVITY 6.7 ................................................................................................................ 152
Constructing Essay Test Items ........................................................................................ 152
ACIVITY 6.8 .................................................................................................................. 152
Objective Tests................................................................................................................ 153
Multiple Choice Items..................................................................................................... 153
Advantages Of Multiple Choice Tests ............................................................................ 153

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Disadvantages Of Multiple Choice Test Items ............................................................... 154
Construction Of Multiple Choice Test Items .................................................................. 154
ACTIVITY 6.9 ................................................................................................................ 154
True/False Items.............................................................................................................. 154
ACTIVITY 6.10 .............................................................................................................. 155
Matching Item Tests ....................................................................................................... 156
Advantages Of Matching Items ...................................................................................... 156
ACTIVITY 6.11 .............................................................................................................. 157
Marking Pupils’ Work .................................................................................................... 157
Internal And External Examinations ............................................................................... 157
ACTIVITY 6.12 .............................................................................................................. 158
6.11 Interpreting Examination Results ........................................................................... 158
Criterion - Referenced Interpretation .............................................................................. 158
Norm - Referenced Interpretation ................................................................................... 160
ACTIVITY 6.13 .............................................................................................................. 160
Reporting On Pupil’s Performance ................................................................................. 160
ACTIVITY 6.14 .............................................................................................................. 161
6.12 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 161
References ....................................................................................................................... 162
UNIT 7 ............................................................................................................................ 164
EDUCATIONAL MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION (EMTI) ............... 164
7.0 Unit Objectives ......................................................................................................... 164
7.1 Nature and Purpose of Instructional Media ......................................................... 164
7.2 Types of Media and their Application ...................................................................... 167
7.3 Print Media................................................................................................................ 167
7.4 Still Pictures .............................................................................................................. 168
7.5 Models and Mock-Ups;............................................................................................. 168
7.6 Audio Media: ............................................................................................................ 168
7.7 Overhead Projectors .................................................................................................. 169
7.8 Graphic Materials: .................................................................................................... 169

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7.9 Realia: ....................................................................................................................... 170
7.10 Slide Projectors and Filmstrip Projectors: .............................................................. 170
7.11 Film projector and Video Player/projector: ............................................................ 171
7.12 Multi-Presentation................................................................................................... 171
7.13 Creating instructional Media Using Computer: ...................................................... 172
7.14 Computers in Education:......................................................................................... 172
7.15 Types of Media Production and Basic Characteristics of a layout ......................... 173
7.16 Imitative Media Production. ................................................................................... 174
7.17 Adaptive Media Production .................................................................................... 174
7.18 Creative Media Production ..................................................................................... 174
7.19 General Guidelines for the use of Instructional Media in Teaching. ...................... 175
7.20 Instructional Models ............................................................................................... 177
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 177
Assure Model .................................................................................................................. 177
Gerlach And Ely Model .................................................................................................. 179
Introduction ........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
The Steps Of The Gerlach And Ely Model ..................................................................... 180
Summary ............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.21 Communication Models .......................................................................................... 182
Introduction ........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Definition of communication models ............................................................................. 183
Communication Models .................................................................................................. 185
Linear / Transmission Model of Communication ........................................................... 185
Interactive Model of Communication ............................................................................. 186
Transaction Model of Communication ........................................................................... 187
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 187
Summary ............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.22 E learning ................................................................................................................ 187
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Adopting E-Learning ............................................. 188
7.23 Disadvantages of E-learning ................................................................................... 188

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7.24 Display Boards ........................................................................................................ 189
Use Of Display Boards ................................................................................................... 189
Advantages Of Using Display Boards ............................................................................ 190
Disadvantages ................................................................................................................. 190
Chalkboard work ............................................................................................................. 190
Some general chalkboard writing considerations ........................................................... 191
General use of the chalkboard......................................................................................... 191
Advantages of chalkboards ............................................................................................. 192
Demerits of chalkboards ................................................................................................. 192
White boards ................................................................................................................... 193
7.25 Teaching Handwriting To Primary School Learners .............................................. 194
Conclusion. ........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ....................................................................................................................... 199
UNIT 8 ............................................................................................................................ 202
EDUCATIONAL ADMINATRATION, MANAGEMENTAND INNOVATION ....... 202
8.0. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 202
8.1 Objectives: ................................................................................................................ 202
8.2 School Organisational Structures. ........................................................................ 204
8.3 Functions of the School Organisational Members ............................................... 204
The Teacher .................................................................................................................... 206
The Parents...................................................................................................................... 207
The School Development Association (SPA) ................................................................. 207
Activity 8.1 ................................................................................................................... 207
8.4 Planning and Managing Professional Meetings ................................................... 208
Activity 8.2 ................................................................................................................... 209
8.5 Procurement and allocation of resources .................................................................. 209
Activity 8.3 ................................................................................................................... 211
8.6 Organisational evaluation and improvement ............................................................ 211
8.7 Performance Management ................................................................................... 213
8.7 Purpose of Performance Management ................................................................. 213

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 Activity 8.5 ................................................................................................................... 215
8.8 Education and Law-Public Service Regulations ....................................................... 215
Education Policies and Education Acts .......................................................................... 215
Interpretation of Terms; (S.11 of 2000) .......................................................................... 216
Roles of the Teacher ....................................................................................................... 218
Activity ......................................................................................................................... 219
Public Service Regulations ............................................................................................. 219
Fixed Established: ........................................................................................................... 219
Performance Appraisal (Statutory Instrument 1 of 200; Section 8) ............................... 220
Career Mobility ............................................................................................................... 220
Advancement: - (S.I of 1. of 2000 section 10) ................................................................ 220
Resignation, Termination of Employment and Retirement. ........................................... 221
Resignation (Statutory Instrument I of 2000 Section 15) ............................................... 221
Pensionable age and Retirement: (3.1 in of 2000 Section 17) ........................................ 222
Grading and Salaries: ...................................................................................................... 224
Allowances (Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 section 21 to 29) ...................................... 224
Sick Leave:...................................................................................................................... 225
Manpower Development Leave ...................................................................................... 225
Bonding: - ..........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Maternity Leave: -........................................................................................................... 225
Qualifying period for paid maternity leave. .................................................................... 226
Encashment of accrued vacation leave (section 36 ‘8’).................................................. 226
Misconduct Report .......................................................................................................... 227
Disciplinary Procedure.................................................................................................... 227
Grievance Procedure ....................................................................................................... 228
General (Rules and Regulations) .................................................................................... 228
ACTIVITY ...................................................................................................................... 228
Education Policies and Official Circulars ....................................................................... 229
Who Writes Circulars? .................................................................................................... 230
Activity ......................................................................................................................... 230

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Other Pieces Of Relevant Legislation ............................................................................. 230
Activity ......................................................................................................................... 230
Prevention Of Corruption Act (Chater 9:16) .....................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Activity ........................................................................................................................... 231
Activity ......................................................................................................................... 233
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 233
8.9 Adminstration Of Finance In Schools....................................................................... 234
Budgetary Process ........................................................................................................... 234
Benefits Of The Budgetary Process ................................................................................ 235
Receipting ....................................................................................................................... 235
Separation Of Cash And Direct Deposits Receipts......................................................... 235
Receipt Information ........................................................................................................ 235
Management Of Direct Deposit / Swipe/ Ecocash Payment .......................................... 236
Balancing Of Direct Deposits ......................................................................................... 236
Precautions On Receipting .............................................................................................. 237
End Of Day Procedure .................................................................................................... 237
Banking ........................................................................................................................... 237
Procurement Process ....................................................................................................... 238
Composition Of A Procurement Committee................................................................... 238
1) Government School .................................................................................................... 238
2)Non-Government School ............................................................................................. 238
Duties Of The Procurement Committee ......................................................................... 239
Cashbook Management ................................................................................................... 240
Important Issues To Note In Brief .................................................................................. 241
Challenges In Adminstration Of Finance ....................................................................... 241
Solutions To Financial Administration Challenges ........................................................ 241
References ....................................................................................................................... 241
UNIT 9 ............................................................................................................................ 244
COMMUNICATION IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ............................... 244
9.1Objectives: ................................................................................................................. 244

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9.2 What is Communication ........................................................................................... 245
ACTIVITY ...................................................................................................................... 245
9.3 Communication Process: .......................................................................................... 245
The Communication Process: ......................................................................................... 246
The Functions and Purpose of communication in schools: ............................................ 248
ACTIVITY ...................................................................................................................... 250
Communication in the School ......................................................................................... 250
Tasks for the School Head before Communicating: ....................................................... 251
The Communication Flow in the School ........................................................................ 251
Downward Communication: ........................................................................................... 251
Upward Communication: ................................................................................................ 252
Lateral Communication: ................................................................................................. 253
Types of Communication:............................................................................................... 254
Verbal (Oral) Communication: ....................................................................................... 254
Non- Verbal Communication .......................................................................................... 255
Communication Networks: ............................................................................................. 255
ACTIVITY ...................................................................................................................... 255
The Wheel or Star ........................................................................................................... 256
The Circle: ...................................................................................................................... 256
The Grapevine:................................................................................................................ 256
Barriers to Communication: ............................................................................................ 257
Sender - Related Barriers: ............................................................................................... 257
Lack of communication goals ......................................................................................... 257
Lack of communication skills .......................................................................................... 257
Lack of interpersonal sensitivity ..................................................................................... 257
Lack of frame reference .................................................................................................. 258
Sender Credibility: .......................................................................................................... 258
Receiver - Related Barriers: ........................................................................................... 258
Evaluative Tendency: ...................................................................................................... 258
Preconceived Ideas ......................................................................................................... 259

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Selective Listening .......................................................................................................... 259
Situational Barriers: ....................................................................................................... 259
Semantic Problems.......................................................................................................... 259
Information Overload ..................................................................................................... 260
Communication climate .................................................................................................. 260
Time Pressure ................................................................................................................. 260
Status Differences ........................................................................................................... 260
Facilitating Effective Communication: ........................................................................... 261
Head’s Ways of Communicating: ................................................................................... 262
Staff Notices .................................................................................................................... 262
Staff Meetings.................................................................................................................. 262
Discussions ..................................................................................................................... 263
Staff get-togethers ........................................................................................................... 263
Staff Seminars ................................................................................................................. 263
ACTIVITY ....................................................................................................................... 264
Summary: ........................................................................................................................ 264
References ....................................................................................................................... 266

xxi
xxii
UNIT 1

PROFESSIONALISM AND PROFESSIONALISATION OF TEACHING

1.0 Introduction

Teaching is a noble profession cherished for its respect and dignity. Teachers must be
proud to belong to such a noble profession which enables them to operate as professional
classroom managers. Teaching has guaranteed job security and continuity, in the teaching
service. You will be one of the millions of professionals across the world dedicated to
educating children to the fullest of their abilities. Teaching is a helping profession. As
professionals, teachers have an essential service which they provide to the community
and society at large. Teachers are dedicated to help pupils to learn. Parents and
communities shape characters and behaviours of youths and the government designs,
develops and implements educational and socio-developmental programmes.

In this unit, we attempt to reveal to you, the nature and purpose of Professional Studies,
the concept of teaching as a profession, professional autonomy, public accountability and
the role of professional teachers’ organisations.

1.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit students should be able to;

i) define and qualify profession, professional, professionalism and professional
studies;
ii) analyse the nature and purpose of Professional Studies
iii) outline the development of the concept of teaching,
iv) identify and explain the general characteristics of a profession and show the
extent to which its features apply to teaching and how they help the teacher to be
effective and efficient in the execution of his/her duties;

1
v) clarify and qualify the relationship between the teaching profession and teaching
ethics;
vi) discuss the concept and aspects of professional autonomy and public
accountability;
vii) explain the role of professional teaching organisations.

1.2 Definition of Terms.

Profession.
Farrant (1980:224) defines a profession as: a body that provides a special service
to the community based on the accumulated knowledge, skills and wisdom.
Haydon (1997:155) says. “One mark of a profession is its shared possession of a
body of knowledge and expertise.”
We take the term profession to mean a job that needs special skills and
qualifications to do, especially one with high social status. The teaching
profession means teaching undertaken by trained and skilled people.

Professional.
A professional is someone who has special skills and qualifications or someone
who has acquired special body of knowledge. It also means showing a high level
of skill or training, behaving in a correct way at work and doing your job well.

Atkinson (1999) submits that, teachers are professionals due to their possession of
a systematic body of knowledge which is in three parts namely; knowledge of the
subject(s), knowledge of teaching and knowledge of the learners.

Professionalism
This refers to the behaviour, skills or qualities shown by a professional. It also
refers to the acquired attitudes, skills and qualities that individuals manifest in the
delivery of service to the society. In this regard, the professionalism of teachers,

2
 thus, consists in their exhibition of skills, work and client, emphasis on service
and self- sacrifice.

Professional Studies (PS).

According to Mnkandla (1996:3), Professional Studies is, “the rationale for
linking theory with practice’’. Chanakira (1998) views PS as the deliberate drive
to marry theory into practice. Theory means ideas that explain what, how or why
something happens. That is, about teaching and learning. Practice is action rather
than thoughts or ideas. We can come up with an equation, PS = T+P or PS=
words +action (W + A). It is concerned with preparing developing and sustaining
the skills of actual teaching. Skills such as syllabus interpretation, scheming,
lesson planning, lesson introduction, lesson development and conclusion, among
other skills. It is the basis of professional skills, the whole range of teaching
technologies. It is the rationale and practice of teacher professionalisation and
professionalism.

1.3 The Nature and Purpose of Professional Studies

According to Mnkandla (1996), components of Professional Studies are made up

of the twin processes of learning (or knowledge) and skills which form the basis
of all professional attainments and the two features quite prominently in the
Professional Studies course. The student teacher learns new knowledge and skills
so as to make them part of his/her repertoire of classroom skills.

What Is It That The Student Teacher Learns And Practices?

Stones (1984) in Mnkandla (1996:2) contend that Professional Studies content
comprises ‘know that’ and know how’ knowledge. ‘Know that’ knowledge refers
to details of the subject matter in the college agenda that have been syllabuses,
schemed and planned. It includes in our ease all the eleven subjects at Primary
School and these are an element of know that’ knowledge. That is, you will be

3
equipped with tile theoretical knowledge. For effective teaching to occur, the
teacher needs to have thorough and accurate knowledge of the syllabus content in
each subject area.

‘Know how’ knowledge refers to the practical knowledge or techniques of

teaching. It includes a wide variety of skills such as, syllabus interpretation,
scheming and planning, selection and preparation of teaching and learning media,
techniques of presentation, principles and methods of assessment and record
keeping. ‘Know how’ knowledge introduces the technical, job related content of
the profession. For effective teaching to take place, the teacher needs to possess
thorough knowledge of ‘know how’ knowledge as repertoire of practical skills.

Apart from knowledge, there are practical skills that are divided into General
Professional’ skills and ‘Operational’ skills.

General operational skills are the broad management and organisational skills
that instill and promote productivity and at the same time cultivate a broader
conceptualisation of the job in the teacher. Examples are subject mastery,
planning, communication, organisation and control.

Operational skills are more specific and tactical qualities that are effective and
efficient day to day running of the classroom and co-curricular activities. For
example, scheming and planning, classroom control. Sensitivity to feedback and
communication, that is, of broad types of preparation and classroom skills.

Both sets of skills are vital to teacher productivity and efficiency’ in that they
enhance the acquisition of various curricula skills and at the same time sharpen
the teacher’s ability to communicate with the pupils. This ensures more positive
professional growth and development and therefore greater proficiency in job.

In Professional Studies the student teacher learns what to teach and how to teach

4
it in diverse, innovative and interesting ways, the trademark of a profession. The
student teacher tests his/her findings from theory, or experiments with reality
itself and learns more by doing it. It is the combined system of theory and practice
working together to educate and train the student teacher to answer and solve the
many questions and problems that confront him/her in the most competent and
successful manner.

Mnkandla (1996) advises us that Professional Studies educates and trains the
teacher in a variety of basic intermediate and trains the higher order skills ranging
from simple manual skills to advanced technical and management skills.

Professional Studies is there to train you in the practical skills that form the
foundation of effective teaching (Mnkandla. 1996; Chakanetsa, (1998).

In Zimbabwe’s Teacher Education, Professional Studies was introduced in the

mid-1990s to enhance the quality of the training programmes so as to churn from
the training institutions progressive, knowledgeable, skillful, adaptable,
disciplined and ideological literate teachers.

Professional Studies has some goals and aims that try to justify its place in your
training. According to Teacher Education Review Committee (TER.C Report.
19860 in Mnkandla (1996:2), Teacher Education goals can be summarised as:
“Dynamism, creativity, commitment and demeanour”. In other words, colleges
aim to develop;

 Dynamic teachers, that is, teachers who show great motivation, great
sensitivity to feedback, flexibility, effective communication skills.
revolutionary ideas, openness and trust:
 Creative teachers, that is teachers whose autonomous show originality,
innovativeness, spontaneity, preparedness, versatility and appreciation in their
work;

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 Committed teachers, that is, teachers who are dedicated, conscientious.
responsible and accountable. confident. friendly, warm. co-operative and
hardworking; and
 Teachers with proper demeanour. that is. teachers with personality. integrity.
respect, discipline and enthusiasm. are always punctual and well- organised,
and are exemplary in department and dress.

As the goals indicate, the college curriculum is a complete culture deeply

concerned with the tricks of the profession on the one hand and with the fullest
possible education of the educator for living on the other (Chanakira. 1981).

According to the TERC Report as Mnkandla (1996:4) puts it the aims of

Professional Studies are:
 To assist students to become self- sufficient and innovative in their teaching;
 To develop skills, concepts and knowledge that will enable students
contribute meaningfully to the development of the curriculum in the changing
education environment of Zimbabwe;
 To enable students to teach in a variety of interesting and effective ways.

In Professional Studies, the emphasis is on promoting and effecting a competent

practitioner at the end of the course. The student should exhibit and demonstrate
dynamism, creativity and commitment in his/her work as well as high quality
leadership skills.

Activity 1.1
 Define the term Professional Studies.
 Outline the skills you can derive in Professional Studies.
 Assess the role of goals and aims of Professional Studies in your teacher
education course.
 Describe the ‘know that’ knowledge and ‘know how’ knowledge with
reference to two subjects of the Primary School Curriculum.

6
  Compare and contrast the purpose or TOE and PS as they apply to the teacher
education course.

1.4 The Concept of Teaching As A Profession

The history of the development of teaching as a profession reveals that there are a
number of specialities in teaching with their wide range of required teaching skills
and content knowledge. For example, teaching is a profession which demands of
its practitioner’s exceptional qualities and sincere devotion to human betterment
Teachers are potential liberators of humanity from ignorance, fear,
misunderstanding, conflicts, war and famines.

Development of the Concept of Teaching: Teaching and Its Fundamental

Basis.

People can preserve the achievements of their generation by passing on to their

children the experiences they have gained and thus enable the young to begin
where they (the old left off. Without this passing on of wisdom, each generation
would be compelled to begin the life of man all over again; there would be no
continuity and growth from one generation to the next.

Human society according to Aggarwal (1996) functions by its members

performing certain roles in the community. The skills needed to perform these
functions or roles do not come naturally. In traditional society, the task of
directing the formal education of the young was the responsibility of the elders.
For example, social heritage, traditions and cultural values were transmitted to the
young through symbolic ceremonial activities, examples and stories, which were
over and over again.

As technological and industrial developments began to influence and change the

nature and values of rural and urban communities, the role of teaching was passed
on to professional teachers. In present day society, such teachers work in schools

7
and colleges which are the predominant teaching agencies. Historical
development of the term teaching reveals that prior to the middle of the first
quarter of the 20th century, teaching was thought of as a more or less a skilled
trade, in which one with a competent store of knowledge developed skill of
assigning lessons, making explanations, doing remedial work and testing.

In the 1920’s and 1930’s, there was a growing tendency for education to be
thought as a science because it was hypothesised that teaching is a systematic and
organised effort to draw the best out of a child. Many believed that within a few
decades education would became a social science based on objectively established
scientific knowledge.

Teaching is considered a science in that their is a scientific approach in studying

the teaching behaviour of the teacher is being applied to understand almost every
aspect of education, that is, subject requirements, team teaching, the use of
teaching machines, language laboratories, measurement and evaluation, grouping
and other devices for adapting learning materials and activities to different types
of learners especially those of superior and those of inferior academic ability,
guidance and counselling, and so on.

In the past few years, a greatly increased amount and variety of ‘action research’
and controlled experimentation in the field of the teaching-learning process has
led to the evolution of the concept of teaching technology. According to Verma
and Sherma (1998) the concept of applying scientific knowledge has certain
fundamental principles which can be described as;

i) Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content,

communication and feedback;
ii) There is a close relationship between teaching and learning:
iii) It is possible to modify, improve and develop the teaching activities;
iv) The terminal behaviour (exit behaviour at the time of course completion)

8
 of the learner in terms of learning structures can be established by
appropriate teaching environment;
v) Teaching skills can be developed and strengthened by means of feeding
back devices with or without sophisticated techniques;
vi) Pro-determined learning objectives can be achieved by designing suitable
teaching activities, and
vii) Use of achievement motivation techniques to enhance the output of the
teachers and the learner.

This search for a science of education demands first that practitioners of the trade
be professional.

Teaching is also considered an Art. It has become increasingly evident that the
teacher acts as director of learning activities in the classroom, the teacher really
performs much as an artist who uses whatever materials and procedures may
seem: to contribute best to realising the goals or images he/she has in mind. Every
minute and every situation in a classroom is to some extent a novel one. General
rules must be adopted to a variety of factors including the particular students, that
is their interests. capabilities, background; and the teacher himself/herself that is,
he/her previous experience and what he/se brings to the classroom.

Education is thought of as an art based upon sound fundamental philosophy of its

nature and objectives, of its relationship into society. knowledge of available
subject- matter, knowledge of the individual students within the class, and the
knowledge of the principles of human growth in general In brief; teaching is
considered an art because it involves skills to disseminate knowledge, to maintain
the interest and attention of the learner and the delicate handling of the problems
of the learner to modify his/her behaviour.

Activity 1.2
 Identify and falsify other aspects of teaching as a science.

9
  Compare and contrast principles of teaching as an art and teaching as a
Science.

1.5 Teaching As A Profession

The history of the development of teaching as a profession reveals that there are a
number of specialties in teaching with wide range of required teaching skills and
content knowledge.

Teaching is a profession which demands of its practitioner’s exceptional qualities

and sincere devotion to human betterment. Teachers are potential liberators of
humanity from ignorance, fear, conflicts misunderstanding, war and famine.
Teaching can be called a profession because it qualifies the fundamentals of a
profession that is, a profession which can be the harbinger of a new era; a
profession which is endowed with the professionals having grey matter along with
the qualities of heart. and a profession which can be glorified with knack,
knowledge and commitment
.

General Characteristics of a Profession.

These comprise the main features of any profession and it is these features that
distinguish a trained teacher from an untrained one. A profession is characterised
by:
i. technical expertise and knowledge which are acquired through extensive
education and training over a long period of time, usually over two years
or more:
ii. the practitioners well prepared to provide a service to the community as a
whole;
iii. that the professional is ideally objective, impersonal and very impartial;
iv. that there is comprehensive autonomy or the professionals have the right
of self-determination for both the individual practitioner and the
profession as a whole;
v. an emphasis on service rendered rather an financial reward;

10
 vi. a comprehensive self-governing organisation for the profession, that is.
members belong to a professional organisation so as to have their interests
taken care of;
vii. that the practice of the profession has to be guided by a code of conduct
which is prescribed by members themselves.

Activity 1.3
 Explain the main characteristics of a profession. Show the extent to which its
features apply to teaching and they halo the Primary school teachers to be an
effective and efficient classroom manager anti in the execution of his/her duties in a
school.

Professional Ethics or Code of Conduct for Teaching

Ethics is the science which deals with morals. It is a set of principles that people use to
decide what is right and what is wrong. Principles and fairness override all other
considerations. Ethical values deal with issues of justice, honesty, steadfastness and the
ability to stand for and defend the them. Professional ethics is a code of moral conduct
behaviour, that is, how teachers conduct themselves so that what they do and think is
worth of being professional. Professional ethics is concerned with ethical, spiritual and
aesthetic values. Values according to Farrant (1980:13) are standards of behaviour,
qualities of character, human relationships and life styles that are admired by a particular
society.” They are established by the various pressures that society exercises over its
members to achieve conformity and are generally maintained by education in all its
forms. A few examples of values that have widespread acceptance are: freedom,
democracy, authority, equality, justice and honesty. Teachers should uphold and see the
implications this will have in the classroom.

A professional makes certain ethical destinations that might not occur to a layman. The
greatest example of ethical practice is found in medicine where the hippocratic death
governs all the doctors’ practice. There is need for teachers of high integrity. This
integrity means one who inspires trust. It does not pretend or try to conceal his/her nature

11
or activities and always tries to give of his her best whether or not people are watching.
We can come up with an equation: what you say +what you do=integrity or words +
actions = integrity.

The teaching profession is not likely to attract to its ranks those who would place money
above morality. Consequently, of all the professionals, teaching is most free of
the “fast buck syndrome “that has caught up with many people in Zimbabwe people who
now see cut threat competition as the best and quickest avenue to opulence. Day in, day
out, we see hear and read marauders who are killing for wealth and money. In contrast,
most teachers have human values at heart desire to serve the nation and place high value
and scholarship and moral character. Teaching is not a job but a career. To have human
values at heart means one who values life, concerned with spiritual values, that is
connected by qualities or interests of a deep kind, having a lifetime commitment to
teaching, that self-sacrifice.

In the teaching field, it is a pleasure to be working with children whose blood hails with
the hope of achieving success. Children are regarded as innocent souls. While teachers
like all, metals grow old, even if they became gnarled and wizened, they remain young in
spirit because of the strong influence of working with the youth. As a teacher, one has the
opportunity to gain the respect and admiration of youth and share their zest for life.

The refinement of the professional teacher according to Vester at all (1.982:30) is well-
illustrated in the practice of Socrates who had empathy for young people
he adjusted his teachings to the ability of his pupils:viented his pupils as
Total personalities, had a sparking sense of humour. Had good manners and the grace to
combine his intellectual superiority with true humility and he demanded that the teacher
should show’ integrity and was the leader of civilisation.

Aesthetic values have an important role in our classrooms. Many classrooms are rather
dismal places. It would be wise to notice that beauty can be found in a wide variety of
unlikely things such as, in the neat and orderly arrangement of a chalkboard, tasteful

12
displays, a well-swept floor, the lively attention on the faces of the pupils and so on. Even
in the most unhelpful conditions, there is usually same way in which we can demonstrate
and maintain the standards of beauty in which we believe. Do aesthetic values really
matter? Pupils are more likely to think critically and to behave constructively in an
environment that is orderly, tasteful and pleasing to the senses, a beautiful classroom
sounds a message to its inhabitants: it says, “We are all expected to strive towards the
best in all things”

An example of a code of conduct for Teachers

To the Profession
Teaching is a profession requiring advanced education and special training and vacation.
It is a vacation based on certain ethics which are high and noble. Therefore a
member of the teaching profession is one who holds high ideals of the profession.
Teachers therefore undertake to conduct themselves according to the following rules:
i) To follow at all times the highest standards of professional conduct
bearing in mind not to bring disrepute to the profession.
ii) To work conscientiously and with diligence, honesty and regularity in
order to bring efficiency.
iii) To set a good example of professional conduct in their personal behaviour
and their dress at times to the children in their care.:
iv) To try continually to improve their standard of work and ability by
furthering their studies through the attainment of additional qualifications;
v) To take an active pat in school activities, both in and out of school;
vi) To take an active part in the activities of the teaching profession such as
professional teacher organisation;
vii) To acknowledge their failure to maintain a high professional standard may
involve disciplinary penalty.

13
To the child
Teachers agree that their chief responsibility is towards the children under their
care and that they have at all times a duty to guide each child in and out of school,
in the development body, mind and soul and personality as a member of the
community.

To the community
Teachers must project their leadership image fully in the community in which they
live. They must at all times be ready to assist where possible members of the
community of which the families of their pupils play such an important part. They
must set an example to their pupils in obeying all lawfully appointed authority in the
community.

To the employer
Teachers must agree to serve according to the conditions of service laid down in the
Public Service Regulations.

14
Intoxicating drinks

Teachers should not teach under the influence of liquor or come to school drunk. They
should not be seen drunk in public by parents of school children. At all tomes teachers
should be in an exemplary fashion to pupil colleagues. parents and officials in the
Ministry of Education. Teachers must discourage the use damaging drugs such as
mbanje.

Department

Teachers are expected to be clean, tidy and exemplary in dress Jeans and tee- shirts
should not be worn during school hours. Male teachers should wear a tie all the times
they are in school and on school occasions such as meetings of teachers, parents and
officials. However, male teachers may wear safari suits and during Physical Education,
sport or practical subject periods. appropriate attire shall be worn. Protective clothing is
essential for some practical subjects.

Relationship with students

Teachers will maintain a relationship with the pupils in the school which is conducive to
education and the development of the school in particular. Teachers should not indulge in
love affairs with pupils, neither boys nor girls. It is a serious offence to indulge in sexual
intercourse with girl students and such action may lead to serious disciplinary action.

Relationship between teachers and colleagues

Teachers should always maintain good professional attitude towards fellow teachers.
They should try to help those who arc weak at work or in character to improve. They
must not be slanderous. Heads of schools are advised that each unqualified teacher or
weak teacher is paired with a qualified, competent teacher who will help his/her
colleague teach more effectively. Teachers weak in character will need counselling.

15
Activity 1.4
 Design and examine your own “Millennium code of conduct” for teachers.
 Justify the need for professional ethics for teachers.

1.6 Professional Autonomy and Public Accountability

Teaching is one of the oldest and noblest professions which though not very
autonomous are quite accountable to the public it serves. Do not forget that whether
you like it or not, you are being constantly watched, observed and monitored by
various people. for example, head, parents, education officers, colleagues as well as
pupils. Parents as clients, you must make yourselves readily available to them. It is
also important for you to remember that as a classroom manager /practitioner, you
operate within a given organisational structure of a school which has a hierarchy of
authority, thus creating a bureaucratic structural environment.

The concept and aspects of professional autonomy of the teacher

Professional autonomy means power to govern oneself, the power to make your own
decisions and the right of self-determination for both the individual practitioner and
the profession as a whole. Autonomy of the teacher is the power to determine what
and how he/she teaches. An autonomous teacher is independent and able to make
his/her own decisions professional autonomy with reference to teachers, is the power
of the teaching profession to control the service it offers and the training and work
standards of its members.

One of the characteristics of a profession is that, professionals have a comprehensive

autonomy or the right of self -determination. This is true of teachers as classroom
managers. They depend on their professional expertise and knowledge in the choice
of: teaching methods, media, written exercises/test, disciplinary measures to be
employed and so on. The professional autonomy and self- determination of classroom
management. There are certain tends in that some countries are to improve the
professionalism and independence of teachers by transferring the responsibility for

16
their employment from ministries of education to newly established autonomous
Commissions or Teaching Councils.

Activity.1.5
 Identify and explain other aspects of professional autonomy of the teaching
and show how each aspect helps in effective classroom management.
 Justify the need to improve the professionalism and independence of teachers.

The Concept And Context Of Public Accountability In Education And

Elements Of School Based Accountability.

Public in education are parents and all those in the community, ministry of education
officials, colleagues, pupils and other stakeholders, that is. people who have an
interest in the success of a plan, system or organisation. Evans (2001) views
accountability as the obligation to give an account of the Stewardship of the authority
given to an individual. The individual must prove that he/she has accomplished the
activities specified in the task assigned to him/her. Cronje (2001) says, accountability is
an evaluation of bow well an individual meets his/her responsibilities. A criterion of
standards is set and the individual measures his/her successes against any given criteria.
In this instance, there is room to improve on one’s performance. Therefore,
accountability reports must be informative. They must enable the people concerned to
map a way forward. Feedback is also a crucial component of accountability.

Farrant (1980:42) says, “Accountability is the principle by which a teacher is

answerable to a higher authority such as head teacher; an employer or the community for
the quality of work. To be meaningful. there must be some ways of evaluating his/her
work, and so, implicit in the concept of accountability is that of assessment with respect
to agreed objective standards.

Accountability has its origin in the division of labour and job specification. An
individual is tasked to do a job and given targets to meet. The supervisor and the

17
employee are concerned about the results of the assignment and the employee must prove
that he/she has achieved the objectives. It should be realised that, accountability and
evaluation are compatible. The supervisor and supervisee evaluate how well the lob has
been done. Accountability is an embracing term. Accountability observes the provision of
good quality control. Accountability should inform practice and improve professionalism.

It should be remembered that, accountability depends on the agreed functions, and set
standards/objectives. An individual is accountable for these things that he/she only can
control and to the degree to which he/she can exercise his/her control. Excuses are not
accountability; they are indicators of new performance behaviour.

Education as an institution has its organisations which are schools. According to Farrant
(1980) accountability has received attention in recent year because of; falling standards in
schools rising costs and the fact that teaching is one of the most secure jobs in the public
sector. Consequently, educational administrators have become increasingly concerned
that teachers should be made accountable for the work they do.

The schools get money from the taxpayers (public funds) in order to enable them to
maintain their activities. This money is used to procure resources and pay salaries for
employees who are the teachers and ancillary staff including hired labour. It is in this
context that the taxpayer has aright to know how the money has been used, is concerned
about the quality of education provided to the children. The taxpayers who are the parents
want to know whether teachers are doing justice to the job they are paid for, they express
concern over maintenance of standards hence good or poor examination results. They
want value for money. They loo at professionalism of teachers as well as quality of the
end product (children) produced by the education system. Therefore, education (schools)
owes an explanation to the stakeholders who may be parents or industry.
But, parents seem to overlook the fact that schools and teachers are partly concerned for
the performance of learners. They do not control learners’ attitude levels or intelligence.
All schools can do is to provide a conducive learning environment. They cannot increase
an individual’s intelligence (Cashdan and Overall, 2000).

18
 As indicated earlier on, school based accountability takes cognisance of the
following:
Accountability to;
 Parents for maintaining standards
 The superiors e.g. the District officer
 Colleagues
 Pupils
 One’s self
 For problem solving
 Moral accountability
 Professional accountability
 Industry and commerce

Activity 1.6
 What does accountability mean?
 Why is accountability important in education?
 Why should schools be accountable to the communities they serve?
 Explain the above elements of school-based accountability.
 How does accountability aid professionalism in education?

1.7 Professional Teachers’ Organisations

One of the characteristics of a profession is that, comprehensive self- governing

organisations for the profession, that is. members belong to a professional
organisation so as to have their interests taken care of:

According to Farrant (1980) teachers’ organisations in all parts of the world have a
followed an almost identical pattern of growth: starting as ‘trade unions’ designed to
fight for material benefits and gradually becoming bodies concerned with many

19
aspects for their members’ lives. There is still a long way to go, especially in the
development of their academic programmes, essentially a task for the teachers
themselves.

Some of the functions of teacher’s organisations are:

 to secure for their members, individually and collectively, their rightful status, that is
 social, economic and professional.
 to safeguard their professional interests and to secure satisfactory conditions of work
and service
 to secure the professional growth of teachers through staff development courses, in-
service courses, seminars, publications, library service and research.
 to work for the improvement of education in response to the challenge of the ever-
changing social- economic situation.
 to improve the teaching of subjects through the establishment of subject-teachers
associations, and to establish a professional code of conduct for teachers and to
ensure the at it is followed.

In the light of the above functions, any professional teachers’ organisation provides
an “umbrella body “to which teachers can ordinary present their appeals for
protection and help. They are also able to take part in collective bargaining exercise
so as to improve teachers’ salaries. When a teacher is satisfied, his/her classroom
management becomes effective. In short, support from professional associations
strengthens the teacher’s management skills and morale.

Professional teacher’s organisations are very important in the professional

development of teachers. These are there to ensure improvement in the professional
standing of teachers. They allow individual teachers to participate in decision making
in and outside the school and make positive contribution to the shaping of the
national education system.

20
Activity 1.7

 Name all the professional teachers organisations that are there in Zimbabwe.
 Examine the mission statement of any one of the professional teachers
organisation, that is. that is, its vision, mission, care values, organizational
objectives. etc. To what extent is the mission statement serving it purpose?

1.8 General Principles Which Guide Teachers as Professionals

Atkinson (1999:69) Suggests seven general principles’ which guide teachers as

professionals namely:
 Need to realise that teaching is a co-operatives activities between the teachers and
the taught;
 Need to create a democratic classroom;
 Appropriate use of authority;
 Formulation of rules together with the pupils and insuring that the rules are
followed;
 Creating an environment that is clean, orderly, stimulating and comfortable:
 Having honesty of purpose and being a genuine critical thinker and
 Having mutual support with colleagues.

The above principles help teachers as professionals to be effective classroom

practitioners. Effectiveness in teaching refers to the extent to which teaching leads to
increased learning. Productive learning on the part of learners. In other word, it is the
successful achievement of goals. Professionalisation of teaching leads to high standards.
There is a symbiotic relationship between professionalism and development If
professionalism is enhanced, this ill lead to the production of manpower with attitudes
and sills needed for development, that is. people who work for quality.

21
Other professions are inextricably related to the teaching profession in that individuals on
their way to become professionals in various fields, pass through teachers. Of late there is
a general decline in teacher professionalism characterised by the following features; lack
of work ethics, etiquette and commitment, absenteeism, drunkenness and improper
association with the opposite sex pupils. Adoption of a professional attitude by teachers
influences the development of real, ideal professional whose impact on society will lead
to high standards.

Activity l.8
 Is teaching a profession? Why are teachers not regarded as professional?
 Identify and analyse personal and professional characteristics that are
likely to make a teacher effective.
 Discuss factors that militate against teacher professionalism.

1.9 Summary

We attempted to define professional studies as a rationale for low kin theory.

With practice, you were also given the nature and purpose of professional studies
with regards to goals and aims of teacher education review committee of I 986.
Furthermore, this unit unwaged to reveal to you the concept of teaching as a
profession by looking at the development of the concept of teaching, general
characteristics of a profession professional ethics, professional autonomy and
public accountability. Finally, there was an attempt to explain the functions of
professional teachers’ organisations. Seven general principles which guide
teachers as professionals were outlined.

22
References

Aggarual, .1. C. (19961. Principles. Methods and Techniques of Teaching. Vikas. New
Dehli.

Atkinson, N.D. (19991. Minding our Business: An Introduction to Reflective Teaching

for Teachers in Africa .UZ Publications. Harare.

Barker, RE. (1980). Progressive Teaching in the Primary School, College press. Harare.

Cashdam, A and Overall. L. (2000). Learning in Primary Schools Redwood Books

Wiltshire.

Chanakira, B. (1998). Teacher Education in Zimbabwe. College press. Harare.

Cronje, D. E and Smith, P. J. (2001). Management Principles 2nd Edition. Cape Town.

Evans, D. (2001) Supervisory Management Principles and Practice. 5th Ed Book Craft
both. Cape Town.

Farrant, J. S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education. Harare. Longman.

Mnkandla. V.A. (1996).Professional Studies: Getting the Job Done. College Desktop.
Bulawayo.

Verma, R. and Sharma, S.K. (1998). Modern Trends in Teaching Technology. Anmol.
New Delhi

Vester, T.L. Theron, A.M. and Van Zyl. A.E. (1982) Educational Themes in Time
Perspective. Butterworth. Durban.

23
 UNIT 2

CURRICULUM AND INNOVATION

2.0 Introduction

Unit 2 introduces you to Primary School Teacher Education and the competence
based curriculum. Important terms will he defined for you to have an
understanding of the concepts. Various curriculum aspects and key issues will be
discussed with our main focus on curriculum implementation. In addition to the
discussions, the unit further gives some activities which will be found to be
equally useful to you as a student.

2.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define curriculum, curriculum implementation and syllabus interpretation
 Differentiate formal curriculum from informal (hidden) curriculum in your own
context.
 Discuss the primary school teacher and the competence based curricula.
 Analyse the process of scheming and lesson planning.
 Make meaningful evaluation of both schemes of work and lesson plans so as to
improve instruction.
 Implement the competence based curriculum effectively.

2.2 What is Curriculum?

Different curriculum designers have different understanding of curriculum. We

would like to understand that because of this aspect, there is that definitions given
differ with individual curriculum designers based on their different practical
experiences which also vary from one context to another. However, the following
definitions have been selected and analysed to get an insight of the concept.

24
 Gatawa (1990:8) defines curriculum as, “What teachers to children as a result of
what teachers do. It is the totality of the experiences of children for which schools
are for individual children or groups of children or take place within classrooms
or school grounds or outside the school”:
This definition implies that:
 There is change of behaviour in children mentally, physically, socially and
morally.
 There are actions taken to known knowledge, adventures, nouns and values.
 It is the responsibility of the school to implement or facilitate all the activities.
 Curriculum refers to experiences taking place inside or outside the classroom.

Hirst (1970:2) views curriculum as, a programme of activities designed so that pupils will
attain by learning as far as possible certain specifiable educational ends or objectives.”
Hint’s view of curriculum is similar to Gatawa’s view in such a way that they both refer
to programme of activities to enhance learning although the former does not talk of a
learning context and facilitators of a learning programme referred to.

Another definition of curriculum by Doll (1979) is that it is generally considered to be all

the experiences that learners have under the auspices of the school. Considering the
definition curriculum can be regarded as planned and unplanned activities done under the
auspices of the school.

2.3 Types of Curricula.

Ministry of Education and Culture (1993) views curriculum as the planed academic
programme, all co-curricular activities, other events as well as that which pupils learn
through the nature and quality of the school ethos. This depicts that curriculum is
comprised of Planned academic programme i.e. subject in the school timetable based on
policy on curriculum implementation.
Co-curricular activities i.e. sporting activities,
Other events which refer to hidden curriculum.

25
School ethos which are customs and beliefs that distinguish a school from any
other school e.g. uniforms. So in other words the above elements constitute a Total
Curriculum of a primary school which can be re-organised as:

(i) Core Curriculum that is mainly for time tabled subjects.

(ii) Co-curricular for sporting activities.
(iii) Hidden curriculum.

2.4 Formal Curriculum / Centralised Curriculum

If it was in Mathematics, we could say: core curriculum + co-curricular = formal
curriculum. Taylor (1978), describes the centralized curriculum as something that
consists of content, reaching methods and purpose i.e content + teaching methods +
purpose = centralized / formal curriculum. These three dimensions interact so as to have
the operational curriculum. On the other hand, tanner and tanner (1980) are of the view
that in centralized curriculum, there is planed learning environment, cognitive, effective
content and processes, an instructional plan and instructional ends of outcomes.

So generally formal curriculum is characterised by

 Official national syllabus
 Aims and objectives based on national goals and policy.
 Timetables standardized though use of a national policy on curriculum
implementation
Examinations: - parents usually send their children to schools that are well known for
king achievements in exams. Gatawa (1990) illustrates that the quality of the curriculum
is always measured against student success in public examinations. Teaching methods
and materials of which some are prescribed in the syllabi.

A close examination of the formal curriculum clearly of learning experiences with

systematic rules under the guidance of the schools. This confirms and consolidates the
views of Taylor (1978) and Tanner and Tanner (1980) on formal curriculum.

26
2.5 Informal/ Decentralised/Hidden Curriculum
Gatawa (1990) views hidden curriculum as an off-shoot of inter-personal relationships
operating in a school. This is due to teacher to teacher, pupil-pupil, pupil-teacher or
parent teacher/pupil interactions. Hidden curriculum is not planned or neither is it
systematic. There are mainly adventures and co incidents but under the guidance of the
school. There are no planned aims and objectives.

2.6 Types of hidden curriculum that a Primary School Teacher Can Experience

Jacobs, Gawe and Vakailsa (2000) classify hidden curriculum into three categories at
3 different levels.

(a) The hidden micro-curriculum - at classroom level.

This is noted relationships within the four walls. These relationships come up as a result,
of teacher -pupil or learner interactions. Hidden micro-curriculum manifests itself in each
lesson. For example, when teaching about infections diseases a teacher or may end up we
warning pupils about the effects of sexual abuse.

b) The hidden meso-curriculurn at school levels

Hidden meso-curriculurn refers to experiences which pupils and teachers undergo within
a particular school and its immediate environment but outside the classroom or individual
lessons for example a teacher attending to pupil’s social problems gossiping or election
of prefects.

c) The hidden micro-curriculum at national level.

There are secret school experiences at national level as a result of governmental and
political influences. For example, school fees proposals, changes of syllabuses and even
revision of statutory instruments.

27
2.7 Elements of the Curriculum

(i) Aims and objectives which define the aspirations of the society end goals of
School programmes.
(ii) Content that is subjects to be taught.
(iii) Methods: - Teaching strategies.
(iii) Evaluation which provides feed back on successes and failures of the system.

ACTIVITY 2.1

- Define curriculum using your own experiences of the school at which you are.
- Differentiate formal curriculum from hidden curriculum.

2.8 The Teacher Education Curriculum

Teachers constitute the backbone of any education system standards in terms of
knowledge, skills and values. They make an immense contribution to the delivery of
good quality education. Therefore a curriculum for teacher training is carefully designed
so as to produce quality teachers.

2.9 Quality Assurance for Teacher Development

University of Zimbabwe which is the accrediting institution has a mandate for a quality
assurance in all programmes that results in the issuing of Diploma in Education to
grandaunts of associate institutions. It assures that academic and professional standards
are maintained. Hence the Department of Teacher Education has a mandate to guide
colleges on what is to be learnt in colleges. So colleges come up with syllabuses that are
approved by Centre For Teacher Education And Material Development (CTEMD).

For a teacher to pass this internationally recognised programme, candidates should satisfy
examiners in the broad areas of the teacher education competence, i.e. Theory of
Education, Professional Studies , Main Subjects and Teaching Practice as well as
inclusive education. These broad areas constitute the teacher education curriculum.

28
The teacher education curriculum constitutes of Planned/Formal and Informal/Hidden
curriculum. All activities that are timetabled and guided by policies fall under formal
curriculum.

2.10 Formal /Planned Curriculum

It constitutes core -curriculum and co-curricular activities. Co-curricular activities are
sporting activities and are timetabled (We have our sporting activities on Wednesday).

2.11 Core-Curriculum
This is comprised of the broad areas of the teacher education competence.

 Theory of Education is composed Philosophy of Education, Sociology,

Psychology and Inclusive Education.
 Main subjects: Every student is required to choose an area of study for
specialisation.
 Professional Studies – It has four syllabuses and is referred to as section 4. It
consists of PSA which focuses on classroom practice, theories of teaching, class
management, public service regulations and conditions of service. Professional
Studies Syllabus B (PSB) consists of content for all subjects in the primary school
curriculum, methodology, assessment and evaluation, scheming, planning and
record keeping. Professional Studies Syllabus C (PSC) is for research and
Professional Studies Syllabus D (PSD) consists of newly introduced subjects like
NASS and Health and Life Skills Education.

2.12 Weighting for Section IV Components

PSA – 25%
PSB- 35%
PSC-25%
PSD-15%
Candidates are required to pass all subjects in section 4.For a candidate to pass
with a distinction in section 4, he/she must pass with a minimum of 80% in PSA
and 70% and above in each of the following, PSB, PSC, and PSD.

29
  Teaching Practice: After a year of joining college you are required to go for
teaching practice for a year. You are attached to a mentor for your practice. This
is where you are now linking theory with practice.

There is a policy on curriculum implementation to ensure effective curriculum

implementation. Each area has its syllabus.

Informal Curriculum: This refers to unplanned events, attending urgent meetings,

attending to visitors, attending to a sick student, attending Principal’s meeting, etc.

2.13 Effective Curriculum Implementation

There is need for the teacher to clearly conceptualise the following:

 Syllabus understanding and Interpretation

a. Interpretation of the national and school syllabi in drawing up schemes of work.
b. Adapting the syllabi to the local context.
 Planning Process
a. Ability to breakdown content into teaching units.
b. Ability to evaluate and enhance quality teaching.
 Impact of Culture on Curriculum
a. Demonstrate knowledge and appreciation of the diverse Zimbabwe culture.
 Language and Subject Area
a. Competency and delivery in official national and local languages.
b. Demonstrate proficiency in the use of appropriate language in subject delivery at
different levels.
 Cross –curricular themes
a. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of topical issues e.g. education for
sustainable development, HIV and AIDS, ICT, inclusive education, etc.
b. Address gender issues in teaching and learning
 Teaching of Technical and Vocational Education
a. Demonstrate knowledge and skills in the teaching of practical, technical and
vocational subjects.
b. Use of ICT

30
 c. Create safe learner friendly environment.
 Application of Subject Knowledge and Pedagogy
a. Have a subject knowledge how to teach it in inclusive environments.
b. Use methodologies appropriate to different learners etc.
 Research
a. Conduct research, publish and share best practices.
b. Adapt to change as informed by research and modern trends in education.
c. Critically reflect on their work to improve practice.

2.14 Competency Based Curriculum

What is Ccompetence Based Curriculum

 A curriculum that emphasizes the complex outcomes of a learning process (i.e.,
knowledge, skills and attitudes to be applied by learners) rather than mainly
focusing on what learners are expected to learn about in terms of traditionally
defined subject content.
 Competency based curriculum is an education system that puts emphasis on a
leaner’s unique talents and abilities rather than focusing wholly on academics and
examination performances.
 Is a curriculum that focuses on the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes
to use in the future in society.

The Competence Based Curriculum seeks:

 To motivate learners to cherish their Zimbabwean identity and value, their
heritage, history and cultural traditions and to prepare them for participatory
citizenship.
 To prepare learners for life and work in an indigenized economy and increasingly
globalized and competitive environment.
 To prepare and orient learners for participation in voluntary service and
leadership.

31
  To foster life long learning in line with the emerging opportunities and challenges
of a knowledgeable society.
 To help identify learners’ special capabilities then nurturing them through
relevant teachings so that learners benefit from their talents.

2.15 The 6 Main Principles Of Competency-Based Curriculum

1. Equity is set before all
 Equity does not mean giving each learner the same thing as everyone else,
instead it means giving each learner what they need to reach the same end
goal.
 Students are taught and supported based on their personal strengths and
weaknesses, giving each individual the same chances for success.
2. Classes emphasize measurable competencies that help build skills for life.
 Rather than just testing for head knowledge, competencies focus on the
practical understanding that a student has of the subject.

3. Transparency helps students take ownership.

 The learning objectives that are set for the class (and the school as a
whole) should be clear to both students and parents.
 When each student has the end goal clear in mind, they will take more
responsibility for their own education.
4. Students get the support they need individually
 Teachers work with students through their different weaknesses and help
them draw on their strengths, each student is moved forward towards
mastery of a unique path. This personalized learning experience gives
each learner an equal opportunity for success.
5. Teachers assess for growth and mastery
 Assessments come in many shapes and sizes, formulative assessment
gives teachers the ability to adjust in real time by clearly identifying key
areas where students need to improve.
6. Students move forward when they demonstrate mastery.

32
  When students demonstrate a clear understanding of the topic, prove their
ability to apply that understanding and show how they have developed
important skills, its time for them to move forward.

2.16 How is the competency based curriculum organized

The framework organizes the curriculum into two learning levels namely:

Infant school which covers Early Childhood Development (ECD) to Grade 2.

 At this level, the emphasis is on the acquisition of the foundation skills for
learning.

Junior school covers Grade 3 to 7 and reinforces the foundational skills and starts to
provide learners with life and work skills.

What are the Learning Areas (subjects) for each level.

The competency-based curriculum framework outlines the following learning areas for
the two levels.

Infant school
Indigenous language (as medium of instruction)

 Visual and Performing Arts (Expressive Arts)

 Physical Education
 Mass Displays
 Mathematics and Science
 Family and Heritage Studies (Social Studies) and Information and
Communication Technology

Junior school
 Languages
 Mathematics
 Heritage Studies
 Visual Performing Arts
 Family, Religion and Moral Education

33
  Agriculture
 Information and Communication Technology
 Physical Education
 Sport and Mass Displays.

Justification Of The Competency Based Curriculum

Competency – based curriculum
 Nurtures every learner to his/her full potential depending on their level of
giftedness arising from their inborn and/or environmental exposure.
 Develops a more wholesome citizen who will work towards introducing
positive change to their private life as well as that of their community.
 Fosters the development of crucial skills such as critical thinking,
creativity, imagination and problem solving in learners.
 Is practical oriented and is therefore expected to bridge the skills gap thus
lowering unemployment
 Empowers students with knowledge and skills in various fields of study in
a flexible educational program tailored to each student.
 Gives learners confidence to tackle even seemingly difficult tasks,
provokes learners to engage in life long learning
 Provides learning which centers on real world skills.
 Empowers learners to master valuable skills knowledge at own pace,
learning practices are adjusted to meet the individual needs of learners

2.17 Curriculum Implementation

We can now assume that you know what curriculum is and let us now move on to
implementation mainly done by the teacher as the key player. Sternly of use (1979) pro
pounds that curriculum implementation is only realised when curriculum educational
plans and intentions are put into actual practice to achieve learning and experience on the
part of the pupil. In other words, curriculum or education proposal.

34
Process of Centralised Curriculum Planning and Implementation

The diagram that follows helps you to understand the process of curriculum
implementation

National Curriculum Policy from

Central Government (Educational Aims)

Subject Syllabuses from C.D.U

Arm of Central Government

Implementation (At school level)

Time tables, School Syllabuses. Schemes of work by teachers, lesson pans, lessons
(Actual Teaching).

The above illustration shows that teaching is the final stage in curriculum development
and implementation Farrant (1980) indicates that teaching is the final. Stage in the
process of converting educational aims into practical realities. So let us find out how a
teacher is incorporated Curriculum implementation.

35
2.18 Curriculum Implementation By The At Teacher At School Level

For curriculum implementation to be successful, the teacher right at the centre of things
as illustrated in the diagram that follows.

Adapted from Chanakira (1998).

Success of curriculum implementation is attained through the teacher’s orchestration of

the community, pupils, textbooks, fellow teachers; parents and the demands of the school
managers supervisors. (Chanakira 1998).

Curriculum in its various forms should be implemented by converting the national

guidelines into schemes of work and lesson plans in a logical sequence. The classroom
practitioner is required to reorganise the given curriculum so as to fit into the various
activities of he school. The sequence and logical order of content of the curriculum is
presented in the school syllabus scheme of work and the lesson plan.

2.19 The Syllabus

A syllabus is a broad outline of what is to be covered in a particular subject per specific

36
level (grade) and specific time. For example, grade syllabus is for one year. It is an
official document produced by the government (C.D.U). Farrant (1980) views a
syllabus as an interpretation of educational aims in the school curriculum.

Components of the syllabus

Preamble

Contains a statement on the nature of the programme being covered in the

syllabus.
-the evidence (Grade level) for which the programme is intended.
-the rationale for teaching the course.

2 Educational Aims \ Goals which are long a term and broad Objectives of the
syllabus in relation to the aspects to be developed.

3 Educational objectives which are refection of the aims goals.

4Content: This is the instructional substance of the course usually stated

broad topics e.g. water.
5Approaches/ Teaching Strategies-These are methods or methodologies.
6. Assessment -The maul concern of this section is to evaluate Pupils progress.

2.20 Syllabus Interpretation

You now know the structure of the syllabus which is very important to all teachers
whether trained or training. It is the initial stage for syllabus interpretation. Then,
what is syllabus interpretation?

Syllabus Interpretation, according to Mkandla (1996) is concerned with decoding

explaining and application of syllabus material in real classroom situations. Through

37
interpretation of the contents of the syllabus the teacher gives meaning to the contents
of the syllabus. In other words, we are saying syllabus interpretation can be viewed as
a process of breaking down broad topics into teachable units, this now leads us to the
discussion of content Analysis.

Content Analysis:

Content analysis is a / technique of breaking down themes broad topics and principles
into smaller individual units can be handled one at a time to suit schemes of
work and lesson plans

Activity 2.2

Outline the Components of a syllabus.

Discuss the various ways by which a primary school teacher implements the curriculum.

2.21 Schemes of work

Barker (1988) defines a scheme of work as a proposed plan of action which is drawn up
from the syllabuses. According to this view, a scheme of work is viewed as a working
plan that is developed from syllabuses. This is the initial stage of syllabus interpretation.

A good scheme of work is characterised by:

 Logical order of content of curriculum
 subjects broken down into logical and in manageable units showing work for a term
 availability of all its components e.g methods, s.o.m etc.
 A scheme of work is compared for the whole term for every subject.

38
One of the major components of a scheme of work is content. There are three aspects of
content which are:
 Skill-oriented content which is mainly for helping learners to develop a new
ability or attitude to do something.
 Value-oriented content which is mainly for the acquisition and understanding
of good values by learners.
 Knowledge oriented content which focus mainly on learners getting new
knowledge.

The above three aspects are inseparable and ore learned simultaneously.

Effective scheming

There are factors that need to be considered to assure effective scheming. Some of these
factors are pupils ability, age, interest and needs, the school calendar timetable. Topics in
logical order and seasonal changes in toe ear.

Pupil’s ability age, interests and needs

A scheme of work that you draw should address pupil age, ability, interests and needs.
Content to be given to the pupils should be drawn from the syllabus as per the level of the
class. Content break down into units should be carefully done so that it can be grasped by
pupils. A variety of learners activities should be used by the so that they are likely to
meet the needs and interests of the learners.

School calendar

A school calendar has all the activities to be done during the term. So when put into
consideration by the teacher, there are no problems of over scheming or under scheming

39
by the teacher. All the work schemed will be covered during the term. The main issue is
to avoid cases whereby a teacher is indicating some lessons not taught due to certain
activities e.g consultation days.

Timetable

The time table shows the amount of time to each subject in the school curriculum. This
assist the teacher in coming up with right amount of content far the term for the term
every subject. For example, if time analysis on the timetable reflects that English subject
has 9 x 30 minutes lesson per week there is no way the teacher can scheme for 5 lessons
or 20 lessons for a week.

A logical order of topics

Kasambira (1997) ernphasizes that topics in a scheme of work should follow a logical
sequence. Linking topics must follow each other to create continuity e.g. addition and
subtraction. This makes it easy for the learners to grasp the concepts.

Seasonal changes in the year.

Topics should be fitted well into the seasons of the year. For example, teaching about
rainfall in the rain season, becomes more effective than teaching it in winter.

Activity 2.3

Select any lesson topic of your own choice then show by examples the three aspects of
content that can be developed in a lesson.

40
Evaluation of scheme of work

The teacher will be tying to asses the extent to which the aims have been realised. The
teacher should also be able to supply reasons for partial or total failure in realising the
aims and should also comment on positive and negative effects of subject Therefore
evaluation in scheme of work is mainly focused on:

 The extent at content coverage for a particular week.

 Positive and negative aspects observed e.g sequencing of units.
 The general performance of the learners.
 Availability of media.
 Methodology used.
 Effectiveness of activities in lessons.

Evaluation in scheme of work should always refer to the goals established at the
beginning of study. It is not as detailed as that one of a lesson plan.

Activity 2.4

What are the advantages and disadvantages of having scheme of work?

2.22 The Lesson Plan

Kasambira (1997:17) defines a lesson plan as “a short carefully developed and usually
written outline to help the teacher to achieve the objectives of a specific topic, skill or
idea”. It may also be referred to as a detailed outline of what is to taught, how and when
it is to be taught. So a lesson acts as a guide to the teacher on how to achieve certain set
objectives.

41
Rationale for Lesson Planning

Zimbabwe Open University Module (2006) explains clearly why it is important to have
lesson plans. Firstly it is explained that a lesson plan acts as a guide to the
teacher to what is to be taught. That is why it has objectives, body or knowledge, skills
and attitudes to be achieved during instruction. Activities in scheme of work are generally
stated but when comes to a lesson plan, there is need for expansion of content and lesson
plan activities should be specific and detailed.

Considerations when Planning

Kasambira (1997) states that there are some important points that teachers need to
consider when planning. These are;
 The pupil and her/his abilities.
 Teachers ability
 The time available.
 Resources available
 The skills and abilities to be developed.
 The values and a attitudes to be influenced.
 Methods to be employed.
 Teaching media to be in the lesson.

Activity 2.5
 Explain why each of the above mentioned factors needs to be considered for
lesson planning.

The Importance of Lesson Planning

If you remember very well, we have said a lesson plan acts as a guide to the teacher

42
 but there other beneficiaries to this exercise. These are administration and the pupils.
Let us now look at how each of the three benefits from lesson planning.

The Administration

Lesson planning is used as a supervision device by administrators. Kasambira (1997)

explains that supervisors e.g the school Head obtains evidence on teacher’s capability
to prepare professional teaching plans. The administration also evaluates the teacher’s
ability to prepare and implement a lesson plan in instruction.

The teacher

Lesson planning helps the teacher;

 To boast confidence when teaching.
 To visualise and prepare for the lessons in terms of what is to be taught and what
activities need to be emphasised as well as how these should be directed.
 It provides a basis for evaluation to determine the effectiveness of a particular
lesson.
 To ensure coherence with respect to content.
 To plan the media that will convey the message best.

The Pupils.

Pupils benefit in directly through carefully planned objectives and activities. Plenty of
pupil-centred allow pupi1 involvement. If the activities are many and learner-centred,
then pupils’ interests will be met.

Some of Major Components of a Good Lesson Plan.

43
Objectives:

Kasambira (1997:20) defines lesson objectives as” precise statements of what student are
to learn from the lesson’. From this definition it can ho deduced that an objective defines
what learners should achieve during or at the end of the lesson. Through those
achievements, proposed changes can be seen in learners through their performance. On
the other hand, Gwarinda (1997) thinks that on objective is a short-term goal that has to
be achieved by the learner before the achievement of aims. Remember, we have aims in
the national curriculum policy, syllabuses and then scheme of work. According to
Gwarinda definition of objective all these aims can be said to be achieved through
achievement of instructional objectives. It is also clear that instructional objectives are
derived from aims in the scheme of work. Lesson objectives can be terminal i.e. achieved
by the end of the lesson and others are process i.e. achieved during the lesson. Both forms
of objectives are acceptable as, long as they focus on the lesson topic.
There are basically two types of objectives which are behavioural and non-
behavioural objectives. However, or for our purposes, we stress on behavioural
objectives.

Characteristics of behavioural objectives

These are smart objectives and what does this abbreviation mean? It is not that smartness
commonly known by people as an opposite of dirty. By this term, we mean say that an
objective should be:

S- Specific
M- Measurable (or Testable)
A-Achievable
R-Result- oriented
T-Time framed.

In short, we are saying a behavioural objective should indicate what a child will be to do

44
after a prescribed lesson. The objective should show a behaviour that can be observed
and measured, by the teacher. For you to be specific in your objectives, use action verbs
e.g. name, surname, relate, etc.

Rationale for Specification of Objectives

Every less on has a purpose in instruction and this should be clearly started. Anyone who
is asked to take a planned lesson in the absence of the initiator or planner will be clear on
the purpose of the lesson. The teacher’s direction made clear regarding skills, attitudes
and knowledge the teacher intends to instil in learners (Coombs 1995). Evaluation of
each less on becomes easier if there are clearly stated objectives on a lesson plan.

Lesson Introduction

There are various ways of introducing lessons and have you ever asked yourself why it is
important to gave an introduction for every lesson that you present? If you have not, the
answer will be provided for you as you read text.

What is introduction

Kasambira (1997:23) says it is “an appetiser of the lesson”. It therefore means that, it
what children’s appetite to learn. The introduction should be done in such a way that
every learner is made to gave the curiosity to know what’s next.

A similar view is made by Levin and Nolan (1997:96) when says” A good introduction
makers students aware, of what they are supposed to learn, activates their attention on the
main elements of the lesson to come and motivates them to be interested in the lesson”.
So it is clear that a lesson bound to fail right from the beginning if the teacher fails to
arouse their interest. Views given by Levin and Nolan clearly define the purpose of an
introduction in lesson. This now leads us to discussion of the functions of an introduction
in a lesson.

45
Functions of an Introduction
 To arouse learner interest in the content to be presented.
 To set pupils thinking so that they forget about other things or concerns beyond
the lesson their minds are made to focus on the current situation.
 To link previously learned content to the content to be presented i.e. moving from
known to unknown.
 To introduce content to pupils (during lesson declaration).
You can see now that an introduction to a lesson is an essential element.

Activity 2.6
 With reference to the definition of an introduction and its functions in a lesson
demonstrates any five ways of introduction.

2.23 Lesson Delivering Techniques

There are numerous ideas that a teacher should observe in order to deliver an effective
lesson. They can be summed up by what we call the four Ps of a lesson:

1. P-reparation
2. P-review
3. P-resentation
4. P-roduct

Preparation
This stage a where essential preparatory activities of a lesson takes place. These include
scheming, planning, making of media, rehearsals, chalkboard work, previsits and stage
making among others. Research indicates that activities preceding a learning task
determines the extent to which the performance of the task is successfully carried out.
Meaning the more prepared a teacher is for his/her lesson the more chances are for an

46
effective lesson to be delivered. Thus teachers should never plunge into delivering a
lesson without prerequisite preparations.

Preview Stage:
This stage includes set induction-introduction and lesson declaration.

Presentation Stage or Lesson Development

This is the main part of a lesson which is characterised by procedures to be followed and
a whole host of teaching activities. Some major activities in this segment include
explanations, demonstrations, discussions, practice, supervision, reading writing
interactions and feedback.

Product - Conclusion:

Major activities in this stage include summarizing, reminding reinforcing, forecasting and
evaluation.

Since the theory behind some preparations needed before the actual lesson are discussed
elsewhere in this book, this part of the book will dwell on the last 3 Ps i.e Preview,
Presentation and Production in more detail.

Preview - Set Induction:

Chikuni (2003: 83) defines set induction as any motion that the teacher makes order to
draw attention of the learners. Set induction is indeed a way of causing learners to be
ready to learn creating (setting) the correct mind set. The word introduction commonly
used.

Purpose of the Set Induction or Introduction:

1. To gain children’s interest, appeal or appetize the children.
2. To generate curiosity in children which is necessary for learning.

47
 3. To link old and new material/knowledge.
4. To give the highlights of the lesson i.e. expectation and structure of the lesson.
5. To assist the teacher whether to confirm or reject the teacher’s assumed
knowledge and therebv take appropriate action.
6. To set the atmosphere of the lesson; the tone and spirit e.g. a friendly lesson or
formal lesson.

Ways of Introducing a Lesson

The following are seine of the ways in which a teacher can introduce a lesson:
1. The recap technique. This is where the teacher asks questions on related
previously learnt knowledge which he/she would want to link with the knowledge
or skill to be taught.
2. Statement of the objective or the purpose of the lesson and how it will unfold.
Effort should be deliberately made to make it appealing because if not properly
done it can he boring.
3. A related song. rhyme or poem.
4. A short relevant story.
5. A drama or role – play
6. A short game.
7. Quiz
8. A short joke or riddle.
9. Miming or imitation.
10. Questioning technique where the teacher asks children questions that reminds
them of known knowledge up to what is going to be learnt.
11. A short discussion/description of an issue, object or picture.
12. Short written exercises e.g. mental work or spellings.
13. Hiding something for pupils to guess.
14. An unusual relevant activity to provoke the lesson.

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What to consider when choosing an introduction technique

The teacher should consider; 1 . The age and ability of the children, 2. The relevance of
the introduction to the subject matter to be taught, 3. The resources available including
time, 4. The learners’ interests. 5. The learner’s previous knowledge. In other words an
effective introduction should be relevant, motivating and well tried.
An introduction for a 30 minutes lesson could be about 3 minutes or less.

Presentation of Lesson Development:

The effectiveness of this crucial stage of the lesson is dependent on the following
teacher’s skills and techniques:
- The clarity of the teacher’s explanation, instruction and demonstration.
- The teacher’s voice variations and articulation.
- The teacher’s employment of varied learner centered activities.
- The effective use of media. Quantity versus quality of teaching and learning
media matters.
- The interaction patterns used by the teacher.
- The feedback approached employed during the lesson.
- The supervision by the teacher and his/her ability to cater for learner’s individual
differences, for example spot remediation, remedial and extension activities.
- Stimulus variation techniques used.
- How the teacher employs individual, pair, group or class activities?
- How the teacher controls his/her class and the class carries out its routine
activities.
- Pacing and sequencing of learner’s activities.
- During this stage the teacher should value and vary his/her interaction patterns,
feedback techniques and stimulus variations. The interaction patterns that a
teacher should vary and use are basically pupil-pupil, teacher – pupil interactions.
Emphasise should be on pupil-pupil interactions for the activities to be learner
centered. In fact learners should learn how to learn and should experience what
they will be learning.

49
Chikuni (2003:230) defines feedback as, ‘the response or reaction that any person gives
to what someone or even something will have done or said’’. The purpose of feedback in
a lesson is confirm or reject learners’ responses to activities or questions. Thereby
helping the class to suggest the way forward and the teacher in the lesson evaluation.
Feedback can be done:
- Verbally such as “Good! Correct! Well done!! etc.”
- Nonverbally e.g. by nodding, clapping and slapping.
- Written e.g with constructive comments such as “well done!”

There are things to consider when giving feedback during lesson delivery. Feedback
should be:
- Consistent, correct, immediate and unexaggerated.
- It should involve the learners. Allow learners to comment on one another’s
response, don’t dominate.
- Avoid repeating learners’ answers repeatedly.
- Discourage pupils from laughing or jeering on those who would have failed
to provide answers for very simple questions.
- Avoid negative a discouraging feedback but have positive and encouraging
remarks.

Stimulus variation

Stimulus variation is a way of enhancing learner’s learning by helping them to remain

focused and attentive. Duriot (1982) points that interest or concentration has a span.
Research suggests that young learners have a shorter concentration span than adult. There
is therefore a need by the teacher to make deliberate effort to sustain learners’ interests to
continue learning if his/her lesson is to be effective. Otherwise learners may be physically
present but mentally absent. In fact stimulus variation goes hand in hand with ideas of
motivation which are discussed elsewhere in this module.

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Some Stimulus Variation Techniques:

The following techniques can be employed to stimulate learners during a lesson delivery:

 Jokes, games, songs rhymes, short dram/role play, going outdoor, dialogues,
miming, dancing and imitations.
 Other variations are verbal, non-verbal, kinetic, sensory, voice, interaction
patterns, feedback, digression and teacher’s general appearance and personality
variations.
 Verbal variations include instructions like. “Attention Please! Do you agree?”
 Non-verbal variations include gestures, body parts movements clapping of hands
and eye movements.
 Kinetic variations are those movements that a teacher should take in order to let
every learner feel attended to. The teacher should he aware that his/her position
has a magnetic field of influence. Learners feel ignored if the teacher stands far
from them for a very long time.
 Voice variations refers to the teachers art of speaking. The teachers voice should
vary in terms of tempo and loudness. He/she should pose at times. Avoid
monotone or flat and frightening voices.
 Digression can be also a variation, where the teacher deliberately wanders away
shortly from his subject matter.
 The general appearance of the teacher also plays a role in stimulus variations.
His/her personality and way of dressing ought to vary.

Indicators of the need for stimulus variation during a lesson delivery include these among
others:
 Verbal comments by learners e.g. “Sir, let’s go out to play!” making noise,
giggling,
fidgeting and asking to go to the toilet.

51
  Non-verbal action such as yawning, sleeping, passive attention, staring, pushing
and pulling chairs, having activities not assigned by the teacher and passive
resistance.

The Product Stage of the lesson -Conclusion

It is a common mistake by some teachers who end their lesson without this important part
of the lesson. It is a common mistake that lesson end with a written exercise, The purpose
of conclusion includes these:

- Reminds and reinforces taught material.

- Ties up loose ends so that learners relate the taught knowledge as one thing.
- Provide opportunity for the class to apply learnt knowledge to real life.
- Gives the forecast of the lesson to follow.
- Necessitates effective evaluation of the lesson.

Some of the ways of concluding a lesson:

- A teacher can conclude his/her lesson by:
- A summary of the main points of the lesson — by the teacher or pupil(s)
- Children answer oral questions on what was learnt.
- Teacher or children give comments and suggest the way forward.
- All the suggested techniques in the lesson introduction in brief
- Tiding and returning materials.
- Cooling activities in P.E for example.
- Displaying finished items.

NB Conclusions should be followed by some follow up activities such as assignment

of homework. Evaluation of the lesson should be done timely before the next lesson
of the same subject. So that the next lesson should consider the recommendations of
the previous lesson. There should be continuity- in lesson delivered.

52
 2.24 Evaluation of a Lesson Plan.

Chikuni (20003:329) postulates that evaluation is giving reasons and explanations of

why the learners understood or not understand what taught was and then take a
certain course of action. It is clear in this definition that a lessons evaluation should
have strengths, weakness of the lesson and then suggestions for improvement.

Kasambira (1997) has a similar view of evaluation as to that one by Chikuni (2003).
He says evaluation is an appraisal of the outcome of lesson presentation. The teacher
is supposed to think critically about his / her lesson. There is one weakness
commonly noticed in teachers that they do not want to criticise themselves or
associate themselves with the flop of a lesson. The blame is always on the learner.
Maybe this is done to please the supervisors but is not constructive to the system of
education. Evaluation should serve as a mirror of the lesson. This aspect of self
criticism by the teacher is very important if we are to improve instruction.

What to evaluate in a Lesson Plan.

Evaluation should be done on a basis in three parts namely:

 Strengths of the lesson.
 Weakness of the lesson.
 Suggestions for improvements. For those three parts evaluation the teachers
focus should be on the following aspects of the lesson:
 Concept grasping
 Effectiveness of media
 Effectiveness of the teaching methods used.
 Achievement of objectives
 Participation of learners.
 Performance where written work is given.
 Motivation
 Teachers questioning techniques.

53
  Teachers knowledge of the subject matter etc

Remember, self-analysis and criticism are what constitute meaningful and

constructive evaluation.

Strengths of the Lesson

This section of evaluation gives a summary of success met in the lesson. The teacher
looks at what made the lesson successful in one way or the other.

Weaknesses of the Lesson.

These arc a summary of problems faced m the lesson. The things that let clown the
success of the lesson. In other words, they may he viewed as limitations to the full
achievement of the lesson objectivities. Possible causes of these problems encountered
should he suggested.

Suggestions for improvement / Remedial Strategies.

This is the third part of the evaluation process of the lesson. The teacher specifies ways
that he / she feels, if implemented can give remedy to the noted weaknesses. ‘Ike teacher
should be suggestive as much as possible.

Considering the three aspects of lesson evaluation, it is clear that the thrust of evaluation
should, fall on a critical appraised Ci achievement or failure of lesson objectives.

54
2.25 Summary

In unit two we examined various definitions of curriculum in an attempt to come up with

suits our context. Types of primary school curriculum, namely formal and informal were
discussed in relation to what teachers encounter in their day to day activities in school.
Curriculum implementation was also discussed at length. This was viewed as the
translation of plans into reality. A view of them syllabus and syllabus interpretation,
scheme of work and lesson planning was made. According to the discussions and
observations made, teachers were found to he the, key players in curriculum
implementation. The teachers have an enormous task in the implementation of the
curriculum since they are the men on the ground of the whole system.

55
References

Baker. RE. (1988) Progressive teaching in the Primary School. Harare. College Press.

Chanakira. E. (1998) Teacher Education in Zimbabwe. Harare, College Press.

Chikuni, B, (2003) The Teacher’s Handbook: A Practical Approach to Teaching Gweru,

Flame Publishers.

Coombs, B. (1995) Successful Teaching-A Practical Handbook. Great Britain.

Heinemann.

Doll, A. (1979) Curriculum Innovation. London, Croorn Helm/Open University.

Farrant. J.S (1980) Principles and Practice of Education. London. Longman.

Gatawa B.S NI (1990) Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction. Harare,

College Press.

Hirst, PH. (1970) Knowledge and the Curriculum London. Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Jacob, Gawe, and Vakalisa (2000) Teaching and Learning Dynamics — A Participative
Approach for AEB.

Kasambura. K.P. (1997) Lesson Planning and Class Management. England, Longmans.

Levin, I and Nelan, IF. (1997) Principle of Classroom Management. Sydney. Ailyn and
Bacon.

Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture Zimbabwe (1993) Managing the Curriculum
and Resources -— Module Four. Zimbabwe. — Common Wealth Secretariat.

56
Mnkandla, AM. (1996) Professional Studies. Bulawayo, Religious and Commercial
Publisher.

Stem house, L. (1975) An Introduction to Theory to Curriculum Research and

Development London, I-Heineman.

Tanner, D. and Tanner. L.N (1975) Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice, New
York Macmillan Publishing Company.

Taylor, PH. and Richards C.M (197$) An Introduction to Curriculum Studies Nelson
Publishing Company Ltd.

Zimbabwe Open University (2006) Professional Studies-Module DEP 102, Harare.

ZOU.

57
UNIT 3

EFFECTIVE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHING

3.0 Introduction

This chapter focuses on what effective teaching is all about. Qualities or characteristics of
an effective teacher will also be discussed. Finally, the principles that bring about
reflective teaching and learning will be presented.

3.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit students will be able to:

• Identify and analyse the characteristics/qualities of an effective primary school

teacher.
• Identify the various didactic principles for effective teaching.
• Evaluate and justify the importance of applying the various didactic principles to
the process of teaching and learning.
• Identify elements of lesson delivery that teachers should reflect on and justify the
significance of reflecting upon those elements of lesson delivery.
• Identify variables that contribute to effective teaching and learning and analyse
how these variables can influence the process of teaching and learning.

3.2 What is effective teaching?

Some educators claim that good teaching cannot be defined because the criteria
differ for every instructional situation and every teacher. They conceive good
teaching as being you complex and creative that it defies analysis. According to
Perrot (1985) then can doubt that teaching is a complex task, yet educators usually

58
 find it relatively easy to list the characteristics of an effective teacher.

Activity 3.1

Make a list of your own characteristics as a teacher and compare them with the
criteria produced by educational researchers which is presented below

3.3 The Effective Teacher.

“The effective teacher is a person who facilitates or enables learning to take place
in an exciting manner as possible”. Kyriacou (1996). The does this by giving
relevant examples in forms of knowledge on subjects/concepts he/she intends
pupils to grasp. In addition, this inspiring teacher is a product of his/her own
diligence in seeking new ideas, sifting them for adoption and applying effective
ones to his/her own situation.

The effective teacher periodically re —assesses his/her instructional objectives

which he modifies and improves his methods. He gets his ideas from many
schools of thought about teaching methodology as been researched upon by many
educational psychologists. Here are some if the characteristics of an effective
teacher.

The Effective teacher:

 Is punctual
 Dresses decently
 is warm, understanding and charismatic.
 Has good report with learners
 Is organised and business like
 Knows individual pupils by their names.
 Is enthusiastic and well prepared?

59
  Projects a clear voice which he uses to stimulate and motivate the
learners.
 Gives clear instructions to learners
 Uses language that suits the intellectual levels of his learners
 Writes his chalkboard work legibly and impressively
 Arranges his chalkboard work systematically.
 Uses a variety of instructional materials, method and activities to
make concepts and ideas meaningful to learners
 Keeps his classroom tidy With furniture arranged in an acceptable
order
 Uses grouping strategies which brings about effective teaching and
learning.
 Have classroom walls that are full of charts which are clearly
labelled and displayed according to subject areas.
 Establishes learning centres in his classroom.
 Keeps up to date class records. However, regardless of the qualities
of the teacher some of which have been cited above Berliner and
Tickenoff (1976) are of the opinion that looking at teacher
behaviours only as determines of effective teaching is not enough
unless teacher behaviours were corrective with pupils’ behaviours.

Over and above the qualities that the teacher may possess, he/she should have
some inborn intellectual gifts or attributes. Bellow are some of the attributes
effective teachers should have in order to help pupils learn and successfully
understand what they are supposed to learn.

Intelligences

An intelligent teacher learns and masters the subject matter he is supposed to

teach to his class. When he has his subject matter at finger- tips, he devises

60
methods that enable his class to lean and understand concepts in as easy a manner
as possible. The teacher tabulates lesson steps in logical sequence, beginning from
known to unknown and begins from the pupils’ background which is regarded as
the ‘original approach’.

Intelligent, effective teachers do not stigmatise learner s by labelling them dull but
artistically devise means to promote their level of understanding through active
participation in daily learning activities with the assistance of the teacher or other
gifted pupils in the class. He is generally practical in his teaching.

He remembers advices given during Professional Studies lectures and minimises

professional errors/mistakes. Lastly but not least, the intelligent, effective teacher
merges information from his Professional Studies lectures and practical
professional ideas from mentors and their school heads who are more
experienced.

Eloquence

The ability to communicate in simple and correct language makes die learners the
learners develop similarly. Good language mastery enables learners to reveal their
inner understanding of concepts or skills they learn. Correct pronunciation of
words promotes progressive development of language which makes them feel
confident during the teaching-learning process. Standardised language today is
gained through media such as televisions, radios, newspapers and magazines.
Constant practice at school with pupils and oilier teachers at the school can
promote language development/mastery.

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Dedication

A dedicated teacher is one with a positive attitude toward his/her work. The
positive attitude of the teacher motivates him to see to it that every child under his
care grasps all concepts to be learnt at that wade level. Unwavered interest and
love of activities in the classroom and school are the result of effective, intelligent
and dedicated nature of working by the dedicated teacher.

Magnanimity

The first teachers in our lives are our mothers who teach us language,
relationships, our environment, manners, work and all that enables to survive
peacefully and progressively until school- going age. Effective teachers, therefore,
become very concerned that all pupils in his class receive due attention during
learning activities and ensures that each pupil achieves his/her best results in each
subject (taught) learnt. When marking children’s work, magnanimous teacher
indicates errors so that every child knows exactly what he should correct during
corrections. Comments are always encouraging for both weak and gifted children,
orally and in exercise books.

Wisdom

The balanced pattern of thinking which moulds a child’s judgment of whatever he

does is very essential. Unless a teacher is wise, he finds it difficult to help
children value what they are doing in classroom learning activities. Once they
develop this sense of value they internalise knowledge they acquire and use it to
prove to classmates, teachers, school and parents
that they have developed intellectually, socially, morally, skillfully and that which
produces a dignified person.

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Teaching Strategies

The way teachers understand their subject matter and the way they devise
effective methods of imparting knowledge is derived from principles practically
and successfully experimented by various psychologists. Therefore, if one who as
aspires to be a teacher should have in depth knowledge in psychology he can
effectively and confidently dare to deliver his lessons.

Lesson Preparation

When preparing a lesson an effective teacher devices logical and exciting

introductions to lessons. The instructional objectives of an effective teacher are
precise and guide the teacher to what lie intends pupils to learn during the lesson.
He devises child- centered activities and relevant Learning aids that should
precisely assist the teacher to achieve his learning objectives by activating
children’s interest during the lesson. Lesson closure by an effective teacher is
meaningful and intellectually drawn out so that (earners end the lesson on the
right note.

Lesson Presentation

This is the most important part of learning which should be marked by artistic
interaction between the teacher and his learners as well as between learners and
the learning material. The effective teacher inspires his pupils to do most of the
talking and acting while he is guiding them to grasp concepts. Very good
language, clear voice and friendly interaction between teacher and learners will
definitely produce desired results. When learners realise that the teacher knows
his subject matter and is sure of what he is saying they attentively and
inquisitively listen to what he says and struggle to impress him by saying out
correct answers.

63
 Effective teachers give encouraging remarks frequently as this motivates the
learners. The teacher draws from his caring love and call upon thee weak and the
gifted alike to say out answers during the lesson. During lesson presentation,
effective teachers leave at least half of the time to the pupils written work or
practical activities so that he ensures practical application of knowledge acquired
by the individual learner so that he can honestly evaluate his lessons. The lesson
closure of an effective teacher is well thought out such that it ties all the loose
ends of the lesson together in a fashionable way.

Class Records

An effective teacher keeps all his class records up- to date and make honest and
meaningful comments about pupil’s performance.

Activity 3.2

 Identify any ten characteristics of an effective teacher which you consider

very important and justify your choices.
 Do you think you are an effective teacher? Why do say so?

3.4 Didactic Principles for Effective Teaching

Defining didactics

Fraser et al (1990) define didactics as the science which studies teaching and
learning. Thus, didactic theories are a system of coherent ideas that focus on
findings and views concerning teaching and learning. For this reason, didactics is
also known as teaching theory (instructional theory) or teaching science
(instructional science).

64
Didactics does not study the activities of teaching and learning in isolation since
teaching does not occur in a vacuum. Didactics attempt to answer questions such
as:

• What is teaching?
• Where do we teach?
• Who do we teach?
• When is teaching effective?
• How are teaching and learning related?

Below are some of the didactic principles which educational psychologist

consider as conditions for effective instruction and learning.

Motivation

According to Fraser et al (1990) the effectiveness of teaching depends largely on

the motivation of both the teacher and the learners. Therefore, the teacher has a
special task of encouraging learners to learn and master new concepts/content.
Motivation can be extrinsic (from outside) or intrinsic (from within) the learner.
Extrinsic motivation is supplied by stimuli external to the learner. Incentives such
as good symbols, certificates, high marks, rewards etc are typical examples of
external stimuli. Thus, pupils sometimes perform in order to obtain good marks
and possibly rewards from the teacher.

Intrinsic motivation is a form of motivation which originates from within the

learner and develops as the learner’s interest in the learning task increases.
Effective teachers, therefore, should cultivate and love the subjects they teach iii
learners and create opportunities to get learners actively involved in the learning
activities. The use of striking teaching media, the formulation of clear and
achievable objectives, the identification of clear subject content and the in co-

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 operation of well-known examples during instruction, varying stimulus and
questioning techniques, the use of body language are only a few examples of the
different factors that can influence motivation among learners.
Alcorn, et. Al cited in Fraser (1990) describe a number of techniques for
motivating learners in the classroom. These include the following:

• Each lesson must have a definite purpose with challenging and socially
significant content.
• A variety of materials, methods and learning activities should be used by
the teacher.
• Pupils’ participation and involvement should be encouraged
• Teachers should show enthusiasm
• Teachers should create attractive and comfortable classroom environment.
• Teachers should ensure that learners will be able to achieve success with
the tasks.
• Learners should be kept informed of their progress.
• Learners should be responsible for their own learning.

Individualisation

“Failure to provide for individual differences among learners is perhaps the

greatest single source of inefficiency in education.” Skinner cited in Fraser et. at
(1990:64). The principle of individualisation acknowledges the fact that
individualisation differs from each other and that the teacher has to take these
difference into account when planning and executing lessons. Some pupils are
reserved, shy and uncertain while other appear determined, self-assured and
organised. Some are outspoken, challenging, domineering and aggressive while
others prefer to give meaning to their environment in a more passive, calm and
moderate way. Some learners are dependent on the teacher’s input and prefer a
more formal teaching style, while others perform much better when they are given

66
the opportunity ton be actively involved in the teaching. Learning process and to
discover things for themselves through inquiry.

Perception

Perception, as a didactic principle implies that instruction can be effective

only if representative facts of reality are placed within the reach of the
learner. The mere illustration of content by the teacher is no guarantee that
learners will interpret meaningfully. For this reason, the effective teacher
attempts to present abstract concepts to learning in the form of concrete
and observable examples. This experiencing of reality is a way of learning
(perceptual learning) which is indispensable for the formation of concepts
and for cognitive development”. Rbid (1990: 68) thus, there is a direct link
between the principle of the so-called primary environment. Ausubel
(1968: 127) emphasises that the learners’ existing cognitive structure can
be regarded as the most important factor influencing meaning - Therefore
it is important that at primary school level pupils should encounter variety
of examples to construct a frame of reference for effective perception

Activity

The activity principle emphasis that instruction and learning will be

effective only if the learner is given the opportunity to be actively
involved in the teaching learning process. Not only should the learner be
mentally active but he should also be given the opportunity to be
physically involved Perkins (1974: 597) emphasises that learning is
facilitated when learners are given teaching and learning activities.
Learning should be seen as an active process and the learning should be
encouraged to participate actively during the teaching-learning process.

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 According to Avenant 91988: 132) self no activity should comply with a
number of basic requirements.

• The activity should pursue a clearly, formulated objective

• Pupils should be motivated to become actively involved.
• A clear problem to be solved through active learner participation should
be formulated
• Individual differences should be taken into consideration during the
planning of learning activities
• Sufficient opportunity should be given for the development of the
learner’s creative abilities.

Control

Ausubel (1968) propounds that the primary purpose of evaluation is to monitor

the learner’s learning — to constitute an objective check on both his progress and
ultimate achievement so that if it is unsatisfactory suitable remedial measure will
be taken. The purpose of control as one of didactic principles is to monitor the
sequence and progress of the didactic events. This means that the teacher should
be responsible and accountable for all teaching-learning activities, and that the
learner should be assessed at regular intervals to determine whether any progress
has been made with the learning content and instructional objectives.

According to Frasesetial (1990) control is an important component of the

guidance provided by the teachers. The teaching should guide the learner with the
intention of determining his success in a learning task, or whether he is able to
execute certain skills correctly. No learner should be left completely to his own
devices during the mastery of a new concept Thus control implies much more
than merely setting a test or examination in order to obtain a mark but also means

68
monitoring the course of instruction and learning activities so that the teaching
begins to move in the wrong direction.

Planning

Alcorn entail cited in Fraser (1990) argue that planning is foundation of good
teaching and that neither ingenuity or experience can serve as a substitute for
through planning as a didactic principle emphasizes that the achievement of the
conditions for effective instruction and Learning is dependent on through
planning. Just as the formation and selection of teaching objectives are planned,
so must the teaching strategies, methods, media and approaches used to achieve
the objectives. The teacher will also have to plan how he will involve individuals
thoroughly as well as the group and class in the learning process. Last but not
least the teacher also plans how he will motivate the learners to actively
participate in learning, when assessment will take place and the structure of each
lesson, in order w achieve successful learning.

From the above it is certain that planning improves instruction and therefore
learning. Alcorn et.al (1970: 65-68) discuss a number of principles or guidelines
to be taken into consideration when planning which are listed below:

• Continuity must be maintained between today’s presentations,

yesterday’s lesson planned for the following day.
• Each presentation planned should be linked to the total curriculum.
• Subject content and objectives should coincide.
• The teacher’s planning should attempt to span the gap between the
logical organisation of the subject content and the learner’s individual
learning style.
• Planning should take the learners’ readiness to learn into
consideration
• Individual differences between learners in their interests, needs and

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 abilities-should be taken into consideration.
• During planning, provision must be made for meaningful learning
experiences which should be enjoyable to the learner and satisfy their
immediate needs.
• Opportunities should be provided for the learner to practice the
desired skills.

Socialisation

Van Der Stoep and Louw (1978:47) claim that a situation cannot be described as
didactic if it lacks elements of socialisation. Situation is defined by Fraser ET. Al
(1990) as the individual’s adaptation to this physical, psychological and social
environment through interaction with other people (friends, family p members,
peers, teacher’s e.tc). Thus socialisation forms part of the teaching
-learning process and Carwood at. Al (1982; 131) claim that pupils will learn
more effectively when their individual achievements are stimulated by social
support. Acceptance and encouragement So, socialisation gives rise to meaningful
instruction and learning and can be regarded as a fundamental didactic principle.

Activity 3.3
 What is teaching?
 Define the term didactics as it applies to the classroom situation.
 What is motivation?
 How would you motivate learners during a lesson?
 What is the emphasis of each of effective teaching and learning emphasis
upon? What does that imply to you as a teacher?

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3.5 Reflective teaching

One of the most significant developments in schools has been the introduction of formal
and systematic schemes for teacher appraisal (Fidler and Cooper, 1992) Kyriacou (1996)
view reflective teaching as a critical self- appraisal or self -evaluation by teacher on their
own teaching in order to continually improve and develop the quality of their teaching.

Quite a number of aspects come into play for one’s teaching to be effective. These
include methods, content, objectives, activities, media and all those other factors that arc
decided important for teaching to be effective. (Refer to notes on effective teaching).

Questions that a reflective teacher can ask himself as part of self -appraisal /
evaluation are:
 Does I plan my lessons well, with suitable content and structure as well as clear
and structure as well as clear and achievable objectives of the lesson?
 Do I prepare materials needed for the lesson in good time and use them
efficiently?
 Are the instructions clear and pitched at the right level for pupils to understand?
 Do I distribute questions around the classroom well and use suitable and varied
questioning style-and techniques?
 Do I use a variety of learning activities?
 Are my lessons suitable to the range of the ability of the pupils 1 teach (able,
average and less able)?
 Do I monitor pupil’s learning closely’ during (learning) the lesson and give help
to those having difficulties?
 Do I mark children’s work, including homework, thoroughly, constructively and
in good time for immediate feedback?
 Do I have good relationship with pupils?
 Is my subject expertise adequate for the work I do

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 The above questions would assist the teacher to reflect on the teacher’s ability to
teaching also involves looking back at other aspects of teaching, and learning such as
class records, displays, learning centres and the general classroom appearance.

Activity 3.4
 What do you understand by the term reflective teacher’ as a primary school
teacher?
 What other questions would a reflective teacher ask himself during teaching
and learning?
 What are the documents that an effective teacher should possess? What do
teachers reflect on each of the class records?
 What do you suggest is the significance of reflecting on one’s own practice in
the teaching and learning and learning situation in the primary school?

3.6 Context Process and Product Variables of the Teaching- Learning Process

Effective teaching has been defined by Kyriacou (1996) as teaching which successfully
achieves the learning by pupils intended by the teaches. Over the years effective teaching
has been viewed from different angles and with varying perceptions. Until 1960 research
on effective teaching was largely dominated by attempts to identify attributes of teachers
such as personality, sex, age, knowledge and intelligence. However, according to ibid
(1996) such studies which attempted to relate teacher attributes to educational outcomes,
sometimes referred to as “black- box” research completely ignore what actually goes on
in the classroom.

Since the 1960s, however, research on affective teaching has focused fairly on activities
in the classroom, and in particular the interaction between the teacher and the pupils. As a
result of this new focus, there is now a general agreement among educators that there are
three main classes of variables that should be considered when defining effective
teaching. They are the content, the process and the product variables.

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Content Variables

These refer to all those characteristics of the contents of the teaching- learning process,
usually a classroom based lesson, which may have some bearing on the success of the
process.

These include such variables as:

• Teacher characteristics such as sex, age, experience, social class, training and
personality.
• Pupils characteristics, for example, age, ability, values, personality and social
class.
• Class characteristics like size, range of ability and social class mix.
• Subject characteristics, for example, subject matter, level of difficult and general
interests.
• School characteristics which include size, building facilities, policies, etc.
• Community characteristics, some of which are affluence level, population density
and geographical position.
• Characteristics of the accession, that is, time of day, weather, period of the year
and many others that are associated with the accession.

Process Variables

These refer to what actually goes on in the classroom, and deal with perceptions,
strategies and behaviour of teacher and pupils, and characteristics of the learning tasks
and activities themselves and how these interact with each other. These variables include
the following:

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• Teacher’s erothusiasm.
• Classroom climate.
• Organisation of the lesson.
• Suitability of learning tasks.
• Type of feedback pupils receive and its frequency.
• Pupil involvement in the lesson.
• Pupil-initiated interaction with the teachers.
• Pupils’ strategies for learning.
• Clarity of explanations.
• Use of the questions.
• Use of praise and criticism.
• Management strategies and
• Disciplinary techniques

Product variables

These are variables that refer to all those educations out comes which are desired by
teachers, which have formed a basis for a teacher’s planning of lessons and the criteria
they use to judge effectiveness? Outcomes can be cognitive or affective. They can also be
short- term or long-term.

The most important education outcomes for pupils would include, the following:
 Increased knowledge and skills;
 Increased interest in the subject or topic
 Increased motivation
 Increased academic self- confidence
 Increased autonomy and
 Increased social development.

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Many of these outcomes can be measured by tests, but others are often based on
subjective forms of assessments such as the teacher’s opinion. However, the methods
used to measure these outcomes should be treated with caution.

Activity 3.5

What is effective teaching front your point of view as a primary school teacher?
Of what significance to a primary school teacher is the learning of the above three main
classes of variables by the teacher?

3.7 Factors For Effective Teaching

Principles Of Teaching
- Educators and philosophers have emphasized certain principles of teaching
which teachers are expected to bear in mind for making teaching effective,
efficient, and inspirational.
- Sometimes these principles are classified as psychological principles and
general principles classification is very arbitrary and both types overlap.

Psychological Principles of Effective Teaching

i) Principle of activity o learning by doing: Children are active by nature and any
process or method that is not based upon the learner activity is not in accordance
with the progressive educational theories. Rousseau considers the child as a
“hero” in the drama of education and as such must be allowed to play the
dominant role. Keep class active, not mere physical activity, active in all
ways- to exercise all the powers he has.
ii) Principle of playway: Related to above principle.

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 According to Froebel, play is the chief activity of childhood. It gives joy,
freedom, contentment and inner and outer peace. Holds the source of all that
is good, play is a natural activity. A spirit of playing should prevail in
classroom work.
iii) Principle of motivation: Motivation: Motivation arouses the interest of children
in the lesson and once they become interested, are willing to concentrated and
work. Motivation is developed by the following techniques:
a) Utilizing the instinctive tendencies of the children in an effective manner.
b) Satisfying the curiosity of children.
c) Utilising all the senses of children
d) Relating closely body and mind
e) Linking teaching-learning with life
iv) Principle of self-education: Best/Effective teaching is enabling child learn by his
own efforts. Teachers must fire the imagination of their learners. Children
must be left free to express themselves, for the best education is self-
education. The Supreme value of a teacher lives in his power to lead and
inspire his pupils through the influence of his own mental and moral
personality and examples.
v) Principle of Individual Differences: No two children are alike. Teaching to be
effective must cater for individual differences of children
vi) Principle of Goal-Setting: A definite goal must be set before each child according
to the standard expected of him/her short term or immediate goals for small
children and distant/long term goals for older ones.
vii) Principle of stimulation: teaching is the stimulating, guidance, direction and
encouragement of learning. The guidance of the teacher is giving the right
kind of stimulus to help child to learn the right things in the right way.
viii) Principle of Association: Thorndike points out that things we want to go
together should be put together
 different things or ideas should be associated with each other-form a part of
one process, easier for learners to understand their relationship.

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ix) Principles of Readiness: It is indicative of learner’s state of mind to participate in
the teaching –learning process. Readiness is preparation for action.
x) Principles of Effect : States that a response is strengthened if it is followed by
pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure.
xi) Principle of Exercise and Repetition: The more a stimulus induced response is
repeated, the longer it will be retained. Exercise strengthens the bond between
situation and response. Conversely a bond is weaken through failure to
exercise it. The principle has two sub-parts i) Principle of use and
ii) Principle of disuse
xii) Principle of change and Rest: Psychological experiments in learning have
demonstrated that fatigue, lack of a attention and monotony can be overcame
by making appropriate provision for change, rest and recreation proper
Timetabling of subjects and activities.
xiii) Principle of Feedback and Reinforcement: Learning theories paint out that the
immediate knowledge of the results and positive reinforcers in the form of
praise, grade, certificates, token money and other incentives can contribute to
make the task of learning enjoyable.
xiv) Principle of Training Senses: Senses are said to the gateways of knowledge.
The power of observation, discrimination, identification, generalization and
application can only be appropriately developed through the effective
functioning of senses.
xv) Principle of Group Dynamics: Under the influence of group behavior,
appropriate changes in the behavior of the members of the group can take
place think, feel, do as the group does.
xvi) Principle of Creativity: Opportunities should be provided to learners to
explore things and events and find cause-effect relationships every learner
possesses some element of creativity.
xvii) Principle of Correlation: Correlation should be the basis of all work.
Correlation of the learning task should be established with the craft, physical
and social environment. Knowledge is one “whole”. There exists link among

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 various subjects – Correlation of present events with the past, future can be
visualized.
1.1. General Principle of Effective
-Successful teaching necessities that the teacher comes down level of the
pupils and at the same time assists them in rising above it.
-The principles of teaching to be followed depend upon the age of the pupils,
the subject, topic and concept of the lesson.

i) Principle of definite goals or objectives: Destination or goals of teaching-learning

must be clear to the teachers and learners and these keep them on the rack.
Definiteness of goals helps in planning, executing and evaluating every step,
phase or act of the teaching-learning process/trajectory.
ii) Principle of Child-centerdness: The entire teaching endeavor is for the child. It is
essential that teaching strategies should cater for the aptitude, interest and
abilities of the learners.
iii) Principles of linking with life: Teaching can never be performed in a vacuum. It
is always in a social context. In the teaching of all subjects/areas in the
curriculum, examples from everyday life should be given their due place.
iv) Principle of active involvement and participation of learners:
-Teaching-learning is a two-way traffic. Traditional teaching was almost
teacher-centred. The new teaching (progressive) emphasizes emphases that
the learners must actively participate in all the stages and steps of teaching-
learning.
v) Principles of Co-operation: Classroom environment becomes lively when the
teacher and the taught work in unison, helping each other in carrying out the task
of teaching and learning. All participants have same common interest.
vi) Principles of Remedial teaching: All learners do not learn with the same speed
and accomplishment. Some lag behind and need extra coaching. Need to arrange
for remedial or compensating or extra teaching for any particular group of
learners for removing their specific difficulties.

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vii) Principle of creating conducive environment: Physical as well as social
environment of the classroom plays a vital role in motivating the learners
light, furniture arrangement, proper discipline and order. Teacher should be
sympathetic but form.
viii) Principle of Planning: Planning determines the quality or success of any task.
Planning in teaching involves the preparation of the lesson notes, provision of
teaching-learning media and working out effective methods, strategies and
techniques to be adopted in the delivery of the lesson. Planning is the basis of
classroom catechism, basis of teaching-learning trajectory, basis of classroom
transaction.
ix) Principle of Effective Strategies: Teaching process to be effective, teacher adopt
proper means, strategies and tactics. A teaching strategy is a generalize plan for a
lesson which includes structure, desired learning behavior in terms of objectives
and an outline of planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.
x) Principle of Flexibility: Strategies should serve as guides for effective teaching.
Strategies may have to be changed if the classroom situations so warrant.
Teaching is a complex task and a live phenomenon. The possibilities of
alternation in planned strategies cannot be ruled out at the execution stage. A
teacher must be quite imagination and resource for adopting himself and his
teaching to the requirements of the teaching- learning environment.
xi) Principle of Variety: A variety of teaching media and teaching methods/strategies
should be adopted to motivate and sustain the interests of the learners. The
Adage: “Variety is the spice of life” Variety serves as great tonic for creativity
fresh environment and checking boredom and lethargy.

2. Maxims of Effective Teaching

- Maxim is a phrase or saying that includes a rule or moral about how one
should teach.
- Significance of Maxims of Teaching:
The maxims of teaching are very helpful:
i) in obtaining the active involvement and participation of learners

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ii) quickening the interest of the learners and motivate them to learn
iii) making learning effective, inspirational, interesting and meaningful
iv) keeping the learners attentive to the teaching-learning process.

The maxims are as follows:

i) Proceed from the known to the unknown: The most natural and simple way of
teaching a lesson is to proceed from something the pupils already know to
those facts which they do not know arouse interest in a lesson.
-to proceed step by step to connect the new matter to the old one i.e. New
knowledge cannot be grasped in a vacuum.
ii) Proceed from simple to complex: The simple task or concept or topic must be
taught first and the complex one can follow later on e.g. In a lesson in Science
and technology a child will understand the concept of a flower first and
thereafter its various parts, on Landforms and maps the whole Area first and
later on details and specifics.
iii) Proceed from easy to difficult: Lessons must be graduated in order of ease of
understanding them. Pupils standard must be kept in view, will help in
sustaining their interest. What is easy and what is difficult take into account
the psychological make-up of the child and the interest of the child.
iv) Proceed from the concrete to the abstract: A child’s imagination is greatly aided
by concrete material. Things first and wards after. “ Rousseau says, “ Things.
Things, Things,” Small children cannot think in abstraction, learn first from
things which they can see and handle. Care must be exercised from them to
move from “ concrete stage” but reach higher stage of ‘abstraction’ as the
advance in age.
v) Proceed from particular to general: Before giving principles and rules, particular
examples should be presented i.e. a study of particular facts should lead the
children themselves to frame general rules e.g. of Maths , Science, grammar.
vi) Proceed from indefinite to definite: Ideas of children in the initial stages are
indefinite, in coherent and very vague. These ideas are to be made definite,
clear, precise and systematic, for effective teaching and learning, in

80
 classifying ideas, adequate use must be made of actual objects, diagrams and
pictures for the idea to stand out clearly in the child’s mind and making
children interested in the lesson.
vii) Proceed from empirical to rational: Observation and experience are the basis of
empirical knowledge. Rational knowledge implies a bit of abstraction and
argumentative approach. The child first of all experiences knowledge in his
day to day life and after that feels the rational basis e.g. Concepts Perimeter
and Areas volume and shape in Maths make better sense when taught in the
context of everyday life instead of a highly abstract theory. Begin with what
children see, feel and experience than arguing and generalizing.
viii) Proceed from psychological to logical: Logical approach is concerned with
the arrangement of the subject matter/content i.e. own point of view and not
from point of view of child. Psychological approach looks at the child’s
interests, needs, mental make-up and reactions i.e. from concrete to abstract,
simple to complex and know to unknown e.g. Teaching Read child to read the
whole sentence (unit) Drawing whole animal then lines and curves.
ix) Proceed from whole to parts: Whole is mere meaningful to the child than parts of
the whole. The ‘whole’ approach is better than part learning because the
material to be learnt ‘makes sense’ as its parts can be seen by learner as
interrelated i.e. sees a relationship between central idea of the material. The
‘whole’ unit or passage for learners with learning problems should be similar
that the ‘in hole’ for fast.
x) From near to far: A child learns well in the surroundings in which he resides i.e.
be first a acquainted with his immediate environment then gradually what is
far away.
xi) From analysis to synthesis: Analysis means breaking a problem into convenient
parts and synthesis grouping of these separated parts into one complete whole.
A complex problem can be made simple and easy by dividing it into units.
xii) From actual to representative: When actual objects are shown to children, they
easily and retain them for a long time. Representative objects in the form of
pictures, models, etc. should be used for grown ups.

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 xiii) Proceed inductively i.e. inductive to deductive:
(includes all the maxims stated above). In the inductive approach, start from
particular examples and establish general rules through the active participation
of learners. In the deductive approach, assume a definition, a general rule or
formula and apply it to particular examples e.g. The farmers in Zimbabwe are
very poor, is a general statement in the deductive type of reasoning. In the
inductive examples are given of farmers, it will be evident that farmers are
poor. Both approaches have their own importance, in general, inductive
approach is considered a better one.

Summary

In the ultimate analysis, it must be observed that the maxims/ principles are
meant to be our servants and not masters. Moreover, by and large all are
interrelated. It is also to be kept in view that children differ in their aptitudes,
capacities, interests, mental and physical make up. Different
principles/maxims suit different situations and different children. It is,
therefore essential that a judicious use should be made of each maxim.

Activity

i) Evaluate any five principles of teaching.

ii) Discuss the significance of any four maxims of teaching.
iii) Analyse fully what is meant by any 5 maxims of teaching illustrating their values
and limitations.

82
References

Alcom, M,D. Kinder.J.S. and Schunetr,J,R. (1970) Better Teaching in Secondary

Schools 3rd New York. Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Ansubel. D.P.(196$) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York. Holt

Rinehart and Winston.

Avenant,P.J. (1986) Comprehensive Multicultural Education: Outline of Principles And

Practice 3 ed. London. Holt. Rinehart Winston.

Duminy.P.A. and Sohnge. W.F.(l 980) Didactics: Theory and Practice.Longman. Cape
Town.

Fraser, W.J, Loubser. CP.and Van Roy. M.P. (1996) Didactics for the Undergraduate
Student 2nd ed. Buttersworth Publishers (Pvt) Ltd.

Gwarinda, T.C.(1993) The Practice of Learning. College Press. Harare.

Kyriacou, C.(1996) Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and Practice 2nd ed. Stanley
Thorner (Publishers). Essex. England.

Perrot, E, (1985) Effective Teaching: A Practical Approach to Improving your Teaching.

Longman House.Burnt Mill. Harlow,

Perkins, H,V. (1974) Human Development and Learning 2nd ed. Belmont. Wardsworrh
Publishing Company.

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 UNIT 4

CLASS AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND INNOVATION

4.0 Introduction

In this unit we discuss on management of class and classroom. Class and classroom
management is one of the cornerstones of making one an effective teacher. The focus is
on individualized instruction, as well as discipline and punishment. We further on look at
principles of grouping and organising for learning, principles and of skills record keeping
lastly we looked at the physical environment of the class where we will examine class
leaning centres.

4.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to;

• discuss on discipline and punishment in the classroom and school.

• examine the concept on individualized instructions.
• outline principles of grouping and organization for learning.
• discuss and identify the different types of leaning centres in the class.

Activity 4.1

 What are teaming difficulties / disabilities?

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4.1 Individualised instruction.

In this section we discuss on individualised learning, its value operation in the classroom
situation. We further discuss the advantages and disadvantages of individual instruction.

What is individualised instruction/learning

Every child is unique and therefore each child’s needs are different. Since this is so, it is
fitting that each child should be enabled to learn what he/she needs at the pace that is
most appropriate in keeping with his/her ability.

According to (Salsor 2010) individualised instruction is a method of instruction in which

content, instructional materials, instructional media and pace of learning are based upon
the abilities and interests of each individual learner. Therefore, individualised instruction
is an educational process whereby the teacher and pupils come face to face in order to
meet pupils’ needs.

 It is teaching a child or assisting a child on an individual basis.

 It allows each pupil to pursue his/her own learning in his own way and at his/her
speed.

Basic principles of individualised instruction

 Each child must be assisted to develop according to his/her capabilities. This
means that every pupil must be encouraged to progress successfully from the
stage of development at which he/she finds himself/herself at that moment,
 Each child can progress at his/her pace
 Keep progress of each child even though they are at different levels the student
must get instant feedback concerning his performance on exercises and tests.

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The rationale for individualised instruction

• It gives the teacher a clear idea of each child’s progress

• The teacher is given a chance to study and understand pupils’ learning problems
and difficulties for remediation.
• individualised learning develops initiative and independent learning.
 individual skills are developed.
• Pupils interests and capabilities are catered for

Procedures on individualised instruction

In order to implement individualised learning (Petty I 93) suggests that the

teacher needs to use methods of teaching that frees him from his traditional role of
dispensing knowledge to the whole class and give him opportunity to attend to his pupils
individually.
 Lesson planning should be geared to meet the needs of pupils and help them
develop their abilities and interests to the fullest that is creating learning situations
which are constantly challenging to the pupils.
 Individuals differ from each other and that the teacher should take differences into
account when planning and executing lessons,” Failure to provide for individual
differences among learners is perhaps the greatest single source of inefficiency in
education”. Skinner coted in Fraser et al (1990:64).
 Provide a variety for activities when giving daily activities.
 Ensure that they are sufficient learning materials for all children to work with and
carefully plan assignment cards to guide them.
 Involve each pupil in class activities
 Create opportunities where pupils are actively involved in the in the teaching-
learning process so as to discover for themselves through enquiry.
 Teacher to use methods and activities which enable pupils to construct and build
his/her knowledge. Individualised instruction has promotes constructivism
movement in education.

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Advantages of individualised instruction

It allows the bright child to accelerate ahead and prevents the slow child from being
pushed too fast. Each can progress at the pace best suited to him and get individual help
from the teacher.
 It gives the teacher a clear idea of where his children are, in terms of their
progress.
 Each child works alone and his/her finished work is the result of his unaided
effort.
 It also helps the child with special difficulties, whether physical, psychological,
emotional or cultural.
 Various needs and interests of pupils are met.
 It helps pupils to build, construct, acquire skills and knowledge.
 The curriculum is freed from the constraints of the traditional approach and
provide approaches which are child centered.

Disadvantages

 Individualised learning denies children the social and emotional benefits of group
work.
 The system places a heavy task on the teacher’s shoulder because he/she must
prepare sufficient teaching materials for all children, and keep progress of each
child even though they are learning different things.
 It is time consuming since each individual child needs his/her own contact time.
 It is costly in terms of resources.

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Activity 4.3

 What is individualised instruction?

 What are merits and demerits of individualised instruction?
 Outline the basic principles of individualised instruction.

Discipline in the Primary School

The term discipline is derived from the Latin word ‘disco’ which means learn. Discipline
is concerned with creating an environment that maximises the capabilities and potentials
of individual children to achieve their academic and social goals under the auspices of the
school. Discipline should be considered as an integral part of the teaching and learning
process.

Justification of discipline

We need to establish authority in order to develop in pupils’ self-control and discipline.

We need to help children gain control over their own behaviour.

Principles of discipline

• Discipline gives pupils a feeling of security by showing them what they may or
may not do.
• Discipline enables abidance to socially approved standards.
• It also helps children to develop a conscience which would guide decision making
and behavioural control.
• Discipline promotes inner growth; it involves teaching and counseling the child.
In turn the child develops a conscience, this encourages maturity. Discipline is a
societal moulding process for regulation of behaviour.

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Signs of indiscipline in a school

Farrant (1980) points some of the signs of indiscipline in a school as follows:

Violent attacks by pupils on other pupils even teachers.

Deliberate vandalism to property.
Breaches of school rules.
Chronic misbehaviour in classrooms.
Time wasting in lessons.
Challenges to the authority of teachers
Disruption of pupils who are anxious to work.
Stealing
Truancy
Untidiness in school work, dress and habits.
Late coming to school lessons

Types of misbehaviour in the classroom.

Step hems and Crawley (1994) came out with these observations which showed types of
misbehaviour in the classroom
 Pupil “talking out of turn”, hindering other pupils.
 Engaging in calculated idleness or work avoidance.
 Students not being punctual.
 Making unnecessary (non-verbal) noise by scraping chairs, tables, banging
objects, moving clumsily.
 Persistently infringing class or school rules e.g. on dress, pupil behaviour.
 Getting out of sit without permission
 Verbal abuse towards other pupils e.g. offensive or insulting remarks
 Physical aggression towards other pupils e.g. pushing, punching/striking
 Physical destructiveness e.g. breaking objects, damaging furniture
 Lack of attention when teacher is teaching.

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Causes of misbehaviour

As a teacher it is important to know some of the causes of pupil misbehaviour.

Below are some of the causes:

Teacher too soft.

 Teacher too loud.
 Teacher not willing to listen
 Teacher being late
 Lesson boring.
 Lesson theoretical not practical
 Student in a mood
 Student unable to do the work
 Student negative towards school work.
 Student ignorant of rules
 Student inability to anticipate consequences of misbehaviour,

How good classroom discipline can be promoted

According to the Scottish Council for Research in Education (1989) practices that
promote good classroom discipline are that:

Teacher should ensure that there is enough work to keep every child occupied, for
idleness is a major ingredient of misbehaviour.
 Teacher should check to see that each child knows exactly what he/she is
supposed to do.
 Teacher should keep an eye on the performance of each child so as to prevent
insufficient work or boredome.
 Teachers should put right at once any fault that may have potentially troublesome
consequences.

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 Class work should be marked regularly and thoroughly materials and equipment
should be readily available.
 Materials and equipment should be readily available.
 Teachers should show interest in their work as well as pupil’s work
 Pupils should come into a lesson in an orderly manner.
 Lessons should take off briskly and interestingly.
 Teachers should be aware of what individuals are doing
 Teacher should be fair to all pupils and they should be seen practicing fairness.
 Teacher must keep a constant overview of the class.
 Teacher should not ignore unacceptable behaviour make it clear that the
misbehaviour is not going to happen again in your classroom.
 Teachers should be consistent, sudden mood changes confuse and disturb
students.
 Teachers should not leave students unattended, it is the teacher’s job to teach and
look after students in his/her class. Their learning and their heath and safety
depend on the teacher’s presence.
 Teachers should work in harmony with learners
 Teacher should avoid slowing down the pace of the lesson.
 Teachers to use language which is clear, simple and unambiguous
 The teacher should ask brief; snappy, questions to check children’s
comprehension
 Teachers should reward good behaviour and good work.

4.4 Punishments.

This is a specific action appropriate when there has been a breach of rules, school use
punishments to signal serious disapproval of student behaviours. The use of
punishment is intended to help the pupil appreciate the gravity and seriousness with
which you are treating misbehaviour and the urgency of the need for acceptable
behaviour to occur in the future. (Kyriacou 1993)

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 Educational views on punishment

Punishment begins when reasoning fails

 Minor punishment leads back to discipline those children who have rebelled
against it.
 Punishment should promote moral development must suit the wrong act and
must follow the act as soon as possible
 Punishment must be consistent, inevitable and constructive in order to
motivate good behaviour.
 Punishment should be accompanied by an explanation in order to be fair and
just

Commonly used punishments

Withdrawal of privileges
Assigning extra work eg. (writing again the work)
Detentions
Negative comments in work books
Isolation
Placing a report to superiors the head
Deducting marks from a piece of academic work. E.g. written exercise or test.
Verbal punishment-this should be used sparingly e.g. scolding.
Corporal punishment - it involves the infliction of pain and this should never be used
by a teacher at any time as it is against the law.
A disapproving glance.
Suspension, exclusion, and expulsion from school. This is the responsibility of the
head after the approval from the ministry of education.

Punishments are last resort tactics and if used injudiciously. They cause more problems
than solve. The most effective class managers arc teachers who manage their students’

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behaviour and learning without coercion. These are the teachers who motivate students
instead of pushing them.

Activity 4.4
 Examine the causes of indiscipline in the classroom setting. How best can a
teacher overcome these problems?
 How can a teacher promote good classroom discipline?
 Discuss the role of discipline and punishment in the teaching and learning
process in the primary school.

4.5 Principles of grouping and organisation for learning.

What is grouping?

Brown (1988) asserts that a group exists when two or more people define themselves as
members of it and when its existence is recognised by the classroom teacher. Group work
is also defined as an organisation of pupils into small groups to work on a class
assignment or project Siyakwazi (1999). Therefore, teachers are encouraged to use
groups as a way of managing a large class and as a learning process.

When should we use a group?

 Scarcity of materials. Grouping permits maximum use of limited resources

 Insufficient time to get a task done. Tasks that usually take long time can be done
in a very short time. (2002).
 The teacher is unable to manage the learners when working individually. They
give help to the teacher in dealing with a large class.
 The nature of the lesson e.g. when using the discussion method.

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  Development of social values that is co-operation. They encourage learning in an
atmosphere of co-operation and social harmony. In addition, groups provide
opportunity for individuals to practice cooperation (Siyakwazi 1999).
 To encourage slow learning pupils to learn from their mates who are fast when
grasping concepts.

Types of groups

Galton and Williamson (1992) identified four types of groups which are seating, working,
collaborative and cooperative groups.

Seating groups
 Pupils seat in a group but do not work as a group. Each pupil has a separate task.
 Each pupil completes a different assignment and has a different outcome.
 Pupils can write stories on themes chosen by the pupils.

Working groups

Children work on the same task but they work as individuals independently.

 Pupils may be working on the same task / mathematical problems and may check
each other’s answers but they will be expected work towards their own solutions.
 the main purpose of the working group is to use the teachers time more efficiently
by allowing him/her to introduce his/her topic, give directions and guide activity
to groups rather than the whole class.

Collaborative groups
 It involves all children contributing to a single outcome.

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  Each pupil has the same task the task is organised in such a way that individual
pupils within the group contribute to a joint outcome.
 The teacher has contact with pupils, when the teacher is attending one group of
children the other pupils are expected to continue to collaborate with each other.
 Pupils may be involved in problem solving for e.g. discussing a social or moral
issue.

Cooperative groups.

 Pupils work on the same task but each has individual assignments which
eventually are put together to form a joint outcome.
 Usually but not always cooperative groups will be composed of children of
different ability to encourage slow learning pupils to learn from their more
advanced peers.
 Pupils can be involved in the making of a map.

Ways of grouping pupils

 Groups may be created in different ways and for different reasons in the
classroom. They may be kept the same for a long time or for specific types of
tasks, or new groups may be formed from time to time.

Groups can be formed using the following criteria.

 Age.
 Ability.
 Friendship.
 Gender.
 The name list, the teacher just picks names from the list in a systematic or random
way/ manner.
 Sitting arrangement.

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  The learner’s interests. All learners with the same interests are put in the same
group.
 Fitness, health condition or height learners should be grouped accordingly for
example some pieces of work require strong healthy learners, or tall learners.

What size should your group be?

This may depend on the activity.
The larger the group,
 The greater the confidence the more likely it will challenge the tutors opinions.
 The more likely is that the group will interpret the task correctly.
 The less time it will take you to visit all the groups.
 The more experience the group will draw on.
 The slower the decision making process and the greater the difficulty in
achieving consensus.
 The more the passengers there will be unless specific roles are allotted.

The smaller the group

 The more activity there will be and therefore the fewer passengers there will be:
 The faster decisions will be made

Groups of between two and five are very common

 Groups larger than about seven passengers become common unless very specific
roles are allotted.
 Up to six, many hands make the work light.
 Over eight too many cooks spoil the brooth.

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Organising for group work

Should the teacher decide to carry out some group work in the lesson, it is crucial that
there be thorough preparation for it to be successful and interactive.
In organising group work, some factors to consider include.
 Justification of using group work.
 How the pupils will be grouped (numbers and with whom).
 Classroom lay out.
 Facilities/equipment needed.
 Clear specification of group activity and leading pupils towards it.
 Clear objectives of the task.
 Organisational and management skills ground rules to be established.
 Control.
 Roles Define roles to be played by group leaders, chairperson, reporter and other
participants.

Managing group activities:

 The teacher may need a chairperson or scribe for each group ask for someone who
hasn’t done it before so that everyone gets a turn.
 Make sure the task is clearly explained.
 Don’t allow any activity until you say so and give a time limit.
 Visit the group if the activity lasts more than 3 minutes this is vital.
 Check that genuine progress has been made i.e.
What has the scribe written down?
Have they interpreted the task correctly?
Have they missed some important points?
 Ask if there are any queries.
 Don’t talk to the whole class during group work unless it is unavoidable. If it is so
stop all activity, make sure you have everyone’s attention, and make your point
clearly and concisely.

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  as you visit, make sure you don’t get stuck with one group nommatter how,
interesting their work might be.
 Get your head down to their Level and smile to signal cooperation rather than
judging.
 After the activity ask groups to report back at least some of their findings, the
groups will usually be interested in each other’s work.
 It is vital to reflect on any outcomes and summarise what you hope the pupils
have learnt from the activity.

Advantages of group work

 group approach is more flexible, different topics can be covered at the same time
during group work in, in contact to whole class approach when only one topic is
covered at a time.
 Group work is the best way to make effective use of scarce equipment and
materials.
 Pupils learn to work as a team, thus cultivating the spirit of cooperation.
 The group approach help pupil to become self-reliant and it discourages pupil
dependence on the teacher.
 It encourages active participation of all pupils.
 Group work breaks the monotony of the whole class approach and offers pupils
more stimulating class activities.
 Slow learners are more likely to learn from brighter learners in mixed ability
groups.
 Teachers have more opportunity to identify pupils needs and thus to help
individual pupils and particular groups appropriately.

Disadvantages of group work

 Group work makes more demands on the teacher during the preparation stage e.g.
preparing separate specific tasks for each group.

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  Before pupils become used to group work the teacher may have to cope with
organisational and management problems.
 Unless organised before the start of the lesson, the shifting ground can waste time.
 May take more time than whole class teaching.
 Groups may go off task and be distracted by other pupils.
 Unless carefully controlled, the noise level in the classroom may be higher than
desirable.

Activity 4.5
 Drawing from your current teaching experiences list and outline the factors you
need for consider in organising group work?
 What ale the roles of the teachers when of carrying out group work?
 Justify the use of grouping in the primary school?

Definition of terms

Cohen and Manion (1989) define a record as a written account of the school and
classroom activities in learning situation, Cuba and Lincoln (1981:225) describe records
as “any written statements prepared by an individual for the purpose of attesting to an
event or providing an account to a process”. it is clear from the two definitions that class
records are devices or tools that enable the teacher to understand his/ her pupils better,
plan their learning experiences and determine the degree to which learning objectives are
being achieved, Class records are written account of classroom activities.
 Record keeping is a systematic process of recording all classroom activities so
that the state of the classroom can be revealed.
 it is the compilation and maintenance of information and statistics on pupils.

Rationale for Record Keeping

 Records are needed to provide teachers with information on the success or failure
of teaching methods and materials.

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  Records are used for diagnostic purposes to identify under achievers and pupils
needing extra help (Remedial teaching).
 Records help the teacher to keep track of where individual pupils are in terms of
academic achievement.
 Record keeping s needed for performance appraisal. Records assist in the smooth
transfer of pupils from one school to another.
 Records are used to communicate information to other teachers, parents and head
teachers.
 Records provide the basis for guidance and counselling
 Records ensure the success and continuity of educational programmes throughout
the school.
 Records are a testimony that the teacher is or not doing his work.
 Records act as guidance in your daily teaching.
 Records help the teacher to plan learning experience more efficiently and to
evaluate progress more purposefully.

Characteristics of good Records

The facts recorded must be authentic. It is better not to write any information than to give
untrue information.
 Records should reflect on pupils’ experiences.
 Records should show skills and abilities developed.
 Records should be based on concepts being learnt.
 The information in the records should he accurately written /recorded from the
original source.
 Any piece of information should be recorded as soon as it is obtained. Records
should be evaluated periodically so as to see how far they have served their
purposes.
 Records should be constantly be updated.
 Records should be meaningful and accessible.
 Records should be well labelled and easily followed.
 Good records should be communicative.

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Types of records
As a teacher in the making you need to familiarise yourself with the nature of the
following records used in the primary school.
 attendance register
 progress record
 remedial record
 reading record
 social record book/ child study
 class inventory
 Schemes and lesson plans record.
 Evaluation record.

Records keeping skills

 The attendance register.
 This is the register of class attendance each day (Ozigi 1994). It is a record
showing the trend in pupils’ attendance to school during school days.
 Write names in alphabetical order in block capitals.

Use these symbols

 Mark/ for present.
A for absent
S for sick
 Use blue or black ink.
 Fill in the date of birth and home address.

Social records / individual.

 it contains unique background information about each child such information
includes:
 Pupils names, sex. Date of birth, name of parents! guardians, their physical
address and contact numbers.
 family history ;-size of the family

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 - Position of birth rank of the child in the family.
- Number of siblings in the home.
- Occupation of parents or guardian

The test record

Aggrarwal (1992) and Mills (1991) contend that a test record book is compiled for
different subjects topics/concepts meant for testing pupils regularly.

You might need the following outline.

 subject
 testing date.
 test objectives
 test items/content
 remarks/comments

The progress record

A progress record is a record that shows pupils’ academic achievement in terms of

tests or exercises written fortnightly, monthly, or end of term tests in various subject
areas (Gwarinda 2000).
 All subjects in primary school curriculum should be assessed. that is all the
subjects;
 Weak performers are recorded in the remedial record for remedial, purposes.

Remedial record

Farrant (1995) defines a remedial record as one that diagnostically shows pupils who
need specific and immediate help in given subject areas.

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For a remedial record book to serve its purpose well it must have the following
heading written at the top of a double page record.
 date of admission into the remedial record
 The pupils full name
 The subject in where the pupil was found to be a remedial case.
 Clearly define area of weakness.
 Proposed media to aid treatment.
 Proposed treatment or remedy - which includes strategies, practical
demonstrations and illustrations destined to make learning as concrete as
possible.
 The results should make you reconsider your strategies to review
the lessons to determine the cause of results.

If the results are satisfactory, then take the pupil out of the record book in the
particular subject area.

If the results are unsatisfactory keep the pupil in the remedial record book for as long
he/she is unable to comprehend the concept in question. Vary the remedial strategies
with the hope of getting one that suits the cognitive level of the pupils.

Reading Record
Cohen and Manion (1994) confirm that reading is one of the best ways of mastering only
language. This can be due in the following ways;
 first it is through reading that your pupils improve their spelling skills as they
recognise words
 They improve their fluency and comprehension skills as well.

Reading approaches include

 Reading for fluency
 Phonics 1-word attack.

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  reading for fun (library reading)

Class Inventory
 A class inventory is a record of all furniture, textbooks and equipment in the
classroom.
 It tells you how well or unwell the classrooms furnished furniture is
 It helps to inform the school on the resources that you need to enable you to teach
effectively.
 Your records may show the number of usable and non-usable textbooks

Activity 4.6
 Define records and record keeping.
 What are the characteristics of records?
 Discuss the rationale of record keeping
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a test record book, remedial
record heck, progress record book.

4.5 Learning Centre

The classroom can be arranged to facilitate independent study. This can be done through
the use of the learning centre concept. In this section we discuss what learning centres
are, the different examples of learning centre, the instructional value of learning centres.
Suggestions on how to start a learning centre are also outlined.

What are learning centres?

Learning centres are areas in the classroom where a variety of hands on materials and
meaningful activities provide opportunities for students to be actively involved in their

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learning individually or in small groups. Pupils move through different activities
independently with little teacher assistance.

What are the instructional value/benefits?

 Opportunities for students to explore. discover, create, practice and apply skills.
“Learning is doing” John Dewley.
 Promotes critical and creative thinking skills.
 Develop independent learning strategies.
 Co-operative learning.
 Addresses different learning styles when a variety of activities are available for
student choice.
 Differentiated instruction if activities vary by complexity and take into account
different levels of ability/readiness.
 Allows the teacher opportunities for flexible grouping and varied activities such
as individual conferencing and guided reading groups.
 Promotes independent learning.
 Provide opportunities for learners to take responsibility for their learning and
demonstrate what they have learned.
 Enrichment of child’s knowledge, skill development in a specific curriculum area.
 Promotes individual learning.

Examples of Centres

Literacy centres.

Provide meaningfiul literacy activities and time for reading, writing, listening and
speaking.
Reading
 Provide reading material, self-selection books and computer software for
independent or partner reading.

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  Partner reading is modelled and role played with students so that they know how
to read cooperatively.

Listening and Speaking

 Opportunities for reading a aloud, partner reading and listening centre to books on
tape.
 Procedures for taking turns, who goes first and who manages the book are
rehearsed early in the year.


Writing

Class journals, build- a- story activities, spelling and writing with magic letters and
computer software with writing applications.

Research Centres
Research for Social Studies, Science, Health or projects in other subject areas; options
for independent research on a topic of choice or a group topic.

Examples of Research Centres

During the Trees and Forestry Unit students gather interesting words and facts on
trees from magazines and information books.

Grade 6/7 Research Centre

In the research centre students at each grade level have opportunities to learn about
countries as it relates to the individual curriculum.

Exploratory and Interest Centres

Exploratory and interest centres are stations of academic activities based on students’
interests which are compiled independently at their own pace.

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Examples of Interest, Exploratory Centres
Grade 6 Geometry- space construct
 dimensional figures out of playdough plasticine or other manipulatives
materials.
 Children should have many experiences investigating 3-D shapes in their
environment and relating these objects to geometric solids,
 Give students ample opportunity to manipulate solids before classifying.
 At the Grade 6 level students should understand that 3-D shapes can be
constructed as a solid (clay) a shell (box) or a skeleton.
 Give them opportunity to create all three forms.

Grade 5 Science. Simple machines

 Use of balances and scales in the classroom can be set up as centre activities in
science or Mathematics to further demonstrate use of fist class levers.
 Use a metre stick, a spring scale and sonic weights which can be suspended from
the metre stick to experiment with second class levers,
 Use recycled or “found” materials (toilet paper rolls, tubes, lids, boxes and pieces
of wood, etc. to construct simple machines to explore the concepts of wheels and
axles, screws, inclined planes, pulleys, levers and wedges.

Grade 3. Science Simple Machines.

 Allow students time to handle materials such as rulers, wedges, nails, screws, nuts
and bolts, small wheels, prisms, egg beaters, pencil sharpener.
 Allow students to choose from a variety of hands on open ended activities. These
include building and deconstruction activities, drama, games, crafts, painting and
moulding.

Subject Area Centres

Examples: Shona centre, Music centre, Social Studies centre. These centres extend skill
development in a specific subject area and also provide enrichment. Design different

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activities and materials in which students perform independent or group learning
activities.

How to start a learning centre

How can I prepare for success?
 Keep it simple to get started; start with one centre and build slowly as you gain
confidence and a sense of what activities work best.” Remember it is better to do
a good job with only a few centres than to overextend yourself and provide a less
meaningful experience for both you and the student,”
 Start with a subject you feel most comfortable using your curriculum
guide/syllabus, plan the activities and experiences which will enhance your goals.
Write out your instructions clearly. Be specific, where will they work, how will
they work, what materials will they need.
 take time to introduce the centre and practice procedures. At the beginning do not
plan activities which require teacher involvement such as small groups/work or
conferencing-leave this time open for monitoring and reinforcing student
behaviour- this is crucial to setting the stage for success. As centre time becomes
an established pattern, then alternate teacher activities may be added.

“Every moment invested in teaching routines is time well spent because it will save hours
of instructional time later,”Fountas and Pinnell, 1996.
 Begin slowly and gradually increase the requirements. Week one- your goal for
students to simply understand the schedule and rotation. Activities should be easy
and familiar, allowing students to gain an understanding of the centre approach.
 Week two. Expand the focus to include the following printed directions;
increasing directions on the importance of reading directions in the beginning of
leaning centre implementation will assist all students iii assuming their roles as
active learners.
 Plan and rehearse your management system how will students organise and record
their progress? Assessment

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 Rehearse movement through centres.
 Practice helping procedures; model how you want your students to handle
questions or problems and role play. Promote co-operative learning with
strategies such as “ask 3 before me.”
 Evaluation and sharing time - 5 minutes for evaluating the success of the group or
individual personal reflection on the student work. 5-10 minutes of sharing to
bring reinforcement and positive closure to activity time.
 Work smarter not harder- develop, a centre and keep it going for a year long,
simply changing the activities to suit the instructional needs and interests of the
students, classroom themes e.t.c. make activities that are self-checking and do not
require a hand- in sheet to be corrected.
 Solicit parent help in the younger grades to work at centres with games where
rules may be an issue.
 Teach “who goes first?” strategies, consensus skills and majority rules through
discussion and role play.
 How can I manage Early Finishers or Never Finishers?
 The “early finishers” and the “never finishers” are a fact of life regardless of
whether you use the learning centre strategy or not.
 Set a standard procedure for early finishers - silent reading from a basket of books
in the younger grades or personal reading material in the older grades.
 Set high expectations for all students in your classroom but be flexible in
adjusting activities for students who have difficulty in finishing their work.
 Designate a catch up period each week, in which any missed centre or incomplete
activities can be finished. Allowing for some activities to be required and some
activities to be optional, provide additional activities for early finishers for
students with attention difficulties, provide a cubed work space with fewer
distraction.

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Management strategies of learning Centres
Establish initial rules and procedures prior to using learning centres
General classroom rules - there needs to be a balance between freedom and order. State
classroom rules in a positive manner and review frequently. Discuss what will our room
look like?

Acceptable noise level - although the noise level in a learning centre classroom is usually
high than a traditional classroom, there still needs to be guideline for acceptable voice
levels. Establish what “partner voice” and “small group voices” mean and reinforce
regularly discuss what will our room sound like?
 Changing activities - how will students be notified of ending activity time and
what procedures will they follow?
 Managing materials: - children should be completely responsible for collecting
materials and putting them away. It is also important to reinforce care of materials
that have many “teacher hours” of preparation behind them.
 Finish-up Time. What do students do if their activity is not finished? Where does
incomplete work go? When is incomplete work finished?

Designing activities

The centre should be created with clear curricular objectives in mind that is it must be
designed to ensure that students learn something rather than merely entertain them
(McCarthy M 1977) Activities should be appropriate in difficulty level.
 Activities should succeed in enabling the students to meet the objectives
 Activities should be interesting and appealing to the students.
 There must be appropriate amount and variety of activities and materials (if
necessary to accommodate a range of student ability level.

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How do I evaluate and monitor student work?
 Learning centres provide a perfect environment for authentic assessment since the
classroom is alive within learning activity and opportunities for individual or
group assessment. Evaluation is vital to programming knowing where students are
coming from will enable you to plan where they are going. Centre time provides
teacher with an opportunity to monitor student work and conference with
students. Observe all relevant data for each student and look for patterns of
behaviour and evidence of student growth.
 Ongoing anecdotal records and checklists
 student conferences for evaluation and goal setting.
 centre folders
 Learning centre products may be required hand in activities and grade and
upgraded centre projects.
 writing samples and taped reading samples allow the student to demonstrate
progress

How do students keep track of their work and progress?

 Tracking sheets: -
 They allow you and students to keep a record of centre choices. Children can
select an activity from the listed choices at a centre and mark in the appropriate
area when the activity is complete. These tracking sheets can include sections for
students self-evaluation and teacher comments.
 Keeping the sheet at each centre provide easy access by both students and
teacher.

Activity 4.7

 What are learning centres?

 How does learning centre enhance learning?
 Identify the four learning centres? And identify suitable activities for each centre.
 What are the instructional benefits of learning centres?

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References

Brown, R. (1988) Group of Processes: Dynamics within and Between Groups. Oxford,
Basil Blackwell.

Farrant, J, S. (1980) Principles and Practise of Education. Zimbabwe. Longman.

Fraser W, J. Loubser C, P. and Van Roy, M.P, (1996) Didactics for the Undergraduate
Student 2nd ed. Butterworth Publishers.

Galton, M. and Williamson. .J. (1992) Groupwerth in the Primary School. London,
Routledge.
Gwarinda T, C. (1993) The Practice of Teaching Harare College Press.

Kasambira, K,P. (1993)_Lesson Planning and Class Management. London, Longman.

Kyriacou C. (1995) Essential Teaching skill. Edinburgh, Stanley Thornes

Pety, G. (l993) Teaching Today: A Practical Guide. UK. Sanley Thornes Publishers.

Quist, D. (2000) Primary Teaching Methods. London, MacMillan.

Stephens, P and Crawley T. (1994) Becoming an effective teacher. England .Stanley

Thornes.

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 UNIT 5

GENERAL TEACHING METHODS AND APPROACHES

5.0 Introduction

In the teaching and learning process the child and the teacher are linked through the
subject matter. This subject matter, for it to be effectively communicated from the teacher
to the child requires the use of appropriate methods. Thus, teachers need to be equipped
with appropriate methods if they are to help pupils learn.

However, when making a choice, it is important that the teacher knows fully well how
the method is effectively prepared and used, understands the rules that govern its use and
should be aware of its advantages and disadvantages. A consideration of this has led us to
introduce you to the general teaching methods in this unit.

This unit is going to focus on:

 teacher centred / child centred methods.
 inductive and deductive learning
 discussion method
 story telling
 the lecture method
 demonstration
 the question method
 discovery method
 role - play, drama and games
 problem solving
 field trips
 thematic approach
 resource person

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Note: that the order in which the methods are tackled does not signify their
effectiveness or importance.

5.1Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain what a teaching method is.

 Distinguish between:
i) Teacher centred and child centred methods
ii) Inductive and deductive learning
 Describe and apply a variety of teaching methods in teaching situations.

5.2 Definition of a Teaching Method

Chikuni (2003: 104) states. “A method of teaching as a way in which learners acquire
knowledge and skills.” Kasambira (1993: 40) says, “A teaching method is a way of
carrying out the actual teaching in the classroom.” Deducing from the above citations, a
teaching method is therefore the way a teacher transmits knowledge and skills to the
learners. For example, if a teacher asks questions during teaching and learning, the
method he/she is using is the question answer method. Gone are the days when teachers
were seen as the fountains of knowledge that should he poured into the learner’s heads.
This suggests that teaching and learning can take place in a variety of situations through
the use of a variety of methods.

Activity 5.1
 Explain what teaching methods are and suggest why they are essential in the
teaching and learning process?

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Types of Teaching Methods

Methods of teaching may be grouped into teacher centred and learner centred.
Centeredness refers to the most active part in the process.

Teacher Centred Methods

Baker (1998) says teacher centred methods are methods that put the teacher in the Centre
of the teaching and learning. The teacher is the main actor — he/she knows everything.
Chikuni (2003: 114) concur with Baker (1998) and say teacher centred methods arc ways
of teaching where the teacher participates more actively than the learners and has to do
more to enhance the quality of the learning.

Thus, teacher centred methods are ways of teaching where the teacher occupies the
Centre stage as an active disseminator of information, student motivator and director of
thinking. The teacher gives the facts to the pupils and the pupils are supposed to
memorise the facts. Examples of teacher centred methods are the telling/ lecture method,
storytelling and demonstration methods.

Kasambira (1993) and Mnkhandla (1996) agree that the main points of teacher centred
methods are:
 The teacher is a custodian of knowledge — that is, he/she knows everything.
 The teacher disseminates information, motivates students and directs all learning.
He/she has total control over the teaching — learning process.
 They (Teaching methods) revolve around the assumption that the teacher knows
best and that learners are empty vessels that have to be filled by the teacher.
 The role of the pupils is to sit and listen attentively
 Discipline is over emphasised.

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Learner — Centred Methods
According to Chikumi (2003:1 14) “learner centred methods are those methods in
which learners participate more than the teacher.” Barker (1998:65) states that
“pupil centred methodology puts the pupil in the centre of learning.” Thus, learner
centred methods are modern approaches where the child now takes a much more
active part in the teaching — learning situation. The child now takes an active
part in the classroom proceedings so quality learning is enhanced:

Examples of such methods are drama, role playing, discussions, assignments and problem
saving.
Mnkhandla (1996) and Kasambira (1993) summarise the main points of pupil centred
methodology as:
* the teacher is a partner in the teaching and learning process. The teacher discusses
with the pupils on how learning should proceed.
* the teacher acknowledges that pupils know something before coming to school. The
teacher’s task is to build on what the pupils already know.
* pupils are active in the process.
* pupils work with things in order to find information for themselves.
*the teacher is only the facilitator, motivator, guides and consolidates the learning
process. 1-tel she is not the emptor but can ask questions in order to focus pupil’s
attention.

Activity 5.2

? Discuss the teacher centred methodology and the child centred methodology, which
one do you think is more effective and why?

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5.3 The Inductive And Deductive Learning
According to Steyn, Badenhorst and Yule (1981) man requires both analysis and
synthesis in the process of thought. That is, the solution of some problems calls for an
analysis of data while that of others call for data synthesis. Usually both processes are
necessary to solve a single problem. These differences form the basis for the inductive
and deductive methods of teaching. Thus in every teaching method applied in the
classroom, either the inductive or deductive method or a combination of both is used.
Thus both approaches play a role in solving problems.

The inductive approach

Inductive learning proceeds from the particular to the general rule or from the effects to
the cause, meaning that, in this approach we take the concrete as we see it and from it
induce the law, rule or general statement.

For example, an experiment on the intake of water by plants illustrates inductive learning.
That is, a teacher without saying anything on the intake of water by plants, takes two
roses and puts them in two different vases, the one with water, the other without, the next
day a marked difference in the appearance of the two flowers will be evident Why? By
questioning the pupils on why the difference in appearance, the general law that plants
need water to survive can be determined.

Another example is that on the application of the cumulative law in mathematics, pupils
could be required to find the results of the following:
4+6=10 6+4=10
7+5=12 5÷7=12
8+9=17 9+8=17
The pupils will soon see that this particular law applies
Self-discovery is of major importance when using the inductive approach.
Stem, Badenhorst and Yule (1981:41) suggest that the process of proceeding from the
particular to the general passes through various steps distinguished as:

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a) Preparation
This is an introductory phase in which the problem is recognized and begins to
take shape.
b) Presentation
Here, the available facts are investigated and details of the problem are
analysed.
c) Comparison
New facts are being compared with what is already known and a probable
solution is sought.

d) Generalisation
The general rule is induced and formulated.

e) Application
The general rule is applied to special cases.

The Deductive Approach

In the deductive approach, the general truth is taken as a starting point and from this is
deduced what can be expected in the concrete case.
For example, our previous example of the two roses can be applied here. The teacher can
now first explain the intake of water by plants and tell pupils what the results will be if
the plant is left without water. He/ she will then put the roses into two vases, one with
water and one without and leaves them for a day. The pupils will then see that the
expected happens. Pupils can also apply the deductive approach in mathematics, for
example when rounding off numbers to the nearest 10, they will be given the rule that 5
to 14= 10, 15 to 24 = 20, 25 to 34 = 30 and they will be required to apply this rule to
individual eases. In this case, teachers should note that it is not possible for pupils to
establish the rule themselves by using the inductive approach.

5.4 The Discussion Method

Mnkandla (1996) and Chikumi (2003) define the discussion method as a method which
involves sharing of ideas and opinions. Thus, in a discussion the teacher and the learner

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talk about and debate a concept for the express purpose of exchanging views and
experiences.
Discussions can be undertaken in pairs, in fairly large groups or by the class. The
discussion method overlaps with other methods and for discussion sessions to. be
successful there is need for the teacher to design attention directors.
Steyn, Badenhorst and Yule 91983) points out that discussions call for thorough planning
on the part of both the teacher and the pupils. Thus, thorough planning helps to maintain
children’s enthusiasm into the lesson and that a well-prepared teacher can ask leading
questions without interfering with the actual discussion. In addition, a teacher should
therefore make sure that the subject matter is appropriate and the pupils who are going to
take part are able to cope with it.

Advantages of the discussion method

 Leaner’s participation is increased especially if groups are small.
 it promotes co-operation and tolerance among learners.
 well organised discussions give the teacher a break.
 Difficult situations are clarified.
 It develops some talents like leadership.
 Both the teacher and the learners are given the chance to know each other better.

Disadvantages
 leaving learners unattended may result in misuse of time.
 It is time consuming.
 Sometimes expected ideas may not come out of the discussion.

5.5 The story telling method

Mnkandla (1996:60) defines the story telling method as “a method where the teacher or
the learner tells a story with the intention of inculcating morals or ethics”. Steyn,
Badenhorst and Yule (1983) go on to define the story telling method as a method of
teaching whereby children are introduced to the new subject matter through a story. In

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story telling pupils are expected to listen attentively and intelligently. Thus, the teacher
should be well prepared so as to explain the work logically.

In using the story telling method, the teacher should give attention to the suitability of the
subject matter in tents of its content and the linguistic ability of the pupils. Thud story
telling should be a simple, clear, absorbing and convincing presentation aimed at
achieving a lesson’s objectives.

Advantages of the story telling method

 The living voice of the teacher has a formative influence on the child which no.
textbook can achieve.
 Naujon is more than the communication of knowledge. It results in emotional
experience.
 It is a method capable of establishing self-activity among learners.

Method may not make it possible to ensure that all learners are learning.
Lack of animation or actions can lead to boredom on the part of learners whereas
the teachers over dramatisations may divert pupil’s attention and the essence of the lesson
may be lost to the pupils.

5.6 The lecture method

The lecture method is pregnant of names. It is sometimes called the telling or exposition
or the chalk and talk. Owarinda (1993) states that the lecture method is an oral
presentation of information to which the learners react by silently listening and
sometimes taking notes. Mnkandla (I 996;60) views the lecture method as a method
whereby the teacher delivers a prepared exposition. On the other hand, Chikuni (2003)
suggests that there are various forms of the lecture method. For example, an author
speaks through a textbook while a singer speaks through a song.

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Therefore, basing on the above attention it is safe to say that there are two main features
in a lecture method- the speaker and the listener. However, though there are other
methods with such features, the difference is on who speaks, where and how.

Stew, Badenhorst and Yule (1996) are of the view that in the primary school lecturing
should be avoided and the teacher should concentrate more on talking informally and
should get down to the developmental level of the pupils concerned. This then suggests
that the teacher should not be talking for the whole duration of the lesson but he/she
should introduce the pupils to the new subject matter by self- discovery.

Chikuni (2003) and Steyn, Badenhorst and Yule (1996) concur that when using
lecture methods teachers should:

 be well prepared to explain the work logically.

 be original in their presentations.
 speak with a capturing voice and at a pace suitable for the type of learners.
 select subject matter as regards content and the linguistic abilit3i of pupils:
 make presentations which are simple, clear, absorbing and convincing.
 as far as possible, teach from the head.
 be as cheerful and humorous as possible to maintain morale.
 teach confidently and with agility.
 set realistic tasks.
 ensure that resources are available and they meet the requirements of the task.

Like in any other method, it is the teacher’s task to make all necessary preparations such
as making the learning environment conductive, getting a handout done or discussing
what is expected with a resource person before using the lecture method. In support
Chikuni (2003) says:
A change in environment especially during very hot and cold times, is a very
good spirit lifter, so, prepare the new environment if necessary.

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Advantages of lecture methods
 they can be taught to thousands of people at a time.
 a lot of information can be taught.
 they are cost effective in terms of time as they can be used with many learners.
 information taught is authentic as the teacher will have researched.

Disadvantages
 they may not make it possible to ensure that all learners are learning, especially if
the group is very large.
 the preparations and presentations can be quite taxing on both the teacher and the
learners.
 some people may not have the technology to be used- for example computers.

5.7 The Demonstration Method

Gatawa (1991:730) states that the demonstration method is “a direct means of explaining
things to pupils”. While Shumbayaonda and Mariuge (2000: 114) view the demonstration
method as “a method which involves direct action by teacher and pupil; and is useful in
translation theory into practice”. Thus the demonstration method is a method whereby the
teacher or learner shows others bow something is done. The demonstration is not only
done by the class teacher but can be done by learners, resource person, video cassettes or
by television.

According to Chikuni (2003:124) there are basically two types of demonstration the
whole process and the step-by-step or blow by blow. In the whole process demonstration,
the teacher demonstrations the whole process from the beginning to the end in one
continuous process. The step by step demonstration is where the process is presented in
bits and the learners go and practice what has been demonstrated?

The Zimbabwe Open University Module Dep 102 (2006) and Chikuni (2003) concur that
the following aspects should be taken into consideration when carrying out a
demonstration:
 make sure all the learners can see.

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  avoid large groups.
 work neatly and orderly.
 work at a pace suitable for the average learners.
 explain the demonstration where necessary so that the learners follow it more
easily.

Advantages of demonstration
 It caters for individual learners, especially the disadvantaged learners.
 relates what is taught to real life situations.
 pupils like to see things happening, so they will pay attention.
 errors can be quickly and easily identified and can be corrected before it is too
late.
 pace is flexible.

Disadvantages of demonstration
 it is not cost effective in terms of time since there is going to be a lot of movement
which may be time consuming and chaotic.
 it cannot be used to teach some skills such as reasoning.
 the teacher may fail to master the skill to be demonstrated.

Activity 5.3
Discuss the use of the demonstration method in the teaching and learning situation

5.7 The Question and Answer Method

This method is also known as the Socratic method because it emanated from the Greek
Philosopher Socrates. According to Marker (1986). Socrates believed that people can be
made to realise inconsistencies in their thinking through asking questions, thus with tile
question and answer method, the teacher makes use of the existing knowledge of the
child. By asking questions based on this existing knowledge. the teacher makes the
answers of the pupils the means of giving the pupils new insight and greater knowledge.
Questions are not asked to determine the level of their knowledge but uses the answers to
teach the children.

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Stevn. Badenhorst and Yule (1986) stress that the teacher must first determine the level
of knowledge of pupils precisely, so as to plan his/her questions. Anticipated possible
answers horn pupils will help him /her to build questions in a logical sequence knowledge
is organised by this systematic, continuous use oi questions and answers.

Advantages of the questioning method.

 learners’ participation is maximised
 both teacher and pupils learn.
 encourages deep thinking.
 encourages research in both the teacher and Learners.
 promotes independent thinking among learners.

Disadvantages
 time is wasted when irrelevant questions are asked
 defensiveness of one’s opinion may hinder progress and unhealthy relationships
may develop.
 leaners may have difficulty in expressing themselves and so may not ask or
answer questions.

Activity 5.4
How questions of pupils could be used by the teacher in the presentation of a
lesson

5.8 The Discovery Method

According to Chikuni (2003:141) the discovery method is “a method where learners find
out information for themselves instead of the teacher giving it to them”. Shumbayaonda
and Maringe (2000) state that the discovery method is a method that parts the child at the
centre of learning. Thus, the discovery method is a method of teaching and learning
where pupils are given the freedom to be creative and find information for themselves, in
support Barker (1998) says that in discovery learning the teacher should not give the

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student the facts hut should give the pupil guidelines. The pupil will use the guidelines to
find the required information.

When pupils are guided by the teacher in discovering answers to problems. it is called
guided discovery and when they- do it without the teacher’s guidance it is called
unguided discovery, unguided discovery is purely a learner centred method. The teacher
just sets the scene and explains the objective, while in guided discovery both the teacher
and the leaners play an active role.

Advantages of the discovery method

 put the child at the centre of learning.
 it is a very interesting method of teaching.
 the method promotes full participation of learners in the learning process.
 if positive discoveries are made, then learners develop a positive self-image and
confidence.
 it puts interest and activity in the learning process as pupils are involved.

Disadvantages
 it demands a lot of materials.
 it is not cost effective in terms of time.
 it needs a lot of supervision on the part of the teacher, if pupils are not to lose
focus.

Activity 5.5
Analyse the effectiveness of the discovery method?

5.9 Role Playing Method

According to Chikuni (2003:1 58) role playing is “a free situation in which the role
player spontaneously performs what she feels and thinks about a given role under specific
conditions” Gatawa (1999) and Davies (1981) purport that role playing involves pupils
acting out an incident. Therefore, the citations above suggest that role playing is a method

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where by the learner puts him/herself in someone else’s shoes for purposes of practical
experience.

The pupils do not use scripts. The learners in role playing are required to think quickly,
be imaginative and creative. For example, pupils may role play a policeman / police
woman arresting a criminal.

5.10 The Dramatisation Method

Dramatisation can be used in helping pupils learn. Drama is used because it can be used
to educate whilst pupils are enjoying. Chikuni (2003: 158) states that the dramatisation
method of teaching requires leaners to read, memorise and rehearse words before acting.
Thus, through dramatisation pupils can dance or pretend to cry and, in the process, they
play and laugh so they are likely to take part whole heartedly.

In support, Gatawa (1999) says that drama helps to develop confidence and self esteem in
pupils as a result of standing in front of a large group dramatising real life situations.

Advantages of Role Playing and Dramatisation

 it is enjoyable to role play or dramatise so all that is taught may be remembered.
 break the tension in passive methods.
 they may build confidence in those who act

Disadvantages
 there may be minimal leaner’s participation since only a few learners may be
involved.
 If de-rolling is not emphasised, learners may get embarrassed and they may avoid
future participation.
 They may consume a lot of time in both preparation and presentation.

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5.11 The Problem Solving Method
The problem-solving method is also called the self-discovery or heuristic method.
According to Steyn, Badenhorst and Yule (1983). Gwarinda (1993) and Chikuni
(2003), the problem-solving method is a teaching method which is used where there is
a difficulty that needs attention/solution. Thus, it is a method of teaching by which
learning is stimulated through the created situations where learners can discover laws and
principles themselves.

The procedure
 the teacher stimulates the pupils by confronting them with a problem.
 pupils themselves must then find, develop and extend their knowledge by
independent thought.
 it is important that the child finds the correct solution on his/her own.

Role of the teacher

 the activity in which the teacher gives direct instruction is kept on an absolute
minimum. However, the teacher must not be completely excluded from the
investigative nature of the child.
 he/ she must act as a leader, supervisor or guider.
 the teacher should not hesitate to offer help and guidance up to a certain point but
should avoid providing the actual solution.
 the teacher should consider the child’s level of thinking.
 do not set standards which are too high as they may lead to frustration.

Examples of Problem-Solving Activities

These may be the form of quizzes, puzzles, sorting exercises or word sets.

Advantages of the Problems Solving Method

 they encourage learners to think.
 they help learners in classifying things.
 they train learners to seek logical answers to problems and to think for themselves

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  they promote self-reliance among learners.

Disadvantages
 ill- defined problem can direct the child’s thought in the wrong direction.
 it can become a night mare for the less gifted child.
 at times, they are not cost effective in terms of time.

5.12 The Field Trip Method

The field trip is another method that can be used to teach in our schools. Shumbayaonda
and Maringe (2000) define the field trip method as a method/situation when pupils visit a
place of educational interest like a museum, dam or railway station. In conjunction
Mnkandla (1996) states that field work is a study activity done in the field and it consists
of study tasks to be carried out in the area of study or field. The two definitions therefore
suggest that field work is learning undertaken outside the classroom in the field. Thus,
both the teacher and learners leave the classroom in order to visit, for example, a darn in
order to learn how it is constructed.

Shumbayaonda and Maringe (2000) Chikuni (2003) and Makandla (1996) concur that
when undertaking a field trip, the teacher should:
 properly plan that is, clearly state the objective(s) or purpose of the study.
 brief each other on the theme to be studied whilst in class and out in the field.
 get authority from the head, parents and the ministry of education, sports and
culture.
 get ready with everything you might need on the trip.
 help pupils to know what you are looking for.
 encourage pupils to make notes, diagrams on the things they are learning.

Advantages of the Field Trip Method

 It is a child centred method which concretises learning.
 It promotes better understanding of concepts since knowledge is gained through
hands on approach.
 It is capable of developing interest in the learners.

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  It breaks the tension in passive methods.

Disadvantages
It’s not cost effective in terms of time.
 It disturbs other programmes.
 Accidents may occur.
 some learners may be so excited and forget why they are out.

5.13 The Project Method

Gwarinda (1993) views the project method as a method that involves the studying of a
particular theme in detail. Steyn, Badenhorst and Yule (1983) say that the project method
is a method where learners undertake a project so as to make them think by making them
face problems they will come across in life. Therefore, basing on these citations, it is safe
to say that the project method is a method where the teacher asks the learner to find out
and report on a given topic. The learner makes recommendations.

Projects could be short or long term. The length of time depends on the level at which it
is being done, how much detail is in the topic and availability of resources. For example,
college and university projects take a very long time.

Projects can be done as individuals or in groups. According to Chikuni (2003: 148)

project work gives an opportunity for making a lot of discoveries. In the search for a
solution to a problem the child will have to consider many possibilities such as seeking
information from various school subjects or visiting libraries and laboratories so as to
make an appropriate selection of material.

When using the project method, it is of paramount importance for the teacher. to
consider:
• Ability of the learners to avoid disappointments.
• Availability of sources of information.
• Availability of resources e.g. time.
• interests and responsibilities of the learners when grouping.

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• Thorough preparation is necessary despite project form.
• The teacher must only guide and should not be a source of information, (Chikuni:
2003)

Advantages of the Project Method.

• Topics are dealt with detail and this makes both the teacher and the learners very
knowledgeable. Remember knowledge is power.
• Provides chance for the teacher to be staff developed.

• It develops the inquiring spirit among learners.

• Trains learners to be responsible and at the same time develops the spirit of cooperation
among them.

Disadvantages
 Incomplete projects may cause problems.
 Over burdened by constant consultations.
 Marking / assessment needs thorough supervision of the project if quality is to be
realised

Activity 5.6
Explain fully why it is important to investigate a method before using it?

5.14 The Thematic approach

Solderman (2011) says thematic approach involves creating an array of meaningful
activities planned around a central idea or topic. Thematic learning ( often
synonymous with thematic instruction) is an instructional method of teaching in which
emphasis is given on choosing a specific theme for teaching one or many concepts. An
example of the theme “cats” has been given below

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 adult kittens
death birth
sleeping grooming Life cycle

movemen
t habits

shape
color catst
s Physical
eating hunting characteristics
playing

Breeds/kinds
fur
size
communication
s
ound
domestic food
Needs
wild shelter body signals
affection care

In the above example, the main theme or topic is “cats” and quite a number of activities
have been planned from the theme. These activities may cut across different subjects.
Thematic learning takes place when different disciplines are all centered towards one
definite concept. This is a creative and exciting form for learners, enabling them to notice
the inter-relatedness of various subjects. It is based on integrating a variety of information
and using it to demonstrate the topic. Pedagogy of thematic learning is based on its
exploration of broad areas in one theme.

Thematic teaching
Thematic teaching starts with the identification of a theme-the underlying concept that
allows for the structure and organization of specific content across the disciplines. The
theme is the topic of interest that provides the core for the group activities. It helps
learners see meaningful connections across disciplines or learning areas (subjects). More
importantly themes provide relevance for the learners by drawing together concepts
under one umbrella. Lessons could be studied thematically in Social Studies, for instance,
environmental hazards, wars and conflicts, human rights violation and the like. These
themes could be developed also in reading, language, music, art, etc.
Learning is a newer concept in pedagogy. It is proved to be a powerful instructional
method for integrating various concepts in the curriculum by daily life examples and

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experiences. Thematic learning is geared towards accommodation of interests of
individual learners and abilities. Thematic learning techniques fosters teamwork and
support in the group.

Advantages of the approach

 The method connects subjects, topics and themes naturally. Learning opportunity,
thus is extended beyond one class to throughout the whole day or week.
 Learning becomes a continuing process, which is not limited to books or
guidelines prescribed by the curriculum or time bound.
 The emphasis is not on the product but the process of learning.
 The contribution of the learners become an essential part of the curriculum.
 The focus of the group activity is problem solving, critical and creative thinking.
 It marks the beginning of community of learners.
 The method enhances risk taking factor in the learners through self-initiated
learning activities and first hand experiences.

Pitfalls in Thematic Approach (Teaching)

 The teacher may fail to integrated themes correctly.
 Some topics are too narrow or too contrived to make good themes.
 Some teachers may fail to adequately research on the theme they are planning.
 The same themes may be used over and over without regarding learners
individual differences.
 Lack of resources may be a pitfall related to some themes.

Summary
The thematic method/approach/ learning/instruction is quite relevant in our day to day
teaching and learning process in the primary school. Teachers should embrace this
method if students are to be assisted in totality.

5.15 Resource Person

Brown, Lewis and Harderoad (1977) and Hallahan and Kauffman (1994) define a
resource person as an expert who may be invited to school to make presentation to your
students or you may visit them (experts) at their place of work. Thus, a resource person is
a well-informed person who may offer expert advice about a particular topic.
Finding Resource Persons

Prospective resource person may come from a wide variety of people within the

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community. Research has often showed that exceptionally well-informed people are
almost always interested in helping the schools and will agree to do so if asked. For
example, a child’s father may work in a steel company he can be invited to deliver on the
processing and manufacturing of steel.

Some parents can be directors of companies, government organisations or library

personnel.

Using Resource Persons

Resource person may be invited to come to school to make presentation to your students
or you may arrange to visit them at their place of work.
Brown, Lewis and Harderoad (1977) suggest the following procedures when using a
resource person.

Inviting the resource person

• Engage the expert by telephone or by letter.
• Teacher or student communicates with the resource person describing the class needs
and extending an invitation to assist the school.
• Arrangements are made in detail.
• A definite time is set for the visit to the school or for the out of school interview.
• Oral invitations are always confirmed in writing.
• If guest requires special equipment or facilities (projectors, charts, maps) for the
presentation, make a list of them and be sure to provide them as well as necessary
assistance with logistical problems such as parking, carrying materials and packing up at
the end of the programme.

Clarift the purposes of the visit

• Make sure that the visitor understands the purposes to be served by his visit, the class
size, and ages of students, grade level and useful facts about the background of the class
for understanding the subject.
• In writing provide the exact directions for reaching the school and the classroom.

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• Be clear about the time limits of the meeting.
Prepare the class
• Can formulate questions for visitors.
• Class members prepare themselves for the visit
• Decide who will speak.
• Obtain data to be used in the introduction.
• Determine who will take notes and who will make final expression of thanks.
Make return transportation if needed.
Man schedule and be ready to obtain, operate and return audio — visual needed by
guest.

Arrange the follow up

 After the visit of the resource person, sent a note of appreciation. acknowledging
contributions made to them and their studies.
 Students can write articles for the school or community paper featuring the guest.
the topic and the visit.
 Sometimes a picture of tile guest with students is welcome.
 The students can write summaries / essays of the points they have learned and
these can be bound and sent to the guest with the letter of thanks.
 Often guest contributions may suggest other specialists in the same / related fields
to be invited and extend the class experience.
 Finally make a written record of the visitor’s contributions.
 School can keep a file pertaining to the visitor from correspondence, records of
calls file can be consulted on other occasions.

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5.16 The Multi- Sensory Approach

Introduction
Multi sensory approach refers to the way information is delivered to the student. The
three primary modes of instruction are visual, auditory and sensory-motor. Visual
instruction includes activities like reading a text or looking at a picture. Auditory
instruction involves listening to a lecture or a book on tape. The third mode of instruction
is sensory-motor which is often referred to as a “hands-on” approach.

What is Multi-Sensory Approach?

A multi sensory approach, also know as VAKT ( visual-auditory-Kinesthetic tactile)
implies that students learn best when information is presented in different modalities,
(Mercer and Mercer 2006). Multi sensory learning involves two or more senses within
the same activity. Like adults, students take in information about their world in a variety
of ways, that is;
 Auditory (through their ears)
 Visual (through their eyes)
 Tactile (through touch)
 Kinesthetic (through body movement)
When learners use multiple senses to process new information, they learn by doing what
they do best- investigating, exploring and discovering. For this reason, Nemours (2011)
believes that the best way for pupils to learn is to allow them to;

See it! Hear it! Do it! and Touch it ! Why?

There is a Chinese proverb which says,
“Tell me and I will forget;
Show me and I may remember;
Involve me and I will understand”
Multi sensory approach in teaching is the simultaneous use of visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic-tactile to enhance memory and learning. Links are consistently made between
the visuals (what we see), auditory (what we hear), and Kinesthetic (what we do or feel)
which enable the learner to store the information directly to the brain in its real sense.
Using a multisensory teaching technique means helping a child to learn through more
than one senses.
Many forms of instruction use more than one mode. For example, watching a film
involves both auditory and visual components. Writing is an example of an activity that
involves fine motor and visual instruction. Speaking would be a fine motor and auditory
experience. Acting out a scene from a play involves all the three modes: visual, auditory,
and sensory motor activities.

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Most teaching techniques are done using either sight or hearing ( visual or auditory). The
learner’s sight is used in reading information, looking at text, pictures or reading
information based from the board. The hearing sense is used to listen to what the teacher
says.
Taking into consideration the facts of individual differences, learning difficulties, etc.
multisensory approach is the only way to satisfy different needs of the learner.
Multisensory techniques are frequently used for learners with learning differences.
Students with learning difficulties typically have difficulties in one or more areas of
reading, spelling, writing, listening, comprehension and expressive language.
Multisensory techniques enable students to use their personal areas of strength to help
them learn. They can range from simple to complex, depending on the needs of the
student and the task at hand.

Why use multi sensory approach? We remember:

20% of what we read,
30% of what we hear,
40% of what we see,
50% of what we say,
60% of what we do and
90% of what we see, hear, say and do.
The purpose behind multisensory instruction is to apply this concept of learning to all
subject areas. The more experiences a student has with a piece of information, be it a
spelling word, a process in mathematics, a novel or a concept in science; the stronger
their ability will be to remember it over a longer period of time.

Key benefits of the multisensory approach are:

 Increased learner engagement
 Generating a greater capacity for learning
 Encouraging a greater knowledge transfer
 Improved attitudes towards learning
 Greater student achievement.
 Caters for individual differences of the learners

Limitations of the multisensory approach

 It’s too demanding on the part of the teacher by preparing appropriate media.

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  Time consuming
 Teachers may lack adequate resources
 Etc

Summary
Multisensory teaching is effective for all students. In general, it means presenting all
information to students via three modalities: visual, auditory and tactile. Therefore, it is
very important for teachers to make use of this method in the teaching and learning
process as it also caters for individual differences.

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References

Barker, R. (1998). Education Technique New York’. Macgraw Hill

Chikuni, B. (2003). The Teacher’s Handbook:a Practical Approach to Teaching
Harare: Flame Publishers.
Gatawa, B. S. M (1999). Politics of the school Curriculum: An Introduction
Harare: College Press
Gwarinda. 1. C. (1993). The Practice of Teaching
Harare: College Press.
Kasambira. K. P. (1993). Lesson Planning and Class Management
Essex: Lougman.
Mnkandla, V. A. (1996). Professiora1 Studies. Getting the job Done
Bulawavo. College Desktop
Shumbayaonda, W. T. and F (2000) A Guide to School Experiences
Harare: Zimbabwe Open University
Steyn. P. .J. N Badenhorst. D. C. and Yule. R. M. (983). Teaching Methods
Johannesburg: Macgraw Hill.

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UNIT 6

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

6.0 Introduction

This unit traces the development of assessment and evaluation in schools. These terms
are sometimes used interchangeably, yet they do not mean the same thing. The major
focus of this unit is to enhance your understanding of how assessment and evaluation
work in a school situation. Hopefully, your knowledge of these two terms will mould you
into a competent teacher.

6.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 Define the terms assessment and evaluation.
 Discuss the rationale for assessment and evaluation.
 Evaluate challenges in assessment and evaluation.

6.2 Definition of Terms

Assessment
Farrant, (1995:154) perceives assessment as “the process by which the quality of an
individual’s work or performance is determined”. Angels and Cross (1993:4) take
assessment as “an approach designed to help teachers find out what students are learning
in their classroom and how weli they are learning”. Linn and Gronlund (1995:5) express
assessment as “a general term that includes a full range of procedures used to gain
information about student learning (observation, rating of performances on projects,
programmes, paper and pencil tests) and the formation of value judgments concerning
learning processes. Farrant (1995) and Kyriacou (1995) describe assessment as a process
of judging programmes.

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From the definitions of assessment cited above, assessment in schools can be described as
a process of attaching qualitative and quantitative values to pupils learning programmes.
Frith and Macintosh (1987:52) advise the adoption of the following techniques when
assessing pupil performance in class:
 Written assessment.
 Oral assessment (speaking/speech skills).
 Coral assessment (listening skills).
 Course work (including projects and field work).

ACTIVITY 6.1
 Define assessment.
 List the data collection procedures in assessment.
 Describe the assessment process as it relates to your school.

6.3 Evaluation

Evaluation refers to the judgements made on the quality of work and attached to the
scales of a test. According to Stanley (1964:2) “evaluation is the designation of summing
up processes in which value judgements play a large part in grading and promoting
students”. Farrant, (1995:12) propounds that evaluation in education is generally used for
“the process by which a project or a programme is judged in relation to its stated
objectives”. Downie (1967:3) on the other hand defines evaluation as “the placing of a
value on something on the basis of standards that have been set up”. Mamwenda
(1989:322) states that “...evaluation is a value judgement or a decision based on the
scores or marks obtained by a person for his or her performance in a particular task”.
Grounlund (1985:5) defines evaluation as “the systematic process of determining the
extent to which instructional objectives are achieved by pupils”. Gay (1978:6) says,
“Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and analysing data in order to determine

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whether or not and to what extend objectives have been or are being achieved”.

From the ensuing definitions, a number of aspects come out about evaluation. First,
evaluation involves data collection quantitatively and qualitatively. Second, it is
judgemental because it is made up of value judgements of pupil performance. It goes
beyond just assigning numbers (scores) to pupils work to assigning value due to those
scores. It is a process that includes testing and value judgements. Third, it is on-going and
systematic. Fourth, it is carried out for a specific purpose. Fifth, it gives worthiness or
impact on a programme, project or process. Thus, we can underscore the fact that
evaluation attaches narrative judgements or decisions to the quality of pupils’ work with
regards to the tests, lesson presentation, projects or programmes.

ACTIVITY 6.2
 Define the term evaluation.
 Give examples of evaluation from your school.
 Which method do you use to evaluate your pupils’ performance?

6.4 Nature and Purpose of Assessment

Assessment is used for educational improvement, increased school effectiveness and

curriculum reform, among others. Haden et al (1994) observe that when assessment is
used for certification, selection, job opportunities, further and higher education and
accountability, then assessment takes the form of public examinations.

Nevo (1995) suggests that assessment serves a series of primary functions wherein they
are used for:
 Certification - qualifying students for their lives beyond school by awarding
passes, fails grades and marks.

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  Diagnosis - identifying a student’s particular strengths, weaknesses, difficulties
and needs in order that an appropriate curriculum can be planned:
 Improvement of learning and teaching-providing feedback to students. and
teachers respectively so that action can be planned, thus, moving away from
marks and grades towards comments, discussions and suggestions for how
students and teachers can improve.

One can add to Nevo’ s suggestions, the following primary purposes of assessment:
 To select for future education.
 To provide evidence of achievement both of the national curriculum and beyond.
 To see the extent to which intended learning outcomes have become actual
learning outcomes.
 To chart rates of progress in learning.
 To compare students with others in the class, school or even with national levels
of performance.
 To report what students can do and what they have achieved.

According to Nevo (1995) assessment also serves a series of secondary functions in

which it is used for:
 Accountability - of teachers and pupils to interested parties to report on
standards.
 Motivating students and teachers - though this is depended upon the type of
assessment adopted- tests tend to be demotivating while formative assessment and
feedback tend to be more motivating.
 Discipline- this is when grades are raised or lowered depending on the students’
behaviour or misbehaviour.

It is important to be clear on one’s purpose in assessment. We support the view

that student teachers should he concerned with diagnostic and formative
assessments which are geared to improvements in teaching and learning, as this is
made educationally worthwhile and practicable over the period of teaching

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practice. The purpose of assessment here is educative rather than political or
managerial.

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ACTIVITY 6.3
 From Nevo’s Primary and Secondary functions of Assessment, which are
applicable to your school?
 In your opinion, which is the most important primary and secondary purpose of
assessment? Give reasons.

From the observation made above, assessment refers to the process whereby teachers
measure pupils’ performance through tests and examinations after a programme of
instructions The tests or examinations are marked and assigned scores (numbers). The
evaluation aspect applies to the judgements on the quality of work that a teacher assigns
to the scores obtained in tests. Evaluation shows how well or how badly a pupil is
performing. Thus a teacher may indicate that a pupil who obtains 45 / 50 is performing
very well whereas one who obtains 15 I 50 is performing badly or poorly. As part of the
evaluation process a teacher may also assign grades to the scores. The grades show how
well or how badly pupils are performing. Evaluation also occurs when choices are made
regarding the curriculum and future careers for pupils on the basis of test scores and the
teacher’s judgement.

Evaluation covers all aspects of an individual’s growth and development. All data
gathered on an individual should be put together to give a complete picture of the
individual. The type of evaluation practised affects both learning and teaching Evaluation
includes subjective judgements made by teachers and administrators. It provides data to
help us where we are going and what changes are necessary to help us get there Thus, it
provides us with the information we need to help pupils acquire the critical skills and
knowledge which our society expects them to have.

6.5 Philosophy of Evaluation

Philosophically, evaluation is used basically to promote the individual’s work. As a

result, teachers need to be aware of individual differences among their pupils. Teachers

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should be flexible enough and willing to do something about these pupils’ differences.
Pupils should experience success in order to boost their work and morale. Therefore,
teachers need to provide the individual pupils with opportunities to excel and for setting
their own standards and self-evaluation. The pupil evaluates his /her own performance
against the standards he/she sets for him/herself. If the pupil notices any improvement,
he/she is motivated to keep on practising.

Evaluation is basically carried out in order to improve instruction and should be done
with and not to the pupil. It provides diagnosis and remedy defects in instruction. So
teachers need to assist the pupils to assess their own strengths and weaknesses. Teachers
should assess on the individual pupils’ ability to learn. Good teachers respect the
personalities of their pupils and do their best to help all of them to develop their full
potential.

ACTIVITY 6.4
 In which subjects would evaluation be most useful and why?
 According to the description on the use of evaluation, when is it most appropriate to
evaluate a pupil’s performance?
 How does evaluation help you, the teacher?

6.6 The Psychology Of Evaluation

This section discusses some of the effective psychological principles which contribute to
successful evaluation.
 Evaluation is most successful when a pupil is ready for it, understands and accepts
the value and objectives involved.
 According to Thorndike’s law of effect, people tend to carry out those activities
which result in success for them, Pupils soon realise the types of behaviour
associated with success and thus, come out with the type of study that leads to
success. If the teacher’s tests generally focus on rote memory, the pupils will learn
to memorise. Students study in order to respond to the teacher’s test. Therefore, a

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 teacher needs to use different types of tests to encourage pupils to study all areas of
their work and develop all types of skills.
 Pupils learn better when they constantly get feedback on their performance.
 Pupils’ motivation is the most important consideration in evaluation. Performance
in a test is directly related to a pupil’s motivation. Pupils who are doing well, work
even harder in order to continue producing the best possible results.
 Learning is most efficient when the learner is actively involved, advocates Downie
(1967). Pupils should be encouraged to mark their own work/papers to ensure that
they are involved. Learning takes place when the most effective method is used.

ACTIVITY 6.5
 From the issues raised above, which are considered the most important in your
school?
 Why is it necessary to give constant feedback to the pupils?

6.7 Types of Evaluation

Evaluation is carried out at the level of the student and the programme. Student
evaluation is either summative or formative in nature.

Formative Evaluation

In formative evaluation, the aim is to acquire and develop knowledge of skills by pupils,
thus enabling the identification of pupils’ needs so that teachers can guide them towards
set educational goals. The evaluation process helps teachers to identify pupils’ difficulties
and enables them to apply appropriate remedial measures. Formative evaluation is carried
out during the process of instruction. It is on-going. Therefore, when a teacher evaluates
each lesson and uses the results to plan the next set of lessons, he/she is carrying out
formative evaluation. A test can be given to determine whether or not pupils understand

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what they have been taught. The teacher’s concern is the progress towards the
behavioural objectives set for each lesson, unit or subject. The results of such tests can be
used to plan the next course of instruction. Ognniyi (1984:15) states that formative
evaluation attempts to;
 Identify the content (knowledge or skills) which have not been mastered by
pupils.
 Appraise the level of cognitive abilities of the pupils such as analysis and
explanation.
 Specify the relationship between content and levels of cognitive abilities.

Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is carried out at the conclusion of a programme of instruction.

It is used to determine whether or not the broad objectives of a programme have been
achieved. Summative evaluation is judgemental in nature. It is offered as a class test,
examinations (mid year, end of year and public examinations like the ZIMSEC
examinations). A test given to a class at the end of a year is summative evaluation.
More examples of summative evaluation include the Grade Seven, Ordinary and
Advanced level examinations.

Programme Evaluation

Programme evaluation is used to determine whether or not a project has been

successfully implemented. The intention in this type of evaluation is to determine the
efficacy of a programme and its implementation.

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ACTIVITY 6.6

Categorise the types of tests given below as either summative or formative

evaluation
- Grade 7 end of year examination
- Grade 5 mathematical weekly tests
- Assignments for PSNA
 Identify the differences and similarities of formative and summative evaluation.

6.8 Evaluation Devices

Generally, in the classroom situation, the main evaluation devices are in the form of
exercises, tests and examinations. These are looked at in more detail below. They all have
a place and a role to play in the teaching/learning process and they all result in enabling
the teacher to make an evaluation of the performance of the pupils; thus, giving a way
forward to both the teacher and the pupils. If the performance is good, then the teacher
moves to the next course of instruction, but when the performance is poor or below
standard, there might be need either for remediation or to find other means of teaching
the same concept. This again is dependent on the level of the poor performance.

6.9 Types of test items

There are many forms of tests useful in teaching. This section focuses on the tests that a
teacher gives in the classroom. There are three types described as the oral, essay and
objective tests. The advantages and disadvantages of each type are examined and
ways of improving their use are suggested. Attention is also put on examining how each
type is constructed.

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Oral Tests

Frith and Maclntosh (1987) state that oral tests are subjective forms of tests. In the
Zimbabwean schools, they have found wide use in the primary schools and create for
developing reading skills in pupils. However, they are not widely used except for special
classes. These forms of testing are an important form in Higher Education. They are a
deep form of testing than the written form. Their weakness is that pupils who have poor
speaking skills are disadvantaged because of being inarticulate.

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Essay Tests

Essays are an advanced form of testing. The essay test is one in which pupils supply their
own answers to a question. They comprise a few question which require students to
supply own answers by writing paragraphs, themes or calculations. The pupils’ response
is normally extended as they have to organise their thoughts and express them in writing.
So learners plan their answers and express them in their own ways, giving them freedom
of expression in response to a question. They explore the learners’ ability to organise
materials and develop arguments. They are very good in testing memorisation of facts,
understanding of concepts and principles (Sax, 1989). They require the leaner to display
creativity by allowing combinations of ideas which may be unique to that particular pupil
only. Essay tests demand that pupils demonstrate their understanding of a subject at a
high level. It is somewhat easier to measure higher level processes, namely analysis,
synthesis and evaluation with an essay test.

Sims quoted by Lindquist (1981) defines an essay test as “a relative free and extended
written response to a problematic situation or situations (question or questions) which
intentionally or unintentionally reveals information about the student’s mental life as it
has been modified by a particular set of learning experiences. The pupil answering the
question brings his/her personality into the answer. The essay may demand a fairly short
answer if it includes such directions as “describe”, ‘define”, “outline”, “compare”,
“contrast” and so on. It may require a long or extended response if includes such
directions as Discuss.” “Explain,” “Apply.” “Determine.” and so on as in “Assess the
impact of teaching AIDS/HIV in primary schools”.

Advantages Of Essay Tests

 They are easy to construct and administer.
 Essay tests are easy to adapt to various school subjects-almost all subjects in the
Primary School curriculum can be examined by essay- tests especially where
factual knowledge is the basis for the test skills which have to be tested by
different methods.

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  They measure higher mental abilities of pupils. When questions call for
discussion, comparison, interpretation of facts or for criticism, pupils have to
show high mental activity in their response. The questions are devised to test the
pupil’s ability to use knowledge and not just to regurgitate it.
 Essay questions measure pupils ability to apply knowledge to the solution of
problems and to critically evaluate theories and ideologies.
They allow pupils to think and demonstrate their skill in language use and
expression.
 They enable students to creatively select, organise and use knowledge in
answering questions. Pupils are free to choose the expressions to use and the way
they use them. So the pupils’ ability to organise thoughts logically’ and
comprehensibly can be determined through essay tests.

Disadvantages of Essay Tests

While essay tests have been in use for a long time, they have very serious disadvantages
that militate against them such as:
 In essay- tests, only few questions can be asked such that a representative sample
of the content to be tested cannot be attained. The sampling is limited to only a
few questions, thus affecting the reliability of the test.
 The answer to an essay question is fairly long and as such, demands much time to
read it, making is time-consuming and tiresome, thus becomes costly in terms of
time, human, material resources.
 Essay is difficult to score in an objective and reliable manner. Answers to essay
questions cannot be marked easily and without thought because they
demand expert judgment from their markers. Different markers rarely arrive at the
same mark for the same essay answer. The marking largely depends on the
markers state of mind or health and is, thus, very subjective. Issues like
handwriting, neatness, spelling and punctuation influence the marker.

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  Research has found out that a relatively poor answer has been found to receive a
higher grade when it is read after an even poorer one, than when it is read after a
much better one.

ACTIVITY 6.7
 What are the benefits of using essay tests?
 Which areas in the curricula can best be tested through essay questions?
 How do essay tests limit the effectiveness of your teaching?

Constructing Essay Test Items

The ideas given below assist you, the teacher to improve your use of essay tests and
minimize their adverse effects on learning.

Questions should he specific and should be critically reviewed by more than one person
to weed out vague terms that could elicit contradictory or unexpected answer from pupils.
This can be achieved by constructing the expected answer (marking guide)
simultaneously- with the question.
 Know when and how to use an essay test-for it to be meaningful it should be used
when measuring pupils’ abilities in organising and expressing ideas and only in
instances where the objective test cannot be used.
 Allocate essay tests ample time for pupils to do them satisfactorily, there is need
to train pupils to answer these tests and know meanings of various words in essay
questions.
 Essay questions should be marked by teachers when they are emotionally sound
and mentally alert in an environment without too many distractions.

ACIVITY 6.8
 Set an essay test. Give it to your class. Photocopy the answers, making two
copies of each. Ask two colleagues to mark them. Mark the main essay.

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 Compare and contract your marking with that of your colleague.

Objective Tests

Objective tests may be categorised as;

a) Free response type, which includes completion questions, incomplete statements
or questions.
b) Limited response type, which is made up of alternative response questions which
include two options, multiple-choice response, true/false, matching and ranking
items. The most common of these are the multiple choice questions.

Multiple Choice Items

These are objective tests popularly used to test learners. They are applicable to many
different types of situations and can be used to measure almost all types of desired
outcomes of education including mental processes. According to Mpofu (1991) and
Ogunniyi (1984), a multiple choice test consists of a direct question or incomplete
statements referred to as the stem, followed by two or more possible answers called
responses from which one is selected. The other statements which are not correct answers
are called distracters or foils. They lower guessing levels to a minimum as compared to
true/false items

Advantages Of Multiple Choice Tests

 They can be used in many different types of situations and measure all types of
desired outcomes of education.
 Their marking is easy and can be done by a computer or other manual sheets.
 They lower guessing to minimum levels as compared to true/false items.
 They cover a large sampling of subject content, thus, increasing reliability of the
test.

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Disadvantages Of Multiple Choice Test Items
 They seem to test the reading skill at the expense of the writing skill.
 Multiple-choice tests do not give pupils room to creatively organise and present
their facts freely in writing.

Construction of Multiple Choice Test Items

 Develop the items from relevant and important topics.
 Write the stem first. Make it as short as possible and include most of the items in
the stem. The stem must present a problem.
 Avoid use of clues that reveal the correct answers.
 Distracters and the correct response should be fairly similar in content or in
location as well as length and relation to the stem.
 Include only one correct or clearly the best answer.
 Make each item completely independent of every other item.
 Avoid “none of the above”, as a distracter or a correct answer.
 Rotate the positions of the correct answer, that is at one time its option A, then B,
C and D and then to C, A, D, B and so on. The order should be random.

ACTIVITY 6.9
 What is a multiple-choice test?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using multiple choice tests?

True/False Items

This is another group of objective tests which you will find very useful in your teaching.
The tests apply to wide subject matter, are objective in making and cover the syllabus
widely. Their popularity waned over the years as it is easy for pupils to guess the correct
answer.

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Advantages Of True / False Items
 They are easy to construct.
 They are quick to mark and score.
 According to Robison (1983) they sample a large amount of knowledge in a short
space of time.

Disadvantages Oft True/False Items

 Pupils just guess the correct answer.
 Learners feel that a true/false test does not reflect a true picture of what they
really know about the topic.

Construction or True/False Items

 Each item should contain only one idea.
 The statement should, thus, be wholly true or wholly false.
 Avoid overlapping statements.
 The language should be as exact as possible. Numbers should only be used where
necessary.
 Items should not be copied verbation from textbooks. Items should be in a form
which the pupils have not seen before.

ACTIVITY 6.10
 At which levels in the primary school are True/False tests appropriate? Give
reasons for your answers.
 How useful is this form of testing at that level? Use your experience to answer
this question.

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Matching Tests Item

The matching item tests constitute a significant form of objective tests. The item consists
of a series of statements in one column to be associated with another series in a second
column. According to David (1979) the matching questions consist of stimuli and a list of
responses. The learner is to match one of the responses to each of the stimulus. Matching
items can be used to cover a large amount of related materials quickly.

Advantages of Matching Items

According to Mnkandla (1996):

 They save time.
 They save printing material
 They lessen reading fatigue.

Disadvantages of Matching Items

 They measure mostly factual recall of information which is ideal only at infant
and lower junior school.
 Good items that are not so obvious are quite difficult to construct. They are time
consuming to learners since they have to scrutinize too many items in each
column.
 Sometimes the student can guess the correct answer.
 Their use is restricted to limited areas of the subject in question, since it’s difficult
to find a sufficient number of related items in the subject.

Consruct1ng Matching Items

 Place the larger parts of the lists in the left hand column. Reduce responses in the
right hand column to one or two words.
 The number of items in the response list should exceed the number in the stimuli
to reduce guessing.
 Keep the lists as short and homogeneous (similar) as possible.

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  Arrange the items in a systematic order, e.g. alphabetical or chronological and
state the basis or which matching is to be done.

ACTIVITY 6.11
 Outline the procedures of constructing a matching item test.
 Analyse the advantages and disadvantages of matching item tests.

Marking Pupils’ Work

Marking of pupils’ work is essentially, one of the key result areas of the classroom
practitioners. Marking enables the teacher to give feedback to the pupils on their
strengths and weaknesses, thus, leading to corrective action to improve learning.
Constructive comments should always accompany all marking that is done for it to be
more meaningful, not just as a way of indicating marks or grades.

Internal and External Examinations

Internal Examinations are the school based examinations. These can come at the end of
term or year, thus signaling the progression of a pupil to the following grade or level.
These are locally set by the practising teachers and are also marked at the school either by
the teacher of these pupils or by those assigned to do so, e.g. Grades five teachers mark
Grades six pupils’ examinations. Internal examinations are a form of achievement tests
which measure mastery.

External examinations are a type of published or standardised tests such as the Grades 7,
Ordinary and Advanced level examinations. In Zimbabwe these examinations are set and
administered by the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC), the sole
examinations board in the country. These examinations are set and retested with
appropriate groups. They have explicit instructions for uniform administration. They are

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written nationwide at the same time by pupils of the levels, following a national timetable
prepared before and marking is centralised at designated venues and markers are trained
for the exercise. The marking and administration is standardised. The results are reviewed
by selected personnel before they are published at the same time.

ACTIVITY 6.12
 Compare and contract- internal and external examinations.

6.11 Interpreting Examination Results

Gronlund (1981:368) defines raw scores as “the number of points reached on a test”,
while Flonagan (1995:705) sees them as “the number of items to which he (an individual)
responds correctly”. So raw scores are the total number of items a pupi1 gets right in a
test. Raw scores do not tell us very much about the pupils’ performance, besides giving
us a rough comparison. It is difficult to use raw scores to compare the performance of
pupils across different tests as the same raw score in one test does not mean the same in
another test. A pupil- might score 30% in one test and in the second. The first test could
have been so difficult that a score of 30% represented very good performance, whereas
the second test could have been simple. Thus, the same score indicates very poor
performance in the second test. There are two basic methods of interpreting test
results/scores. These are the criterion referenced and norm referenced interpretation.

Criterion - Referenced Interpretation

Criterion referenced score is a term that describes a specific task which a pupil who
scores 10/40 in reading finds reading difficult. Criterion - referenced interpretation
enables us to describe a pupil’s performance without reference to other pupils’
performance. The intention here is to find out how well a pupil performs a task. We can
describe the pupil’s performance thus; Tatenda counts 1 to 10 in half a minute correctly.

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Tests which are interpreted in this manner are usually designed to measure specific
instructional objectives. Percentages are also used in criterion - referenced reporting.

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Norm - Referenced Interpretation

Norm referenced score is one that indicates a pupil’s relative position in a clearly defined
group. This method compares a pupil’s performance to that of other members of the class
or defined group. This is the method commonly used in tests and examinations.

ACTIVITY 6.13
 What is the major difference between criterion referenced and norm referenced
interpretation of results?

Reporting On Pupil’s Performance

As noted earlier, assessment and evaluation serve a number of functions. These purposes
are served when assessment translates into marks and is then reported to various relevant
people. The performance of the pupils can be done either verbally or in written form.
Verbally, the performance of the pupils can be done in Parent - Teachers conferences.
These are meetings between parents and teachers at which teachers verbally report the
pupils progress to their parents. Parents have a chance to discuss the children’s progress
with the teachers, thus creating an environment that enables parents to give the pupils
some advice on their future plans.

When the performance of the pupils is recorded on paper - this provides a more
permanent record that can be used from time to time for both academic and
administrative purposes. A pupil can write back to his/her school many years later to
obtain proof of his/her performance while in that school. An effective reporting system
provides information required by users in an intelligible fashion.

Schools tend to produce term reports only. There may be need to supplement the term
report with parent teacher conferences, both formal and informal letters to parents, (in

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cause of- serious or dismal failure). The school report should be meaningful, systematic,
comprehensive and well thought. Reporting requires time and skills to put them together.

ACTIVITY 6.14

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of;

1) Parent -Teacher conferences.
2) Formal letters,
3) Informal letters to parents.

6.12 SUMMARY

This unit has looked at the development of assessment and evaluation in schools, their
nature and purpose. Three major types of evaluation have been identified as formative,
summative and programme evaluation and their role in school have been discussed.
Different types of test items and their construction have been analysed in detail. Internal
and external examinations have been discussed. The unit would not be complete without
the marking of pupils’ work, interpreting examination results as well as reporting on
pupils’ performance. These were mainly based on criterion - referenced and norm
referenced grading and interpretation.

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References

Angelo, A. T. and Cross, K.P. (1993) Classroom Assessment Techniques:

A Handbook for College Teachers (2nd Ed) Son Francisco:
Jose - Bass Publishers

Downie, N.M. (1997) Fundamentals of measurement: Technique and Practices. New

York, Oxford University Press.

Farrant, J.S. (1995) Principles and Practices of Education. Harare; Longman.

Firth, D.S and Maclntosh, H.C. (1987) A Teacher’s Guide to Assessment, London:
Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Limited.

Gronlund, N. (1995) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. New Jersey Prentice

Hall.

Harlen, W. (1994) Enhancing Quality in Assessment London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

Kyriacou, C. Essential Teaching Skill, Edinburgh: Stanley Thornes.

Linn,. R. and Gronland, N. (1995) Measurement and Assessment in Teaching New

Jersey: prentice Hall.

Mpofu, E. (1991) Testing for Teaching, Harare: Longman.

Mwamwenda, T.S. (1989) Educational Psychology An African Perspective

Durban: Butterworth.

Nevo, D. (1995) School Based Evaluation: A dialogue for school Improvement,

Kidlington, Oxford: Pergamon.

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Ogumiyi, M.B. (1986) Educational Measurement and Evaluation. Lagos: Longman.

Sax, G. (1989) Principles and Practice of Teaching Belmont: Magworth Publishing

Company.

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UNIT 7

7.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit looks at the importance and use of educational media technology and
innovation in teaching and learning. These are very importance in enhancing learning
effectiveness.

EDUCATIONAL MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION (EMTI)

7.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
1. explain the meaning of Instructional Media.
2. explain the role played by instructional media in the instructional process.
3. develop an understanding of the meaning and use of the following instructional
media.
3.2 The Print Media in education.
3.2 Still Pictures
3.3 Audio Media
3.4 Overhead Projectors
3.5 Graphic Materials
3.6 Realia
3.7 Slide Projectors and Filmstrip Projectors
3.8 Film Projectors and Video Player/Projector.

7.2 Nature and Purpose of Instructional Media

Effective classroom teaching is dependent on good communication between the teacher
and the students. Verbal instruction, which seems to be the easiest form of instructional
delivery system besides real experience is always very abstract. Since students enter into
schools with varying degree of abilities and potentials, teachers need instructional media
to help them communicate effectively, and thus cope with students’ needs based on their
abilities.

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Instructional media are all forms of information carriers which can be used to record,
store, preserve, transmit or retrieve information for purpose of teaching and learning.
They are materials used by practicing teachers to present, illustrate

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and elucidate teaching points (Agun, 1988). Educators have long recognized the intrinsic
value of instructional media in teaching and learning processes. This recognition
engendered the inclusion of components of media education, in teacher training
programmes.

There are several inherent advantages in the use of media in teaching by classroom
teachers. First, effective use of media is vital for encouraging and facilitating students’
learning. Second, through the use of media subject can be more carefully selected and
organised. Thus, the quality of instruction delivered by teacher can be improved as
subject content can be delivered in a well organised, consistent, specific and clearly
defined manner. Third, teacher’s delivery of instruction can be much more standardised
as learners with varying abilities can receive the same message and their individuals’
differences catered for using media. Also, instruction media usage in practical teaching
can make instruction to be much more interesting and enjoyable.

The changing images, use of special effects, among others, can reduce boredom on the
part of learners. Furthermore, classroom interaction can be interactive. Media can so
promote student - student interaction, student-teacher interaction, and teacher-teacher
interaction, if pre -instructional planning incorporate principles such as stimulus
variation, “feedback, reinforcement, learners’ participation and so on. Media also save
teaching time as they require short time to present large information. They can also be
used to reveal needs and stimulate students’ questions. Thus learners’ interest can he
aroused, maintained and stimulated to promote their imaginative power. On the whole,
media ensure the application of classroom-oriented communication techniques.
Therefore, learners should be assisted, encouraged and motivated not only to learn but
also to continue to learn (Blythe-Lord, 1991; Farrant, 1981; Genhardt, 1982; Kemp and
Smellie, 1989 and Nichollas and Nicholls, 1975).

Activity
State advantages and disadvantages of using media in classroom environment.

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7.3 Types of Media and their Application

There is a profusion of instructional media, which can be used by classroom teachers to

enrich their classroom teaching. The plethora of offers the classroom teacher’s
considerable opportunities to make their teaching more effective and efficient.
Effectiveness used in this context implies how well educational goals and objectives are
achieved while efficiency refers to how instructional media are utilized to achieve
teaching goals and objectives. Generally, media are categorised as print, non- print,
audio, visual, audio — visual electronics, non — electronics, and so on. Some of the
instructional media considered relevant to teachers in the classroom are discussed as
follows.

Activity

Discuss different categories of media.

7.4 Print Media

The print media are some of the oldest media in education, this category of media are
useful for informational or motivational purpose. They are used to convey verbal
information through print. They form the most widely used media in education and they
include textbooks, periodicals, encyclopedia, newspapers, magazines, file records,
minutes and so on.

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7.5 Still Pictures

They are non — projected, non — motion pictures in opaque form. They are photograph
representation of people, places or things. Still pictures can be made to present
information in all subject area. They are readily available for resourceful trainee teachers,
in magazines, calendars, illustrations from textbooks, newspapers, and so on. When still
pictures are properly mounted on cardboard with proper edges, as individual pictures or
in composite form, that is, combination of one or more pictures to produce a single
visual, they can be used to pass across wide range of information (Kemp and Smellie,
1989 and Witlich and Schuller, (1973).

7.6 Models and Mock-Ups

Models and mock-ups are three-dimensional representation of a real thing like actual
objects, a model or mock-up can be looked at from all sides as it has breadth, length and
depth. Models are representation of real things that are infinitely large like earth or solar
system, or real things that are small, whether animate or inanimate. They may be
complete in every detail or more simplified than the original. Some models can be
disassembled for learns’ close observation.

On the other hand, mock-ups are differentiated from metals by their usually large size
and by their moving and operating parts. Model and mock-ups have wide application in
such subjects like physics, geography, biology, chemistry, and so on. Teachers can buy
commercially produced models or the can be improvised, using paper match (Blythe —
Lord, 1991; Kemp and Smellie, 1989 and Wittich and Schuller, 1973).

7.6 Audio Media

Audio media offer wide range of opportunities group or individual us. they can be used to
deliver instruction involving verbal information, and also for guiding the learning of
intellectual and motor skills. With the availability of small compactcassette records,
audio medium can be produced, by trainee teachers. It can also be used to supplement
other media like filmstrips and slides. They are also relevant for learning objectives
related to affective domain of learning. Audio recording can provide response drill in

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mathematics; can teach English grammar and oral English. Students can be involved in
the production. Furthermore, several copies of the media can be produced easily. Audio
medium is equally good for all types of instruction from the precision of speech to the
mental imagery formal by music and sound effect (Kemp and Smeffie, 1989 and Wittich
and Schuiler, 1973).

7.8 Overhead Projectors

Using the overhead projector, transparent materials are projected so that a group can see.
It is simple to operate, and it is a versatile media for teachers to use. Transparency could
be prepared before instruction or developed as instruct don progresses. The presenter can
face the audience from the front of the room and maintain eye-to-eye contact with
students while protecting transparencies in lighted room (Blythe Lord, 1991 and Kemp
and Smellie, 1989)

7.9 Graphic Materials

They are non - photographic, two - dimensional materials designed to communicate a

message to the learners. They may incorporate symbolic visual and verbal cues. Graphic
media include drawings, charts graph, posters, among others. Drawings are more finished
and representational arrangement of lines to represent persons, places, things and
concepts. Charts are abstract representation of abstract relationships, like tabular charts,
time-line, classification-charts. Graphs are visual representation of numerical data, like
polar graphs, scatter graph, line graph and so on. Graphs are useful for teachers in
subjects like Social Sudies, Geography, Environmental Science and Mathematics among
others. Posters are also useful graphic media using combination of lines, colour and texts.
Cartoons are line drawings that can be to encourage students and enliven instruction. Flip
charts and wail charts can be used as speaker support and key point reference. They
should be designed in a way, to ensure that they are large and short in content.

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7.10 Reality

These are real things or objects (as opposed to representation or models) as they are
without alteration. They include coins, tools, artefacts, plants, and animals among other.
Specimen, exhibits, cut-away objects are some classifications used for realia. Realia have
great in virtually every subject. They can be relevant in tile sciences. (Biology, physics,
chemistry), history, economics, and so on. For instance, use of realia by a science teacher
can do much to student’s interest in life science and care for insects, fish and animals.
Students could also become much more involved in the classroom learning. Realia also
eliminate distortion in student’s knowledge on the topics being taught. Furthermore,
using the display and exhibit method, realia provides students with opportunities for
‘hand on” interactions and experience (AECT, 1977, Blythe lord, 1991 and Kemp and
Smeilie, 1989).

7.11 Slide Projectors and Filmstrip Projectors:

Slides projectors are used to project slides. Slides are small format photographic
transparency in colour or black and white, individually mounted and used to transmit
instructional content. On the other hand, filmstrip projectors project images contained in
filmstrips, which are series of small slides photographed in permanent sequence on a
35mm or 16mm films either in colour, or black and whites. Some filmstrip projectors can
also be used to project slides. Teachers can use filmstrip and slides to enrich their
instruction. They are less expensive, easily handled and stored for future use. They are
adaptable for use in every subject area, and the rate of presentation for classroom use can
he controlled, by trainee teachers, using remote, reverse and advance mechanisms. Their
presentations can be accompanied with print or audio recording (Blythe- lord, 1991,
Erickson and Curl, 1991; Erickson and Curl, 1972; Farrant, 1981; Kemp and Smellie
1989; and Wittich and Schuller, 1973).

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7.11 Film projector and Video Player/projector:

Film projectors and videotape projectors are used to project motion picture, when
motion is a significant actor of a subject. Educational films are in black and white
and colour. There are also sound and silent motion pictures. Videotape availability
has further widened the possibilities for the use of motion pictures, as they can be
shown through monitor, that is, cathode ray tube, or projected using video
projector or through the digital projector, for group use. Motion pictures are
relevant for all subject disciplines, in social sciences, sciences, Art and Physical
education.

Motion pictures when accompanied by sound may constitute a very effective way
of emphasizing distinctive features for the tasks, which needs distinguishing the
visual aspects of simulation. Motion pictures are also very good for ensuring
students’ positive attitude toward the subject for instruction. They can also be
modifying students’ attitude in such areas like ecology, good work habit, hygiene
in health education, and so on (Blythe-lord, 1991 and Wittich and Schuller,
1973).

7.13 Multi-Presentation

This involves combinations materials. It is a learning resource package, effective

media concurrently for specific instructional purpose. When two or more pictures
are projected simultaneously, on one or more screens for group viewing, the compound
concept multi- image is used. However, when two or more different
types of media are used, sequentially in a single instruction or for self-paced
learning package, the term multi-media is used. Using multi-media or multi-
image, a large amount of information can be passed across to students arid high

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interest can be created in students. Furthermore, different media can be tailored towards
different objectives outlined for the lesson (Blythe-lord, 1991, Kemp and Smellie., 1989,
and Wittich and Schuller, 1973).

7.14 Creating instructional Media Using Computer

Computer graphics are drawing produced and generated by computers using input
devices such as scanner, light pen and so on and the product are then produced through
printers. Computer graphics has also been observed as all techniques of using computer
to prepare visual productions for all purpose.

Activity

Multi-media Presentation involves different types of media. Give advantages and

Disadvantages

7.15 Computers in Education

Computers are playing an increasingly important role in education, for both the teacher
and the students. Their use enables each student to develop at his or her own pace and
makes the whole learning process more flexible. The result of these effort take the form
of graphs, drawings and illustrations printed on paper. Display on video display units
(VDC) or presented before an audience as slides and transparencies. Most of the films
and pictures watched through video games are computer graphics. In computers graphics
some software packages available include Aldus freehand and page maker. Adobe
Photoshop, letterset’s Corel Draw, Freelance Artist Microsoft publishers, etc.

These packages permit the sketching of shapes, forms and design to he scanned, edited,
coloured and reworked. Sketching can be done using a light pen to trace the design on a
computer display monitor or using a graphics tablet.

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Some exciting computer graphics software e.g. AUTOCAD, enables the user to design
mechanical parts, such as the Transfer mission housing for an automobile, once design,
the computer can he at the designers will rotate the parts image on the screen, this
providing views from any perspective. It can also produce three-dimensional drawing of
the art and construct perspective rendering as well, all within minutes computer graphics
is a new technological breakthrough for media presentation industrial designers,
engineers and architects use computers to draw buildings, design engines, and new cars
with the aid of two aspects of computer graphics known as Computer Aided Design
(CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM). Perhaps the most dramatic use of
computer graphics is the preparation of visual presentation for instructional purpose.

Computer today is considered by many as an art medium, that is, the means by which
visual presentation are prepared by an artist as if pencil a paper or using oil on canvas.
Using computer as an alt medium is a relatively new development.

Activity
What is computer graphics?

How are computers used effectively in the learning and teaching environment?

7.16 Types of Media Production and Basic Characteristics of a layout

Media production skill is an important aspect of teachers’ education. Although there are
several commercially produced media, local production of materials is
often required. Locally produced material can be more receptive to the three general
characteristics of effectiveness-relevance, fit and validated. Local production of media is
accomplished better when it is supervised anti conducted by production specialist.
However, with little practice classroom teachers can produce materials which can be used
successfully to enhance their classroom instruction. So, when a teacher has the skill,
equipment, time, resources and indurations, and is willing to expend the effort, significant

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media can he produced. A specialist would interpret script, plan shot schedule, and
arrange sets, scenes etc. for a classroom teacher, rough sketches of envisaged task must
precede production. In the production of materials there are three basic types of
production. These are (a) Imitative, (b) Adaptive and (c) Creative media production.

7.17 Imitative Media Production.

This entails media production process, where the producer follows a particular pattern of
production based on the effort of others who have produced similar media in the past. It
deals with the use of the models or direction of others. When teachers are involved in
copying out pictures, tracing projected images or other constructions based on a given
direction, these are imitative media production. Most of the work of local production by
classroom teacher follows the imitative pattern. This is the lowest level of media
production as it is done to meet a certain standard that had been established before. When
a producer adds further ingenuity, the adaptive level comes in.

7.18 Adaptive Media Production

This deals with the production of media that have a sequence of production through a
new form or new way. This is an innovative positive change added to the process of
production, thereby changing the form of produced media from its original form. The
available media may see as a guide, but ultimate production requires the ingenuity of the
producer as new forms of ideas are incorporated into the final product. A prototype or a
model or even a picture of the prototype may exist and may be used as guide. However,
the ultimate production is based on individuals’ ability to identify problem and to work
out solution to that problem on his own, therefore adaptive production calls for individual
judgement, self-direction and imitation. For example, a producer of composite picture
would need his ingenuity to produce a good instructional media.

7.19 Creative Media Production

This is the highest level of media production as it involves the ability to define and solve
problems in original way without recourse to the direction or works of others. Such

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production is based on original concepts in design and production. It is important to
encourage teachers to become more creative, inventive and original in thoughts and
production. Before a teacher decides to produce any material, efforts must be made prior
to this decision to source for commercially produced ones. Any decision to produce a
material must he contingent on the non-availability of commercially produced one.
Furthermore, a teacher may need to determine whether there is enough time, personnel,
and financial backing with which to produce the needed materials.

7.20 General Guidelines for the use of Instructional Media in Teaching.

While the instructional value of media in enriching the teaching of students by teachers
cannot be doubted, media in themselves cannot assure good teaching. Their effective use
can be through the integration of media in teaching by classroom teachers. The following
guidelines can be followed to ensure successful integration of media in teaching (Blythe-
Lord, 1991, Farrant, 1981, and Michealis, 1975).

a). A classroom teacher should consider the entire school environment as a

laboratory for students learning and practical applications of his/her knowledge.
Therefore, instructional media selection, arrangement and rearrangement of
learning environment, use of materials and equipment to promote learning are
basic in self-contained classroom.

b). The entire neighbourhood of the school and community resources should be
viewed and utilised as a laboratory for students learning.

c). Media should be designed, produced, selected or used as resources to attain

specific instructional objectives. That is objectives should not be tailored to the
media, rather objectives should guide media utilisation.

d). Media to be used by a teacher should be considered in terms of concreteness or

media would produce. Classroom teachers should be sensitive to changing
situation within the classroom and have alternative media to meet individual
differences of the learners.

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 e). Media should he selected for instructional purposes based on specific criteria,
which are directly related to instructional planning. These include:

i). The nature of the guidance, in terms of chronological age, sex, Social,
cultural, environmental and economic background of the Learners.
ii). Entry level.
iii). Motivation.
iv). The physical abilities or disabilities of learners.
v). Learners long established perception and cultural Characteristics.
vi). The objectives to be achieved (whether cognitive, affective or
Psychomotor).
vii). Nature of the subject content.
viii). Physical qualities of the media, that is, the attributes, Authenticity and
significance of the content
ix). Cost of media.
x). Expected role of students and
xi). The mode of instruction, among others.

e). Instructional media should be utilised in the context of a variety of teaching

strategies, use of resources should be observed and guided. The possibility of
using multi-media should be considered. This is because a single media may not
be adequate to achieve alt die objectives outlined for a lesson.

g). Media utilisation should require learners’ response. When designing any media,
build into the programme, learners’ participation, through discussion, projects
dramatisation, and so on should be encouraged.

h). Evaluate the use of media. This can be done through observation, individual
project, use of questionnaire, and so on. The information from the evaluation can
be used to improve on media usage in subsequent lessons.

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7.21 Instructional Models

Introduction
Teachers change their instruction frequently in order to meet the needs of their learners.
There are several identified instructional models that teachers can alternate in use,
depending on the learners and the goals to be achieved. This section will look at two of
them.

Assure Model
Definitions
-It is a procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that integrates technology
and media into the teaching and learning process.
-It is an instructional design model that has the goal of producing more effective teaching
and learning.
-The model is a method in which the instructor or the designer uses available resources to
meet the demands of the learners for knowledge transfer.

Assure Model Unpacked

The ASSURE model has six steps that describe a set of tasks and procedures that have to
be followed in the teaching learning process. It is an acronym for the six steps involved.
A – Analyse learners
S – State objectives
S – Select methods, media and materials
U – Utilise resources (methods, media and materials)
R – Require learner participation
E – Evaluate and revise

1. Analyse Learners
The teacher should analyse the attributes of the learners, focusing on their characteristics.
That information or analysis helps the teacher in decision making and guides the teacher
in choosing specific strategies for use. This analysis includes the following: age,

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academic performance, interest, prior knowledge and learning styles, competence,
individual differences(through testing them), background, strengths and weaknesses, so
that each learner benefits.

2. State Objectives
Objectives should be clear and focus on what the learner will be able to do as a result of
the instruction, thereby focusing on the learner NOT the teacher. Objectives should
conform to the ABCD of learning. A- Audience, B – Behaviour, C- Conditions, D-
Degree. Blooms Taxonomy should be made use of. This gives direction to the teacher on
where he/she is coming from and where he/she is going and what is to be achieved.
Always use SMART objectives ie Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-
framed objectives.

3. Select, Modify, Design Methods, Media and Materials

The teacher should figure out which delivery method would be best for the instruction at
hand. It puts emphasis on systematic planning for use of instructional media. Relevant
media and teaching methods suitable for the age of learners should be used for effective
instruction. Select methods that suit learners and ensure grasping of concepts through
information acquired in analyzing learners. Media to be large enough and adequate for all
learners. Focus is on quality and quantity.

4. Utilise Methods, Media and Materials

The teacher needs to plan how to implement the use of media and materials through
employing several steps to create child centered instruction. There is need to preview the
material by checking it out first before using it. Prepare the material by making sure
everything needed is available and works well. The environment should be ready through
setting up the classroom so that whatever is done will work in the available space.
Prepare the learners by giving them an overview, explaining how they can take
information and use it .The teacher prepares activities and methods that are learner-
centered. Now use the selected media to conduct the lesson using selected methods. All
media provided should be used with clear instructions on what the learners should do.

5. Require Learner Participation

This is achieved through describing how the teacher will get each learner to be actively
and individually involved in the learning process, for example, through games, group
work presentation and debates. All activities should provide opportunity to manipulate
information to the demonstration of the skill. Methods and media that require the learner

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to be actively involved should be used. The teacher is encouraged to use stimulus
variation, verbal and non-verbal skills as well as good class management skill

6. Evaluate and Revise

At this stage, the teacher describes how he/she will measure whether or not the lesson
objectives were achieved. Evaluate media components, methods as well as the teacher’s
performance. Identify strengths and weaknesses of both the teacher and learners. This
evaluation provides the way forward, improves future instructional techniques, methods
of teaching and use of media.

Limitations of ASSURE Model

-Analysis of learners can be very difficult in large classes.

-Media and materials may be difficult to obtain or may not be available at all.
-For learner participation, there is need for clear instruction and good rapport between the
teacher and learners.
-Media to cater for individual differences may be costly.
-Evaluation here is summative and might therefore, not serve to address problem areas
until the end when it may be too late.
-Evaluation should be objective.

Gerlach and Ely Model

Classroom instructional design models are primarily of interest to professional teachers,

especially those who accept that their role is to teach and that learners require some form
of instruction. The teacher’s role is to decide on appropriate content, plan instructional
strategies, identify appropriate media and evaluate learners. However, there is little time
to develop new materials because of the ongoing nature of the instruction and the heavy
teaching load with many learners. Also, funds and time for development are usually
limited. Therefore, there is concern, more with identifying resources that are already
available and adapting them to suit the obtaining situation rather than original
development.

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Definition
-Gerlach and Ely model is a strategy that is designed or created to facilitate learning and
teaching or instruction.
-It is a method whose entry point calls for identifying content and specifying objectives
as simultaneous interactive activities.

The Steps Of The Gerlach And Ely Model

Step 1
This first task involves specifying objectives, but also recognizing that many teachers
first think about instruction from the standpoint of content. It is one of only a few models
which recognizes this content orientation of teachers. Behavioural objectives are to be
written and classified in order to decide on strategies to be used in the instruction. The
classification of the scheme is based on and presents a five-part cognitive taxonomy and
single category, heading for affective and motor skills objectives

Step 2
Assessing the entry behavior of learners, is the second step which is common to most of
the instructional models. However, despite the specification of entry behavior as a major
step in the instructional model process, there are few concrete procedures that are
provided.

Step 3
This step is in reality, five steps to be performed simultaneously. These steps are viewed
as interactive with any decision, influencing the decision available in the others. The five
steps are;
-Determine strategy
-Organize groups
-Allocate time
-Allocate space
-Select resources

Determine strategies

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Under strategies, a platform or continuum from exposure to discovery is provided. The
teacher’s role is to select one or more strategies along this continuum.

Organize groups
Learners can be organized into configurations, ranging from self-study to whole class
activities, based on strategies, space, time and other resources available.

Allocate Time
Time is viewed as a constant to be divided up among various strategies, for example, 5
minutes is for a lecture, 10 minutes for group discussion, 13 minutes for reporting back
and 2 minutes for concluding. The teacher has used lecture, discussion and a bit of
questioning in the available time.

Allocate Space
Space is not a constant since it is pointed out that teachers can and should extend learning
experiences beyond the classroom. Also, the classroom itself should be rearranged for
different group patterns appropriate to the activities that will be taking place.

Selection of Resources
This focuses on the teacher’s need to locate, obtain and adapt or supplement existing
instructional materials. Emphasis is on where and how to find such resources and the
importance of reviewing and planning for their use as part of the overall instructional
strategy.

Step 4
Following those five simultaneous steps is the evaluation of learners’ performance. This
step directs the teacher’s attention to measuring learner achievement as well as their
attitude towards the content and instruction. Evaluation is seen as closely linked to the
learner objectives stated earlier, with attention also directed at evaluating the system
itself.

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Step 5
The last step in this model is feedback to the teacher regarding the effectiveness of the
instruction. Feedback focuses on reviewing all earlier steps in the model with special
emphasis on re-examining decisions regarding the objectives and strategies selected.

Merits of the Gerlach and Ely Model

-It is a mixture of linear and simultaneous design or development.
-It is linear in that it goes from one stage to the next.
-Several steps are done simultaneously (at the same time), thus enabling adjustments to
be made when the need arises, though it is generally linear in its orientation.
-Its main strength is that practicing classroom teachers can identify with the process it
describes.
-Its objective classification taxonomy is simple and non-threatening to teachers.

Demerits of the Gerlach and Ely Model

Its main weakness is that it may unintentionally reinforce teachers and administration in
maintaining existing organisations and stating patterns rather than adopting new and
workable ideas.
-There are very few functions that are outlined in the model except a guide.

Activity
1. Identify the similarities and differences of the ASSURE model and the Gerlach and
Ely model

7.22 Communication Models

There is no way in life that human beings cannot communicate. Communication is central
to the life of our culture, without it culture of any kind dies. Communication is something
we learn to do and one can communicate intentionally or unintentionally. There are
models of communication that can be employed in different situations. This section will
look at three different types of communication models, namely, transmission, interaction
and transaction models.

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Definition of communication models
-It is a way of sharing meaning through continuous flow, symbolic to creating and
interpreting meaning

Basic Communication Model

The basic communication model consists of five components;
-the sender and receiver
-the medium that carries the message
-contextual factors
-the message itself
-feedback

Sender and Receiver

Certain factors can complicate communication between a sender and receiver.
-different beliefs, values and personalities influence the way the sender and receiver
perceive information. Senders and receivers may have different reactions to the same
information.
-various barriers to communication prevent a sender’s message from being understood as
intended. Examples include bad grammar, word choice and the nature of the relationship
between the sender and the receiver.

Medium
People communicate through speech in a face to face conversation as well as through e-
mail, an instant message, a telephone call, or a written letter. To choose the right medium,
you should consider several factors;
>importance of the message – generally you should deliver really important messages
face to face or over the phone. This makes more impact and enables the receiver to
respond immediately. E-mail is suitable for less important messages or those to which
you don’t need an urgent response. Instant messaging is best used for casual messages.
>practicality – when senders and receivers are geographically dispersed, using
telecommunications media , such as the phone, e-mail and instant messaging is more
practical than arranging face to face meetings.

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>preferences of sender and receiver-consider the other person’s preference for effective
communication
Contextual factors
The following come under contextual factors
>body language- all the nonverbal ways people communicate such as facial expressions,
physical gestures and posture
>timing- its best to time messages for when you know the receiver has time to attend to
them properly
>environment-there can be distractions due to noise and the receiver may fail to get the
correct message

Message
>A message may be spoken, written, visual and physical signals
>Each message has a specific purpose such as instructing, warning, greeting or requesting
information.
>For a message to be effective, you should know exactly why you plan to send it.

Feedback
>Feedback is any response to a communicated message
>It takes the form of a message itself and may be verbal, visual, or written.
>Feedback is what turns one way communication into two way communication.
>It can be positive or negative.
>Positive feedback indicates the receiver has received and understood the message.
>Negative feedback indicates that the receiver has not received the message or has not
understood its content
>Feedback is important during communication because it helps the sender to make any
necessary adjustments so that the message is correctly received.
>After you have delivered a message, feedback enables further clarification or
discussion.

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Communication Models
The three communication models we will discuss here are the transmission, interaction
and transaction models. Although these models of communication differ, they contain
some common elements

Transmission and Interaction Models of Communication

The Transmission and the Interaction models both include the following parts:
>participants
>messages
>encoding
>decoding
>channels
-The participants are the senders and / or receivers of messages in a communication
encounter.
-The message is the verbal or non-verbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver.
For example, when you say ”Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of
greeting that will be received by your friend.
-The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive and understand
messages is the encoding and decoding process
-Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication.
Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts
-Communication is not just done verbally but there are various options or channels of
communication.
-Encoded messages are sent through a channel or a sensory route on which a message
travels, to the receiver for decoding.
Most communication occurs through visual (sight) and /or auditory (sound) channels but
at times it is sent and received through other sensory routes such as, smell, touch or taste.

Linear / Transmission Model of Communication

This model of communication describes communication as a linear, one way process in
which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock,
1990)).It focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. The
receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not.

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Interactive Model of Communication
The interactive or interaction model of communication describes communication as a
process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate
meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological
contexts (Schramm, 1997) Unlike the Transmission/Linear model, the Interactive model
incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process.
Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. Instead of having one
sender, one message and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange
messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a
communication encounter going. This is done without much conscious thought. The
interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the
linear model focuses on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was
received, the interactive model is more concerned with the communication process itself.
It acknowledges that there are so many messages sent at the same time, and that many of
them may not even be received. Some messages are not intentionally sent. Therefore, in
this model, communication is not judged as effective or ineffective based on whether or
not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical
context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size,
layout, temperature and lighting of a space influence our communication. Psychological
context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication factor, for
example, stress and anxiety affect communication negatively while positive
psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect our
communication. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful
illustration of the communication process.

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Transaction Model of Communication
The Transaction model differs from the transmission and interactive models in significant
ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of the sender and
receiver and the role of context. This model describes communication as a process in
which communicators generate social realities within social, relational and cultural
contexts. Here, communication is not just to exchange messages but to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts and engage with others
in dialogue to create communities. The roles of the sender and receiver in this model
differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labelling participants in a
communication encounter as senders and receivers, in the transaction model they are
referred to as communicators, who are simultaneously senders and receivers. The model
portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede
communication.

Activity
1. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of each of the three models of communication.

Each of the three models of communication has been described in detail. The onus is on
the participants to choose a model of communication that best suits them, though in most
instances, the participants are not even aware they are using a specific model. In teaching
and learning, we observe a dual kind of communication between the teacher and the
learner.

7.23 E learning
According to Sammon (2015), e-learning as the use of new multimedia technologies and
the internet to increase learning quality by easing access to facilities and services as well
as distant exchanges and collaboration. Schennk (2014) view e-learning as any learning
that is enabled electronically. Therefore, e-learning involves the use of information and
communication technology as a way of supporting traditional classroom learning
situation. In this case online- distance learning is applied. E-learning factor in the use of

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computers and networks. A number of channels like wireless and satellite, and modern
technology like cell phones also play a big role in e-learning.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Adopting E-Learning

 Every student has the luxury of choosing the place and time that suits him/her. It
is a flexible way of learning.
 If expose the learner to huge amount of information which ease to access.
 E-learning helps remove barriers that have the potential of hindering participation
including the fear of talking to other learners and the teacher.
 It helps to cut costs since leaners can learn from wherever they are without
travelling to where the teacher s.

Disadvantages of E-learning
 E-learning reduces interaction and therefore demands for strong self motivation
on the part of the learner as well as time management skills.
 There is limited room for clarification and explanation as well as interpretation
when compared to known traditional learning method
 When it comes to testing and assessment, it might be difficult to control mal
practices such as cheating

El-earning involves the use of net worked information and communication

technology in the teaching and learning. Technological digital tools are used to enable
learners to study anytime and anywhere. Since it is network and web based learning,
there is delivery of knowledge in a manner which motivates students to interact with
each other, as well as exchange and respect different point of views. It eases
communication and improves the relationships that help to sustain learning. Although
e-learning has some challenges, it is has made strong impact to on modern teaching
and learning.

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7.24 Display Boards
There are several types of display boards that can be used at a school. Examples of these
include chalkboards, white boards, bulletin boards, geo-boards and flannel boards. Some
display boards are freestanding while others are fixed. They are used inside and outside
the classroom. Display boards serve as centres for knowledge and information.

Classroom Display Boards

-A good displays do not only engage and inform, but also brighten up the atmosphere of
the classroom. A plain classroom is uninviting and could affect learners' concentration.

-A classroom display should not only create and engage learning and working
environment for the learners, but should also reflect your personality and style of
teaching.

-Visuals help learners to remember what they have learnt for a relatively longer period of
time.

-Outside the classroom, students use display boards to promote clubs, and display art
projects.

-They are appropriate for use in teaching or training situations where there are no solid
walls to display materials.

-They can be free -standing, mounted on the wall or hung from a ceiling or on a tree.

-They can be made out of wood, line cork , cardboard or woven mats etc.

Use Of Display Boards

-Display boards should be informative and help learners to learn independently

- Use unique designs

-Make or display exciting and creative work.

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- Choose the right display and location.

Advantages Of Using Display Boards

-They are useful for project work when learners plan and work together.

-They promote the use of learner centred approaches as learners with different abilities
can work together on tasks that are equally important.

-They help the learners to remember what they have learnt for a longer period of time.

-'They help to promote visual literacy.

-They inform learners and visitors about the school's curriculum and locations.

-They help to build a culture of learning within and beyond the classroom.

-They help to give purpose and value of children’s work.

-They give children positive affirmations that their work has been appreciated and
celebrated.

-Public relation of the student is fostered.

Disadvantages
- learners might get distracted to the visual presentation instead of listening to the
teacher’

- A cluttered bulletin board may create confusion among the students.

- Student's achievement displayed in the bulletin boards may harm student fairness.

We are now going to look at the commonly used display boards in Zimbabwean primary
schools. These are chalkboards, white boards and interactive boards.

Chalkboard work
The chalkboards are the most common display boards in Zimbabwean primary schools.
They come in different forms. Some come in form fixed plastered walls, some are

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wooded and portable. Special care should be given to them in order to keep them neat
and presentable. Chalkboards should be renovated frequently. Written work should be
rubbed using appropriate dusters. It's unprofessional to rub the chalkboard using a hand
for example. At primary level, chalkboards can be demarcated and adorned with
attractive designs for different subject areas. You can also draw vertical and horizontal
lines using wet sugar or salt- coated pieces of chalk. You can use mighty markers to draw
the lines or scratch with a nail.

Some general chalkboard writing considerations

- When writing on the chalkboard, avoid talking to it. It has no ears. Write then talk while
facing learners.

_ Avoid using irritating chalk colours.

_ Avoid disrupting learners. You can make us of a pointer, which can be decorated to
draw learners’ attention.

_ Avoid crowding your work.

_ Where time and space permits, all the work that needs to be used on the chalkboard
should be written in advance to save time.

_ Chalkboard work should be visible to all learners. Check your light.

_ You can make use of templates to make illustrations. These should be as simple as
possible.

_ Write straight and consistently. Use the Nelson script.

_ Make use of short pieces of chalk for long ones snap easily.

- Make use of chalkboard rulers to underline or draw lines instead of using a free hand.

General use of the chalkboard

_To assign learners’ work

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_ To acknowledge learners correct responses

_To give instructions and notices

_To demonstrate and illustrate how to work out something.

_ To summarise work

_ To motivate learners by allowing them to write on the chalkboard too

_ To write unfamiliar words

_ To support other forms of media eg charts.

Advantages of chalkboards
_Are easy to make

_Are durable

_ Are relatively cheap.

_Are user friendly

_ Needs no power

_Needs no special expertise and skills

Demerits of chalkboards
_ Less interactive

- Rather traditional and do not address modern demands

-rather time consuming in manipulating some functions that can be easily done by
interactive boards.

_Less motivating when you compare with interactive boards

_chalk dust has some health challenges

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White boards
White boards are gaining popularity in schools. White boards and chalkboards share
some similarities. Most of the literature on chalkboards above applies very well to white
boards. The major differences are that white boards are modern and that felt pens are
used to write on them instead of chalk. The major advantage of white boards over
chalkboards is that they are neater and pose less health hazards to users. However, felt
pens and more expensive to use than pieces of chalk. White boards are not as common as
chalkboards.

It is important to know that writing on any surface be it on a paper, chalkboard and white
boards, special practice is of paramount importance. Attention should be given to the
correct grip, body posture and movement when writing. Interactive board

An Interactive board is also called an interactive whiteboard (IWB). It is a large

interactive display board which is white in colour. Jamec (2014) defines an interactive
whiteboard is an interactive display in the format of a whiteboard that reacts to user input
either directly or through other devices. Interactive white boards can connected to the
internet and digitalize tasks and operations instantly. Skeeney (2016) views an
interactive whiteboard is a classroom tool that allows images from a computer screen to
be displayed onto a classroom board using a digital projector. The teacher can interact
with images directly on the screen using a tool or even a finger. Interactive boards have
replaced common whiteboards or flip charts. In cases where the school has both
traditional and white boards, interactive boards are used to as supplements. Interactive
boards supplement by connecting to a school network digital video distribution system.
Examples of interactive boards include smart boards, mimio boards, polyvision and
promethean.

Advantages of Interactive White boards

• White boards increase meaningful engagement in collaborative productions

• Boost communication

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• There is wide range of sharing data and interconnectivity with mobile
connectivity compatibility

• Interactive white boards presents information which is readily available with

touch technology

Disadvantages of interactive white boards

• It requires more time for lesson preparation

• The whiteboards cannot be used in remote areas with connectivity and electricity
challenges

• High maintenance and complex to handle

Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) is regarded as one of the most revolutionary instructional

technologies for various educational levels. A variety of ways can be used to deliver
content using and interactive board. One of the ways is visual learning. In this case the
teachers uses text and images or pictures through animation or videos which leaners can
actually see. The other way in which interactive board can be used is auditory learning.
Here the teacher might use words orally for pronunciation; speech and some poems.
Auditory learning may also involve listening to sounds. The last modality of learning
using interactive board is tangible or tactile. This involves giving students an opportunity
to physically interact with the board.

7.25 Teaching Handwriting To Primary School Learners

Handwriting is a complicated skill of using language by pencil grip, letter formation body
posture. There are several skills that are developed in handwriting such as vision, eye
hand coordination, pencil grip, posture, body control and letter formation. Legibility and
neatness of one’s handwriting is impressive. It is indeed important that learners practice
good handwriting skills for it has an impact on other subject grades. The following some
are some the approaches that a primary school teacher can employ to teach handwriting
to children.

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Teachers should bear in mind that handwriting skills are taught in stages. We have the
preliterate stage , emergent stage, transitional stage and the fluent stage.
The preliterate stage
This is the initial stage where facilitators give children activities that help to develop their
manual dexterity. The children are given exercises such as colouring, painting, folding,
tearing papers and manipulating various articles eg toys through play. The children at this
stage can make some scribbles. This applies to preparatory and ECD learners.
The emergent stage
At this stage facilitators can introduce the repetitive patterns where the children making
some strokes and practice the left right orientation.
From there, the teacher should introduce patterns that form the basis of letters.

The transitional stage

This is the stage which usually take place in grade 1 and 2. The prototype of lettering is
introduced. These are simple letters without ligatures/ tails. It is at this stage that the
teacher should emphasise the correct pencil grip, sitting position and body posture. The
prototype of letters are as follows:

The fluent stage

The fluent stage generally applies to grades 3 to 7 at primary school. This is where the
mature handwriting styles are emphasised. Zimbabwean primary school adopted the
Nelson handwriting style. It is similar to the prototype of handwriting but the letters slope
to the right and have ligatures. When teaching this special attention should be given to:
 the letter heights. There are short and tall letters. Short letters are: a, c, e, m, n,
o, r, s, u, v, w, x and z. While tall letters are all capital letters and b, d, h, k, and l.
Take special attention on f, g, I, j, p, q and t.
 letter shaping. They should be consistent.
 Spacing. Spacing of letters between letters and words. The letter ‘ a’ should fit
between words.
 Sloping. Letters should slope uniformly to the right.
 Ligatures. Letter tails to maintain a 45 degrees angle.
 fluency and speed.

The Nelson handwriting is shown below.

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Letter changes to note are:
r f K w
At grade 6 or 7 learners can learn to join the letters. Note that they are latters that join and
others which do not join. Letters that join are: a, c, d, e, h, I, k, l, m, n, o, r, t, u, v, and w.
Letters that do not join are all capital letters and f, g, j, p, q, s, x and z.

Some handwriting activities that teacher can employ to teach handwriting.

The following are some activities that a primary school teacher can used to teach legible
handwriting.
 You can have short handwriting lessons where learners practice for example the
correct shaping of chosen letters or some letter heights. Illustrate slowly and
clearly the hand movement.
 Children are be made to trace or overwrite some given letters.
 You can have handwriting competitions.
 Dictations.
 Learners can also be motivated by displaying their work.
 Transcription exercises are also helpful. This is where learners transcribe given
pieces of work.
 The teacher can make children practice how to write selected letters before they
write assigned written language work and figures before Mathematics exercises.
 Teachers can indicate letters wrongly written in other subjects and demonstrate
how they should be written on the margin of their exercise books during marking
of assigned work.
 Display Nelson script chart in front of the class.
 Always remind them the proper pencil grip and an upright siting position.

Some general considerations in teaching handwriting

Instill in learners to value legibility, neatness and accuracy. Try as much as possible to be
a role model. Primary school learners are good imitators of what their teachers do than

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what they say. Encourage learners to write well and avoid negative comments.
Accommodate individuality for handwriting is personal. Learners can not produce the
same time of handwriting.

Summary

The foregoing presentation reveals the significance of media in classroom teaching, the
myriad of media available for teachers to enrich their instruction, and the guidelines for
effective use of media. Through resourceful use of ‘media, teachers can present their
lessons in an understandable way. Media when integrated can ensure that students
develop the right attitude towards instructional content. Furthermore, classroom
integration between the teacher and pupils /students can be enhanced. The use of media
would also promote trainee teacher’s efficiency in the design, production handling of
media. The experience will be transferred to their post training assignment as teachers,
thus bringing about hear perfection in later years as serving teachers. When media are
used by classroom teachers, they can promote students’ positive attitude, encourage their
self-motivation, demonstration associated factors and ideas, highlight specific topics and
concepts, encourage relevance and credibility and enhance understanding. This is because
with media, trainee teachers can deliver their lessons with much more vigor. Vigor
implies brevity with exactness, as sophisticated and delicate ideas can be expressed with
the faintest shades of meaning revealed through media.

ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss in detail film projectors and Video Player how they are useful in a

classroom teaching environment.

2. What are the advantages of using motion pictures when accompanied by sound
a. classroom situation?
3. Multi-media presentation involves combinations of two or more different types
of media. Give advantages and disadvantages for using it during instructional
purposes.
4. What are computer graphics?

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5. Drawings produced and generated by computers using input devices such as
scanner, light pen and so on are produced through.
6. Computers today are considered by many as an art medium that is by which
visual presentation are prepared by an artist, Discuss types of media production
and basic characteristics of a layout.
7. What does Imitative Media Production entails?
8. How does Adaptive Media Production deals with the production of media that
have a sequence of production through a new form or new way?
9. Critically analyse and discuss the Creative Media Production as it involves the
ability to define and solve problems in original way.
10. List the guidelines which can be followed to ensure successful. integration of
media in teaching.

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References
Agurn, 1(1988) Educational Media Management in L. Agum and L.Imogie
(Eds). Fundamentals of Education Technology. I badan: Y: Books.
Apel, H.J. (1993) Teacher Training in Theory and Practice. Education, 47,25-43.
Association for Educational Communication and Technology (1977) The
definition of educational technology. Washington DC=Author.
Bhythe - Lord, R.(1991) The Educational Media Design Handbook. London:
Macmillan.
Jorolimek, J.(1971) Social Studies Elementary Education (fourth ed,) New York:
Macmillan Company.
Kemp,J.E and Smellie, DC. (1989) Planting, Producing and Row Instructional
Media (sixth ed.) New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Michealis, J.U. (1975) New Designs for Elementary Curriculum and Instruction.
York New: Craw Hill Book Company.
Nicholls S.H and Schuller, F.C. (1973) Creative Teaching, London: George Allen
And Unwin Ltd.
Sammon, D. (2015). E-moderating: for sustainable teaching and learning online. (2nd
Ed.) London: Routledge.

Schennk, W. W. (2014). An eye opener for the 21st Century Educator, T.H.E. Journal.
Vol. 17, No. 4, 53-65.

Skeeney, Y. (2016). Transforming Learning In The Classroom With Interactive

Whiteboards: Towards a Developmental Framework. Australian Educational Computing.
21(2), p.43-4 Frurel, Y. K., &

Jamec , T. E. (2014). Teachers' Belief and Use of Interactive Whiteboards for Teaching
and Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 15 (1), 381–394.

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UNIT 8

EDUCATIONAL ADMINATRATION, MANAGEMENTAND INNOVATION

8.0. Introduction

Every organisation has set goals and objectives to achieve. One way of seeking to
achieve organizational goals is through the process of administration. In this unit,
we analyse topics/concepts in relation to educational administration. As such, the
unit explains why effective educational administration is considered a priority in
promoting and sustaining development in educational institutions.

8.1 Objectives:
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
i). outline the primary school structure and analyses functions of the
organisational members.
ii). identify and discuss the importance of education and law-education acts,
education policies and public service regulations.
iii). organise professional meetings.
iv). formulate a mission statement, vision and client charter for a school.
v). manage change and conflict.
vi). identify and discuss different leadership styles.
vii). identify some ethical issues in teaching and apply these in their daily
routines.
viii). outline the importance of evaluation, communication and performance
management in a school.
ix). implement cost effective management strategies.
x). explain Public Service Regulations, Educational Acts, Policies and
Circulars.

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8.2 School Organisational Structures.

Organisations have structures that must be kept in balance and adapted to goals.
The structural pattern defines relations among persons and groups within the
organisation. Rules and policies are a part of the organisational structure. This,
therefore implies the presence of one or more power centres. The structure of an
organisation is characterised by its hierarchy, social systems of people and
communication network.

An Organisational Structure of a Government Primary School in Zimbabwe.

Need a diagram here

8.3 Functions of the School Organisational Members

The Head

The functions of the head as stipulated in the Handbook on School Administration

for Heads are as follows;

 Gives professional advice to his teaching and non-teaching staff.

 Should provide a democratic atmosphere where school staff, students and the
school community feel at ease to expose and discuss their concerns.

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 To pay attention to the problems which affect teachers but of course not
neglecting pupils’ concerns
 To delegate duties to subordinates in order to ensure that the ‘we’ feeling is
cultivated rather than the ‘I’ which is often resented
 to cultivate co-operation and co-operative administrative behaviour.
 to orient/induct new teachers who join the school.
 enrolment of students.
 Educates the teachers and the students as well and so should maintain close
contact with the two groups. The head should be firm, fair and friendly.
 Procurement of resources.
 Prepares reports for the Ministry of Education.
 The supervision of teachers and the school, plan the management and
development of the school and the special services such as attending meetings
both local and international levels.
 To teach classes over and above their managerial activities.
 Monitors the receiving and backing of tear and levels.
 Ensures that school records are kept up to date.

The Deputy Head

 Deputy Head is Second in command. He /She takeas flail control and become
accountable in the absence of the Head He/She should therefore acquaint himself /
herself with all the duties of a school Head.

 Taking charge of the induction and orientation of all new teachers and pupils and
assisting them to settle down without delay. Although the new teachers and pupils
their Game Houses immediately on joining the school.

 Attending to disciplinary matters of pupils and staff. Charing diplomacy meetings

and immediately communicating.

 recommendations to the Head. Controlling the activities of prefects and ensuring

that they are effective.

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 Making all time —tables and duty rosters for staff and ensuring their effective
implementation. Assigning duties to teachers and ensuring that all school
programmes are adequately manned.
 Writing testimonials for both pupils and teachers should the need arise.
 Taking special interest in the safety and welfare of both pupils and staff by
frequent interaction with them.
 Preparing and conducting assemblies and using the opportunity to expound school
policy, rules and values through various themes and announcements.
 Assisting the Head in enrolling new pupils.
 Monitoring the general clearness of the school grounds, toilets, classrooms and
facilities.
 Checking on punctuating /attendance of pupils, teaching and non- teaching staff.

The Teacher
 To study, interpret and implement the syllabi and design strategies for putting
them into practice in line with learners’ experiences.
 Prepares schemes of work, lesson plans and records books.
 Facilitates the teaching and learning process.
 Takes assembly duties on a roster basis where rules, regulations, morals,
punctuality and other social issues are raised.
 Train and supervise pupils in co-curricular activities where they are developed in
self-discipline, physical and moral development
 Making of the register /pupils work.

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 The Parents
 Provide the school with financial, material and human resources.
 They supplement books and help pupils with their homework by way of
supervision at home.
 Attend school general meetings, prize giving days and consultation days.
 Some parents with particular skills or knowledge offer services as resource
persons in areas such as religious and moral education, social studies, cultural
matters and health education.

The School Development Association (SDA)

The financial functions and duties of the SDA as stipulated in the regulations
(statutory instrument) include the following
 Preserve and maintain the school property and facilities.
 Engage or wire academic and non-academic staff.
 Undertake the construction or installation of new buildings and facilities and carry
out alterations, additions, improvements or repairs to existing buildings with the
secretary’s approval.
 Award and make available scholarships and grants.
 Submit to the secretary for Education, and on request, annual audited accounts of
the association.
 Change or impose a levy in respect of each child enrolled at the school. Submit
budget to justify increase in levy or charge of levy for capital development.

Activity 8.1
1. Identify and analyse the professional and administration duties /functions of the Head
and Deputy Head.
2. Outline the functions of the following organisational members: (i) Prefects (ii) Pupils
(iii) Bursar (iv) Clerk (v) General hand.

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8.4 Planning and Managing Professional Meetings

Staff meetings are an ever-present feature of modern school life. Whether they are
conveyed to find facts, devise alternatives or pass along information, meetings
typically occupy a good deal of a heads time. Meetings should be conducted in a
professional, business- like and friendly spirit. Useful recommendations can
emanate from such meetings and these can contribute to educational change and
development. Such meetings can be formal or informal depending on the business
at hand. Minutes of proceedings should be maintained for future reference and in
the interest of application of the resolutions and recommendations. Some useful
points for conducting successful meetings include:

 Making sure certain a meeting is necessary to achieve the desired objective. Do

not call a meeting if the same result can be achieved by personal visit, memo,
phone call, etc.
 Developing an agenda and sending it out in advance. The agenda should clearly
indicate the items to be covered, appropriate time the meeting with take place and
some indications of what is expected in the way of participation from the
members. e.g. to give advice or make a decision.
 Giving careful consideration to those being invited to the meeting. Invite only
those people who need to attend.
 Hold the meeting where distractions and interruptions can be reduced to a
minimum.
 Being prepared. There is no substitute for adequate preparation. Know what it is
you want to accomplish and do your homework in such a way that all necessary
information is available. Anticipate questions and issues that may arise.
 Being prepared to ask the right questions to stimulate discussion if participation
by members is important. Encourage everyone to get involved. Avoid questions
and comments that stifle discussion. Resent-c personal opinions and judgements
until later in the discussion. Otherwise

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  the members might be unduly biased by your comments and fail to provide the
type of input really desired. Do not allow one of a few members to monopolize
the conversation.

 Keeping to the agenda. Encourage members to express themselves, but do not

permit them to wonder off the subject or waste time with long winted
dissertations;

 Concluding the meeting by summarising the highlights, including caution to be

taken as a result of the discussion. Follow up the meeting with a set of accurate
and detailed minutes, distribution and ultimately to organisational success.

Planning and. managing professional meetings brings into focus all the components
of the communication. Process including coping with noise and barriers? Effective
meetings are important to organisational communication and ultimately lead to
organisational success.

Activity 8.2
1. Critically discuss the meeting you recently attended at your school, subject
committee, cluster or any other meeting. How could its effectiveness have been
enhanced?
2. Outline the difference between planning and managing a meeting.

8.5 Procurement and allocation of resources

According to Zvodgo (2004), efficient teaching and good performance in

examinations by students depend on the proper use of available resources and good
planning for the development of resources to be procured or created. Bowora and
Mpofu (1995:163) assert to be efficient in the use of resources in order to achieve the
goals of the school in a cost-effective manner. The four major

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resources are human, material, financial and time. However, the procurement and
allocation of material resources will be outlined in detail.

The demand for material resources is initiated by the Head of department, who draws a
purchase requisition specifying the quantity required, quality and distinguishing code.
The procurement committee must satisfy itself that there is adequate justification for
sourcing the items required outside the institution. The procurement seeds a possible
supplier. They may search from their previous records, a register of supplies or directory.
They then request tenders to be submitted, where suppliers must specify quantities,
quality and delivery time. Once a supplier has been identified, he/she must send a
quotation to the institution. The procurement committee has to get the quotations and the
supplier is selected on his/her ability to supply the required quantity of the right quality
within the acceptable time frame and not necessarily for having lowest prices.

The purchase order is drawn and dispatched to the supplier. The purchase order is the
basis of a legal contract with a supplier. The drawing of the purchase order should be
controlled and the signing restricted to a few senior people, e.g. senior master/senior
women or Deputy Head. Once the order has been dispatched, the deliveries of stock must
be monitored and the receipt of goods must be made.

The issuing of materials to staff members or departments should be systematic. Issued

materials should be signed for and equal distribution of material should be observed to
avoid disputes among staff members. Stock-storing systems should be
designed in such a way that oldest stocks are issued first before the latest stocks.
This is of significance for items of stock with an expiry date; e.g pesticides to use in the
school garden. The issue of tools to workers could be considered in a different light from
the issue of consumables. Tools used are returnable at the end of each assignment or day.
The following procedure reduces paper work but achieves the same objective of stock
control. Each worker could be given a metal disc beating a staff number or the
employees’ code number. Each worker requiring a tool presents a requisition on the
drawing of tools and his disc in exchange for the tool(s). The disc is placed on a hock

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specifically relating to the issued tool. On return of the tool, the disc is returned to the
worker.

Activity 8.3

1. List as many examples as you can for each of the four resources given1 above.
2. What could happen if resources are not allocated equally to staff members?

8.6 Organisational evaluation and improvement

The concept of management for progress in the school is done through evaluation which
assists us to monitor and control quality of our educational delivery. It is therefore, clear
that the primary concern of school management and the ultimate objectives of evaluation
procedures and staff-development programmes remain the improvement of the
organisation (school). Bowora and Mpofu (1995:295) argue that evaluation should be a
consultative and participative approach to the production of results “. Evaluation has to
be undertaken against a set of educational goals, objectives and values.

It is important that we must always question our colleagues, peers and staff on how our
school can perform even better in the future than it is now. Because, indeed education is a
continuous process, it follows that we should always be learning and benefiting from our
mistakes, thereby ensuring success for the future. In order to get a true and accurate
picture of our school performance and how effectiveness can be improved, we need a
structured and systematic approach to evaluation. A basic premise underlying our entire
approach to evaluation is that it is an on-going process. Evaluation therefore is a process
through which we establish the value of our schools and their effectiveness as well as the
positive and negative aspects of on operations. Evaluation means determining the extent
to which we achieve our set goals in school. Within this context, the school should
identify its own particular curricular priorities, aims and objectives, taking account of
local circumstances and needs. These should be specified appropriately to ensure that
they are clearly understood by all unearned in their implementation.

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There are many reasons for carrying out evaluation of school and staff performance.
Evaluation is not an end in itself. It is a means to serving the highest possible quality of
educational improvement. Through evaluation, we can tell, at a given point, to what
extent the school is improving in achieving its stated aims and objectives. It becomes
healthy for improvement purposes, if all aspects of the operation of the school are
evaluated from time to time. It is important to know the state of the school in respect of:

 Curriculum offered and its appropriateness.

 Effectiveness of teaching and learning.
 Schools ethos, tone and climate.
 Communication with teachers, pupils, parents and the wider community.
 Effectiveness of guidance and counselling and
 Orderliness of the environment and adequacy of attendance.
 Knowledge of the strengths and weakness of these aspects in the organisation
enables the heaqd to take corrective action and overcome weaknesses for the
improvement of the organisation. Evaluation should thus lead to improved
decision-making at all levels and to clearer paths of action being identified and
followed. While you may add more reasons for evaluating school activities, take
note of Hall and Oldroyds (1989) pithy summary that the purpose of evaluation is
to:
 Identify training needs.

Improve systems and training; and

 Account for investment.

Evaluation should, therefore, provide feedback on the school activities to all those
concerned and when needed for organisational improvement.
It is high time to carry out self-evaluation in on schools. It is the hallmark of
professionalism in the school. The process places emphasis on the school as whole and
on the corporate contribution to improving learning and teaching rather than on isolation
the performance problems of individual staff members. The approach has the added

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advantage of giving the individual teacher an opportunity to contribute to the shaping of
policy development as well as to bring out individual staff development needs.

Activity 8.4

1. Why should we carry out regular evaluation in our schools?

2. How should evaluation be carried out for effective results to be obtained?
3. Wereon teaching practice. How can you improve or solve weaknesses?

8.7 Performance Management

It is difficult to differentiate between performance appraisal and performance
management but Bolden, (1991) as cited in “The Golden Handbook for Teachers
Book 3” views performance management as the assumption” that for people to
work effectively they need to know what is expected of them and also to be given
regular feedback on how they are doing. Similarly, performance management is
seen as a process or system that allows the monitoring of personnel in order to
improve both the organisation and the individual. In Zimbabwe every public
servant including heads of schools and teachers follows the requirements of the
performance management system in order to achieve the goals and objectives of
the Ministry. It also emphasizes that regular reviews are critical to the system in
order to arrive at ratings that are fair to both the members and the organization.

8.7 Purpose of Performance Management

The performance management system focuses on three main aspects, namely the
job. (i.e. the structure, components and human abilities or competencies that are
required for successful execution and delivery)’ the people (i.e. the individual
needs for personal growth and development); and training (i.e. the process that
will lead to a harmonisation of the demands of the job and the abilities/
capabilities competencies of the people).

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Performance management measures the performance in the organisation. In the way, the
appraise is averaged to commit himself / herself to the goals of the organisation and to
conform to the norms, of the organisation. The appraiser should therefore realise that
his/her acceptance in the organisation e.g. a school, largely depends on the extent to
which he/she conforms to the achievement of the organisations goals.

Performance management is also necessary in order to assess the appraisee’s training and
development needs or requirements. The training and key skills are identified through the
process of performance management. On the basis of the findings, it may be necessary to
redesign the job or to relocate certain individuals.

Another purpose of performance management is to create mutual dialogue and

understanding between the supervisor and supervisee. Constructive dialogue between the
supervisee/appraisee and superviser appraiser is very healthy for
organisational development. It helps the appraisee to appreciate what is required of
him/her and further find ways of building his/her strengths.

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Performance management is also essential for the encouragement of the appraisee in
order to motivate him / her. It assists in boosting the morale and confidence among
appraisees through the conference with appraiser where positive comments are made on
the performance of the appraisee.

The determinations of promotions are also a result of the performance management

system. Employers regularly assess performance and use the assessments to make
recommendations about a worker’s future status. These recommendations can result in
salary adjustments. New assignment or changes in the structure of jobs.

Activity 8.5
1. Distinguish the differences between performance management and performance
appraisal.
2. Is the performance management system viable to civil servants in Zimbabwe?
Justify your answer.

8.8 Education and Law-Public Service Regulations

Education Policies and Education Acts

This concept brings to your attention extracts from the provisions of Public Service
Regulations (Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000) as amended, which are meant to help you to
understand your rights and responsibilities in relation to your conditions of service. You
may have heard or read about teachers or school heads that have been arrested, jailed or
discharged iron the service, etc. after committing several crimes. Teachers are human
beings. They make errors of commission or omission, i.e. deliberately or unconsciously
commit mistakes or crimes. Most errors that teachers make stem from ignorance of the
law are official rules that people must obey within a country and they deal, with people’s
behaviour and actives (Macmillan English Dictionary, 2002).

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 Good behaviours entail discipline. If you are disciplined, you will not experience any
problems with the law. Zimbabwe, as a democratic state, has promulgated several
laws that govern her citizens. Several laws or rules and regulations bind teachers. As
a teacher, you should know and abide by these. In the segments that follow, we
reveal to you some of the key rules and regulations that govern your conduct as a
civil servant. However, you should not regard them as the substitute for the ful
version of the principal regulations contained in statutory Instrument 1 of 2000
Public Services Regulations 2000 which you are encouraged to acquaint yourself
with. Even the selected sections are not exhaustive. Copies of the regulations and
related ministry and related ministry circulars may be obtained from the school head
principal’s office.

Interpretation of Terms; (S.11 of 2000)

The terms cited below were interpreted according to the regulations;
Appointing authority - in relation to any appointment to ministry of department.
Confirmed member: means a member who is confirmed in his appointment after a
period of probation.

Department: means any division of a ministry which a head of department has been
designated by the commission.

Grade: means the position or grade which has been allocated to a post.
Head of Office- means the person in charge of the office, branch or institution in
which a member is employed or any such person designated by the commission.

Legal Practitioner- means a person registered as such in terms of the legal

practitioners Act (chapter 27:07) i.e. Registered Lawyer.

Medical Practitioner -means a person registered as such in terms of the Medical,

Dental and Allied Professions Act (Chapter 27:08) i.e. Registered Doctor.

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 Misconduct- means any act or omission by a member which constitutes an act of
misconduct specified in the First Silverdale.

Pension’s regulations- mean any regulations in force governing the terminal benefits of
members. Performance award: - means an award of additional remuneration to a member,
including any bonus or increment made in accordance with the commission’s
determination of the level of performance attained by that member.

Probation: means the period of employment before a member is confirmed in his

employment.
Teacher: means a member who is serving in the ministry responsible for primary,
secondary, tertiary or vocational education.

Regulation: - means a rule or a statement by an employing or responsible body that

clearly outlines what an employee should do in the course of duty.
Ethics: - this refers to the study of morals in human behaviour.

Profession:- Growther (1996:924) defines profession as:” a paid occupation especially

one that requires advanced education and training.’ Hayden (1997:155) argues that “one
mark of a profession is its shared possession of a body of knowledge and expertise” We
take the word “profession” to imply an occupation that is distinct and has a set of values
obtained from several years of education and training. The values include skills,
knowledge and competencies in teaching.

Teaching as a Profession

The art and science of imparting knowledge to others is as delicate as a medical

operation. Human beings tend to look down upon teaching, perceiving it as non- life-
threatening occupation such as medicine, engineering and a few others seem to forget is
that the art and science of imparting stall and knowledge (i.e. operating on the mind of
people) is an equally complex task. It is the teachers that have taught the doctors,

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scientists, electricians. Teaching, like any after profession, is complex.

We have also revealed, in our definition earlier on, that a profession has a body of shared
knowledge and expertise. Teaching has a distinct body of values that distinguishes it from
other professions. It has its own philosophy, values and codes. Teachers likewise have
distinct work related behaviours and moral codes. Teachers, as we will discuss below are
expected to display certain behaviours that are content with teaching profession.

Roles of the Teacher

Fourie, et. al. (1995:51) has outlined three key tasks of the teacher as follows;

1. To guide and direct the development of children, This task entail;

character formation religious awareness (unconditional obedience to and trust in
the creator realisation that love and tolerance will have a positive influence on
human relationships.
2. To teach and instruct.
3. To provide authority and security in the school life of the child.

To be able to execute these and other tasks requires some “training” or education in the
art of teaching. The teacher education course you have embarked on focuses on among
others;

 The nature of styles of learning of children. You need to understand and

appreciate children’s behaviour.

 Your department and general outlook- courteous, loyal, smart and willing to learn.
Penning, scheming and general management techniques.

 So, if you are able to display and uphold these qualities, then you are a
professional. In the next segment, we highlight the linkage between the teaching
profession and the laws of Zimbabwe.

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Activity

Suggest five practical ways a teacher can assist pupils to learn

Public Service Regulations

The Public Service Regulations currently in use fall under the Public Service Act (1996)
Section 31 Chapter 16 sub-section 4. The specific regulations are,
(a) Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 of the Public Service Regulations 2000.
(b) Statutory Instrument 58 A of 2001 of Public Service (Amendment) Regulations,
2001 (no.1)
(c) Statutory instrument 21 A of 2001 of the Public Service (Pensions) (Amendment)
Regu1ations, 2001. No.4.

We now give a synopsis of the tenats of one of these regulations.

Statutory Instrument of 2000 of the Public Service Regulations 2000 (5.1.1 of 2000)
Appointment, performance appraisal and career mobility.
Appointment (Statutory Instrument 1of 2000 sections 6 and 7)
 Teachers are firstly appointed on probation and must hold recognised professional
qualifications and also must be medically fit (Medical Examination Certificate by
medical practitioner).

Fixed Established:
 Teachers who have had a two-year probation period satisfactory are
eligible to be appointed to the fixed establishment in the Public Service. The
recruitment, advancement, promotion or grading of teachers be on the basis of

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 merit, to not automatic or a right. Therefore, teachers shall comply with all the
conditions applicable to such service, as fixed from time to time by the
Commission.

During probationary period, if the teacher does not meet the required standards
of health, or if he/she has taken risk leave aggregating to ninety days (9odays) or
more during the probationary period, the commission shall require the member to
undergo a further medical examination by a medical practitioner approved by the
secretary for Health.

Performance Appraisal (Statutory Instrument 1 of 200; Section 8)

In order to keep under review and improve the provision of services to the public,
the performance potential and development needs of all members shall be
annexed continually and final reports thereon shall he complied and submitted at
least once a year.
Results of the performance appraisal may be used for determining performance
awards and allowances, advancement, promotion, transfer to more competent
points, skills development coarse, demotion or discharge of teachers.

Career Mobility
Regrading: - (Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 Section 9)
A teacher is regarded when he moves from one category or group of functions to
another laterally, whether within the same or another Ministry or department
after serving a period of not less than one year on trial after which the members
performance is appraised to be satisfactory.

Advancement: - (S.I of 1. of 2000 section 10)

A teacher is advanced when, having satisfied the conditions laid down in the relevant
advancement procedures and subject to satisfactory performance

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appraisal, he/she is advanced within the grade or from one grade to another. In
this respect, the Commission may issue circulars or notices governing
advancement procedures.

Promotion: - (Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 Section 11 and 12)

A teacher is promoted when, having undergone a competitive reflection procedure, he is

appointed to a vacant post to which if attached a greater responsibility and a higher salary
or higher salary scale than that attached to the post to which he was cost substantially
appointed. Appropriate staff advisory committees and appointed by the commission to
preside over promotion procedures.

Teachers may apply for promotion using relevant application forms and with guidance
from their Heads of offices only if are eligible for promotion. Eligibility is clearly
stipulated, in circulars for vacant posts issued by the commission or Ministry concerned
to Heads of departments and such circulars are to be read to teachers as soon as they
reach their stations.

Resignation, Termination of Employment and Retirement.

Resignation (Statutory Instrument I of 2000 Section 15)

All members of the Public Service must give appropriate notices in writing to the
delegated authority, Unless the commission or delegated authority- waives all or part of
such notice, the period of notice;
i. a teacher who wishes to resign should give 90 days’ notice of termination on the
last day of the school/college term,
ii. The secretary may accept a shorter period of notice than the stipulated above, and
may accent withdrawal of resignation.

A teacher may not be granted vacation leave during the period of notice, if a teacher
resigns from the Public Service without giving 90 days’ notice as in

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 i) Above, Penalties may be imposed. The teacher will be required to pay the state a
sum of money not exceeding three months’ salary.

Pensionable age and Retirement: (3.1 in of 2000 Section 17)

Subject to Section 18, a member appointed on pensionable terms of services-
a) Before the 1st of May, 1992 shall have a pensionable age of sixty-five years
(65)
b. on or after the 1st May 1992 shall have a pensionable age of sixty years (60yrs)

A members (teachers) pensionable age shall be recorded on the teacher’s

record of employment for pension purposes.

The payment shall, on the 1st June each year, provide all leads of ministry or department
with a lot of teachers who will reach the age of fifty-live (55), sixty (60) or sixty-five (65)
years during the ensuring year (next year)

The Commission may be, when it is in the interest of the public service to do so, permit a
teacher whose personable age is (60) to continue to serve beyond the age
of sixty for periods not exceeding one year at a time, provided that such members shall
retire at the age of sixty-five (65) years.

Retirement before reaching Personable age (Statutory instrument 1 of 2000 section

18) A teacher may, on giving three months’ notice of retirement be permitted by the
commission to retire before personable age at any time offer attaining the age of fifty-five
(55yrs). The commission may, on giving the equivalent appropriate period of notice
presented under section (2) of section 15 for the registration of a member, require a
member to retire on or after the date on which such member attains the of fifty-five (55)
years.

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The commission may retire a teacher on medical grounds after undergoing a medical
examination by a medical board appointed by the secretary for Health. The commission
may also retire a teacher before attaining personable age on grounds of inefficiency or if
his removal until facilitate improvements in the Ministry or other division of the public
service in which he is serving.

The teacher whom the commission intends to retire shall.

i) be given notice of such intention by his head of ministry or department; and

ii) be afforded an opportunity to make representations in wilting concerning such

intention of the commission, which shall consider such representation before
deciding on whether or not to retire the teacher.

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Grading and Salaries:
Grading structure (Statutory instrument I of 2000 Section 19)
The commission may grade all posts within the Public Service info such categories or
groups of functions as it deems fit.
Salaries: - (statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 section 20)
The commission shall fix the salaries, salary seeds and entry points for all posts and
grades in the Public service with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance. The salaries
are determined in accordance with academic, professional, technical qualifications,
training or relevant experience and offer attributes necessary for efficient and effective
execution of the task attached to the post.

Allowances (Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 section 21 to 29)

The state shall meet expenses in the following;
i) official travel,
ii) Subsistence allowances authorized.
iii) Proved and unproved expenses if approved
iv) Transfer allowances if authorized by the state,
v) Acting allowance for a teacher in an acting position of a high post,
vi) responsibility allowance to a teacher who is required to undertake work involving
special responsibility; and
vii) Performance and awards and other allowances for teachers after meeting
minimum conditions let by the commission.

The State shall not meet transportation expenses for all unauthorized travels.
Vacation Leave: - (Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 sections 35 to 41)
All teachers accrue vacation leave and the days are shown on the pay slips. A
teacher may apply for vacation leave as follows;

i). One term leave after accruing 114 to 123 days)

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 iii) Half a terms’ leave (2 calendar months) after accruing 60 days beginning day of
January, March, May, July, September or November.

Sick Leave:
A teacher can be granted a total 90days’ sick leave on half pay in a calendar year,
with production of a medical certificate. Sick leave may also be granted to a
teacher for up to 6 days without production of a medical certificate.
Special Leave: -
A teacher may be granted special leave not exceeding 12 days in a calendar year
to prepare and sit for an examination, attending courts as witnesses, member of
official delegation, death of spouse; parent and child.

Manpower Development Leave

This may be granted to a teacher to engage in relevant study training, i.e. work
exchange programmes work attachments, short courses, and professional training
academic courses above secondary level education. Such leave can be granted
upon agreeing to conditions set out in statutory instructions 1 of 2000.

Maternity Leave: -
A Female teacher, on production of a medical certificate from a registered
medical practitioner (or clinical officer if stationed in a rural area) certifying that
the a teacher is pregnant, shall proceed on 90 days leave for purposes of
maternity which shall be taken as follows, 90days maternity leave at 100% salary.
The leave shall commence from the 45th of the 21st date to the approved
conditions.

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Qualifying period for paid maternity leave.

The female teacher is eligible for maternity leave after she has completed one year in-
service from date of appointment. The teacher is also entitled to maternity leave after 24
months (2yrs) from date of the last maternity leave. The teacher must be certified
pregnant. The teacher shall not resume duty before expiry of 90 days maternity leave.
Maternity leave is compulsory. A maximum or 3 such leaves / periods may be granted to
a serving teacher in the Public Service. Periods in excess of a 90days may- he taken as
vacation leave with or without pay.

Encashment of accrued vacation leave (section 36 ‘8’)

A teacher who has served for a continuous period of at least two years may encash a
portion of his accrued leave.
We now focus on the parts that govern teacher behaviour. The pails are taken from
statutory instrument I of 2000. These are;
i) Part viii: - Disciplinary procedure
b) Part ix: - Grievance procedure
c) Part xi: - Discharge, suspension of salary, departures from part viii and ix.
d) First Schedule: - Acts of misconduct
e) Fourth Schedule: - Misconduct report
f) Fifth Schedule: - Suggested penalties.

The First Schedule (Section 2) of Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 states up to 24 acts of

misconduct that you must know. We suggest that you have a copy of them which you can
obtain front government printing office or any head’s office.

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The Fifth Schedule (Section 50 (2) page 57) of the Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000 lists
several disciplinary options. These penalties are in line with acts of misconduct listed in
the first schedule. It is important for you that, as soon as you get hold of the “Statutory
instrument 1 of 2000” take note of acts of misconduct that call for a summary discharge
Front the Public Service. You need to also examine the circumstances where offenders
may be given reprimand (warnings), surcharges and fines.

In some cases, three warnings are given before a discharge is preferred. Such is the case
with being absent from duty for less than thirty days; improper, negligent etc
performance of duty and failure to perform work assigned. In short, any fourth offence is
accompanied by discharge front the service. So, as a public servant, your conduct should
always be above board.

Misconduct Report

The fourth schedule is a spaceman of a report the head of the school is expected to
complete when raising a charge against you. Actually, the one currently in use is
contained in statutory Instrument 58A of 2001 (Public service amendment) Regulations,
2001 (No. 1. page 298 J) School heads are therefore expected to adhere to the section
outlined here in. You are also encouraged to be acquainted with the areas that are
reported on by the person reporting a charge against you.

Disciplinary Procedure

This section outlines the steps taken when an allegation of misconduct is being increlled
on a member basically, the procedure focuses on documenting all cases. Secondly, the
bureaucratic structure that has to be followed from the school level up to the Public
Service Commission. Thirdly, a period not exceeding seven days upon receiving relevant
documents, a determination of allegation of misconduct has to be made by the relevant
bodies. The court determines the acts of misconduct that are of a criminal nature. The

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disciplinary authority shall in this case, obtain a copy of the court record and act
accordingly.

Grievance Procedure

This relates to steps a teacher should take should he/she feels dissatisfied by or with any
work-related issue. The provisions stipulate the steps an aggrieved member should take
until the perceived justice has been done. The procedure follows the bureaucratic path
also.

General (Rules and Regulations)

Part X of the Statutory Instrument I of 2000 address areas related to:

a) Discharge of members on the grounds of detention, restriction, deportation or

imprisonment.

b) Suspension of salary of member who is imprisoned, detained, restricted or

deported.

c) Departures form certain parts in certain circumstances without committing

injustices.

We are sure that the preceding account has given you some light into the provisions of
the basic rules and regulations governing your conduct. In the next segment, we take a
look at the nature and essence of official circulars within the Ministry of Education.

ACTIVITY

The Public Service Commission is a statutory body instituted by the Government

of the Zimbabwe according to the law. Examine the functions of the public
Service Commission in relation to the Teaching profession.

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Education Policies and Official Circulars
The Ministry of Education and the Public Service Commission endeavour to
communicate with personnel in these sectors from time to time. One way that has been
found to be effective is through the use of official and policy circulars. Circulars
communicate:

a) Policy enunciations from the Ministry of Education and Public Service

Commission
b) Vacancy notices;
c) Information, there might be important pieces of information that need to be
communicated to the teacher. This might be on salary issues, charges in the
Ministry personnel or related matters, disciplinary matters) national events,
holidays) repeal of previous circulars to name a tar.

As in the case of rules and regulations, circulars are properly documented and referenced
for easy access. Below is a list of some of the referenced policy circulars you need to get
hold of:

a). CIRCULAR No. P57: Completion of staff reports.

b). CIRCULAR No. 25: General purpose fees in Government Schools.
c). CIRCULAR No. P 35: Discipline in schools; suspension Exclusion and Corporal
Punishment.
d). CIRCULAR No. P 64 Misconduct Procedures: Officers in the Public Service.
e). CIRCULAR No. P 77 Policy Guidelines on the implementation of the two-
pathway education structure in Zimbabwe.
f). CIRCULAR No. P 6 Invitations to school Functions
g). CIRCULAR bio. P 23 Maternity Leave.
h). GRIEVANCE HANDLING PROCEDURE Ministry of Education, Sport and
Culture.

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As you have seen above; the policy circulars are referenced with letter “P” for easy
access. As a teacher you need to have your own personal copies of official circulars in
your personal file for future reference when the need arises.

Who Writes Circulars?

Official circulars originate from tile administrative and management methods of
government, in the education system, the permanent secretary, the Directors (finance,
administration, personnel) or other senior officials can write and distribute circulars on.
matters of national concern in education. Where a circular originates from Head Office, it
is sent to the respective regional offices for onward transmission to schools. With the
development of technology, some circulars are now sent by Electronic mail (E-mails)
through the internet. However, at the moment, far schools have access to this facility.
You should take note that your duty, as a teacher, is to implement a policy whether it is
favourable or not. You can use professional staff associations such as ZIMTA, TUZ or
PROGRESSIVE Teachers Union of Zimbabwe (PTUZ) to air your grievances.

Activity

Find any two circular that address issues of teacher professionalism. Critically analyse
any three issues chat tile circulars address.

Other Pieces of Relevant Legislation

Before embarking on studying this sub-section, do this activity

Activity

Find a copy of the Official Secrecy Act. How do its provisions compare to those of
statutory instrument 1 of 2000?

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The statutory Instrument I of 2000 is not the only piece of legislation that guides teacher
behaviour. There are other closely-related documents. We hope you are now familiar
with the Official secrecy Act after doing the above activity. Your school head must have
at some point requested you to sign an oath of Secrecy in line with the requirements of
the Act. In this section, we reveal other related pieces of legislation: Acts of Parliament.

The Prevention of Corruption Act (chapter 9.16) of 1996 outlines the areas an officer or
teacher should not violate, septic corrupt activities and the related penalties. The Act has
four sections;
a) Pre1iminary: - Title and interpretation
b) Prevention of corruption: - Corruption practice) Offences by public officers,
competent verdict.
c) Investigation of claims arising from dishonesty or corruption
d) General.
Teacher as a public servant shall be guilty of corruption during the course of their duty if
they;
a). Do anything contrary to or inconsistent with their public duties

b) Omit to do anything that their duty calls for) for the purpose of showing favour or
disfavor to any person (section 4 of the Act)

A school head is mandated by law to prefer a charge of corruption against you in terms of
paragraph 13 (a) of the statutory Instrument 1 of 2000. Likewise, you may be charged of
corruption particularly by the Minister of Anti— Corruption or your Minister of
Education in terms of Part (iii) of the Act or by our law’s enforcement agents.

Activity

231
‘Find two newspaper articles with stories on a teacher and / or a school head that has
been convicted of corruption. Compare arid contrast the nature of corruption, the
conviction and sentence. To what extent do you think our courts are effective in curbing
corruption in the education sector?

Children’s Protection and Adoption Act (Chapter 5.06)

School looks after children from time they are at school. Teachers have a social and
official responsibility to take care of them particularly those under the age of eighteen.
Consequently, the Children’s Protection and Adoption Act was promulgated to serve and
save children. It provides, among others;

a). For the protection, welfare and supervision of children arid juveniles.

b). To require the contribution by certain persons towards the maintenance of children
and juveniles.

Section 8 of this Act is of relevance to the teacher. It focuses on, “Corruption of children
and young persons”. A teacher in his/her capacity as a citizen of Zimbabwe shall be
guilty of an offence if he or she;

a). Allows a young person or child to reside on or frequent a brothel.

b). Causes or conduces to the seduction, abduction or prostitution of a child or young
person or the commission by a child or young person of immoral acts.
c). Knowingly allow the child or young person to concert with the
employment of any prostitute.

The teacher convicted for these acts may be fired or have a prison term not
exceeding 2 years or both.

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Section 10 of the Act prohibits any person (that includes teachers) to allow a child to beg
or perform in public in such a manner to likely to be detrimental to the child’s health
morals, mined or body. The section also prohibits persons from inducing or endeavouring
to induce the giving of aliens or gifts to children. Section 11 protects children during
public intervenient. Due care should be taken as regards the safety and well-being of
children. So, as a teacher you should always be conscious of security and welfare of
school children.

Activity

compare and contrast the Children’s Protection and Adoption Chapter. 5.06 And I the
Guardianship of Morals Act Chapter, 5.08 You should focus on the area that relate to
teachers.

Summary

In this unit, we have given a description of why teaching is regarded as a profession. We

noted that a required equalised skills and knowledge. The unit also distressed on the
provisions of Public Service Regulations as contained mainly in statutory Instrument 1 of
2000 and offer related amended statutory Instruments. We also looked at some policy
Circulars and Education Acts or Acts related to the education and care of children in
Zimbabwe. We suggested to you the head to acquaint yourself with these if you are to
maintain a high moral code.

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8.9 Adminstration of Finance In Schools
Legal Framework Governing Administration of Finance in Schools

a) The Public Finance Management Act (PFMA) Chapter 22:19

b) Statutory Instrument 17 of 2002
c) Public Procurement and Disposal of Public Assets Act Chapter 22:23
d) Statutory Instrument 5 of 2018
e) Statutory Instrument 87 of 1992
f) Statutory Instrument 70 of 1983
g) The Indigenous and Empowerment Act Chapter 3(f)
h) The Prevention of Corruption Act Chapter 9:16
i) Parliamentary Directives
j) Other relevant instruments which may be issued from time to time

Budgetary Process

 Is a financial management procedure which involves initial planning, final

approval and subsequent monitoring of the implementation
 SDCs/SDAs prepares budgets in schools
 Every school should have a current bank account held at a commercial
bank
 The account has four signatories, the school head, deputy head, SDC
chairperson and the vice-chairperson
 In a school departments prepare budgets that they submit to the SDC
which will subsequently present the budget to the parents at the Annual
General Meeting for approval
 After approval by parents the SDC will apply to the Permanent Secretary
via the District Schools Inspector and the Provincial Education Director
for permission to collect fees/levies
 Upon receipt of the approval letter the SDC will issue each learner with an
invoice which shows amount he / she owes the school

 NB Budget preparation for the next fiscal year must be carried on while
implementation , operation, control and evaluation of the budget for the
current year are proceeding to completion

 This gives the school time to get an insight into the current year budget
and make deductions that can help in coming up with a better budget in
the following year

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  A budgetary process should include a communication strategy to inform
the participants, shareholders and the general public about how the process
works and why each decision was made

 The success of the budgetary process is widely held to depend on the

extent to which all participants are involved in the budgetary

Benefits of The Budgetary Process

 Contributes to effective management in terms of planning, control,

communication and coordination and performance evaluation
 Thus the preparation of budget ensures that management carries out
formal planning exercise which identifies every part of the long-term
planning process

Receipting
 Receipting starts after the SDC has been permitted to collect fees / levies
by the permanent secretary and the learners have been invoiced
 A receipt is a serialized document used to acknowledge funds received by
the service provider

Separation of Cash and Direct Deposits Receipts

A school should have three receipt books;
a) Cash receipt book
b) Direct deposit receipt book
c) Master receipt book
NB cash payments should be receipted separately from direct deposit funds

Receipt Information
a) Serial number- this differentiates the receipts
b) Name of the school issuing the receipt
c) The date of issue
d) Name of the person making payment
e) Name of the learner
f) Amount received in words and figures
g) Purpose of payment for example sports, building, fund, tuition
h) Payment mode for example cash, swipe, direct deposit / ecocash

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 i) Signature of the person issuing the receipt

Management of Direct Deposit / Swipe/ Ecocash Payment

 This method of collecting fees is the most convenient and safest method
 Therefore, it should be regarded as the first option
 Receipts for direct deposits are issued after obtaining a bank statement and
tracing that the deposits are appearing on the bank statement

NB The date of receipt is the date when it is issued NOT direct deposit
date on the bank statement
This should also apply to ecocash and swipe payments
Registers should be opened to record payment and reference details for
example ;
a) Payment date
b) Name of depositor
c) Name of learner
d) Amount paid
e) Payment reference number
f) Receipt number and remarks
The receipting should be done in a receipt book different from where cash payments are
receipted
Before end of year , the school should try as much as possible to clear all unreceipted
direct deposits

Balancing of Direct Deposits

Balance brought forward xx

ADD direct deposits for the month
Total direct deposits xx
LESS: direct deposits receipts xxx
Ureceipted direct deposits xxx
xxx

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Precautions on Receipting
 All receipts should be issued using blue / black ink only (original ink / ball paint
on duplicate copies of receipts are not permitted
 Care should be taken when inserting carbon papers so that information written on
the original receipt form is clearly reproduced on the carbon copies
 Under no circumstances should money belonging to the school be accepted from
any person without the issue immediately of an receipt on the prescribed form
 A separate receipt must be issued to each individual from whom money is
received
 The amount in words / in figures entered on a receipt and its copy may not be
altered , deleted / erased
If an error has been made when entering the amount in words / figures on a receipt , the
receipt and its copy must be cancelled and endorsed cancelled and a fresh one issued
The original and the copy of the cancelled receipt must be retained in the receipt book for
the subsequent audit examination

End of Day Procedure

 At the end of day, receipting officer should summarise all the receipts for the day
on a cash report which should be completed in duplicate
 The Head/deputy should ensure that the money receipted for that day is agreeing
with the physical count for that day and should acknowledge this by signing on
the cash report
 The Head/ Deputy should issue a master receipt for the money to the receipting
officer covering the subsidiary receipts issued as represented by the equivalent
amount of money surrendered on that day

Banking
 Receipt fund should be banked on a daily basis for urban school
 Rural schools should bank within 48 hours of where necessary
 However huge deposits should not be kept at the school for a long time to avoid
the risk of losing the money to robbers
NB It is the Head’s responsibility to ensure that funds are banked. However, the Head
can delegate but SDC parents should not be sent for banking
When handing over the money for banking, the deputy head should complete a bank
deposit book and a banking register. The banking register is signed by the Head upon
receiving the money and verifying it
The money will be taken to the bank for deposit

237
Procurement Process
 Procurement is the acquisition by any means of goods, construction work or
services including the disposal of any assets
 Procurement also involves procurement planning , specifications development
,suppliers research and selection, value analysis , financing and price negotiation
 Procurement in schools is done by the procurement committee
 A procurement committee is a group of individuals who are empowered with the
powers and responsibility for buying goods , services and awarding contracts for
construction work
In a school set up teachers via their respective department submit requisitions to the SDC
finance sub-committee (Head,Deputy head ,Chairperson and Vice Chairperson)
The requisitions are deliberated on and recommended or not recommended by the
committee depending on the availability of funds in the budget line of the request made
The SDC finance after making recommendations will report to the SDC executive which
will in turn instruct the procurement committee to start the procurement process

Composition of A Procurement Committee

1) Government School
 Deputy head- chairing
 TIC-member
 Senior master-member
 HODs-member
 Practical subject teachers-co-opted member
 Sports coordinator-co-opted member
 Bursar/ finance clerk as secretary

2)Non-Government School
 Deputy head- chairing
 Any other executive member of the SDC- member
 Bursar/clerk as secretary
 Senior teacher- member
 The committee can co-opt other members , for example, HOD,ECD,Sports
director
NB Two thirds of the members of the procurement committee should be available
to form a quoram

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Duties of The Procurement Committee
 Power to ensure that all procurement proceedings are conducted in accordance
with the provisions of the Public Procurement Act, its regulations and established
procedures
 Sourcing quotations from reputable registered suppliers who have vendor
numbers and tax clearance certificates which are valid. Each procurement should
have at least three quotations
 Compiling comparative schedules
 Selecting a suitable supplier
 Stating reasons for accepting a specific supplier
 Sign and stamp all quotations and comparative schedules
 Producing detailed minutes of the procurement meeting proceeding

NB Assigned member to source quotations will not attend the meeting on their
deliberations
 Undertaking procurement specifications. Before sourcing quotations the
procurement committee must sit and come up with adequate specifications
including but not limited to the following:
a) Size
b) Weight
c) Purpose of performance
d) Full description
e) Sample

NB At no time should procurement be made without an official requisition or purchase

order
 After procurement deliberations by the committee the members present sign the
minutes to signify that they all have agreed on the selected supplier
 The committee then submits their minutes to the head who should make a
dispatch order to the chosen supplier
 When the supplier receive the order he or she processes it and delivers the goods
bought
 The school is not allowed to make payment before the goods are delivered or
before the school collects
 After delivery the goods are inspected and verified by the procurement and SDC
committees to ascertain the accuracy of the delivery against the order made
 Thereafter the payment process is initiated by the SDC through the SDC finance-
sub committee

239
  Here a payment voucher is completed and no payment should be paid without
supporting voucher
 After voucher completion, transfer forms or cheques are signed to make payment
 Cash payments are discouraged as they increase the risk of fraud and loss of
money to robbers
 The Head should never sit in a procurement committee

Cashbook Management
 Every school should have a cashbook with at least 14 columns spread across two
pages
 All transactions relating to money received, banked or paid out with the exception
of petty cash must be entered in the main cashbook daily
 All entries in the cashbook must be made in black or blue ink for payments. No
pencil entries are permitted
 Any error made when making an entry in the cashbook must be scored out by
ruling a single line in ink through the incorrect entry and inserting the correct
entry immediately above
Under no circumstances must corrections be made to entries overwriting or
erasing the entry
No pieces of paper must be pasted over any part of any accounting book or
cashbook nor may pages be torn out, covered over or pasted together in part or
whole
 On the last day of the month after ensuring that all receipts and payments for that
month have been entered the main cash book must be balanced and ruled off.
After the entry for bank charges has been made new balances for each account
whether held in the bank or in petty cash must be carried forward as the first entry
for the following month
 A bank reconciliation statement must be prepared at the end of each month with
the objective of reconciling the final balance as per bank statement with the main
cash book balance
 The Head must personally check the main cash book together with all relevant
records , certify it as correct and sign and date the main cashbook as an indication
that all entries for the month have been checked by the head
 At the back of the cashbook the school should maintain a schedule of monthly
receipts and schedule of monthly payments

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Important Issues to Note in Brief
 All financial books are security items and should never leave the school unless
requested by the district, province or head office
 The financial books should always be kept under lock and key
 No money should be used in a school before it is banked

Challenges in Administration of Finance

 Lack of financial administration skills from the heads
 Violation of procurement procedures
 Non-payment of levies
 Delays in payment of BEAM funds by government to schools
 Misappropriation of funds by school heads

Solutions to Financial Administration Challenges

 Staff development workshops on financial management
 Improved disbursement of BEAM funds by government
 Increased monitoring and evaluation of financial administration in school
 Heads as administrators should be proactive all the time
 Engaging in income generating projects by schools eg school tuckshop, old
students associations, donor funds etc.
 Engaging in public –private partnerships by both schools and government to
enhance funding in schools

References

ACCA (2015) Foundations of Accountancy. FMA/ACCA Paper F2, London:

Bimka,V.N. (2000) Profesionalism and Nursing Ethics, Harare: Zimbabwe Open

BPP Learning Media Limited.
Fourie, DI, Oberholser, M.D. and Verter, T.L. (1996) Education 3. Pretoria:
Africa.

Fourie,D.I, Oberholser, M.O and Verter, T.L. (1995) Education 1.Pretoria: Africa.
Francesco: Jossey- Boss Publisher.

241
Goodlad, J.L Soder, R and Sirotrik, K,A (1990) The Moral Dimensions of Teaching. San

Growther, J. (Ed 1996) Advanced Learners Dictionary. Oxford University Press.

Gwarinda,T.G (2001) Issues in Sociology of Education: Zimbabwe Open University.
Harare: Government Printers.

Haydon, G 9 l997) Teaching about value: A new approach. .London; Cansell.

London: Prentice Hall.

MCA. New Dehli: New Age International Publishers.

MoPSE (2015) Financial Management for the Non- Financial Managers,

Moyo P.V (2000) Effective Teaching. Masvingo Morgenstern Teachers College.

Statutory Instrument iof (2000) Public Service Regulations 2000 1-Jarare; Government
Printers.
The Macmillan English Dictionary (2005) Diary Harare; ZIMTA,
Zimbabwe Government Publications.
1. Public Service Regulations of 2000
(a) Statutory Instrument 1 of 2000
(b) Statutory Instrument 21 A OP 2001
(c) Statutorv Instrument SEA OP 2001
2. Prevention of Corruption Act (chapter 9.16) Revised EDITION
1996.
S. Guardianship of minors Act (chapter 5.080 Revised Edition 1996.
4. Children’s Protection and Adaptation Act (chapter 5.06) Revised Edition 1996.
5. The Official Secrecy Act.
6. Public Service Act (Revised Education 1996) Chapter 16;04)
187

242
Rao, M.E.T. (2006). Accountancy and Financial Management for BCA and
Statutory Instruments
Weetman, P. (2006). Financial Management Accounting: An Introduction.

Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture Po&y Circulars.

1. Circular No. P.6 (2004) Invitations to School FLU ctions.
2. Circular No. P.23 (2002) Maternity Leave.
3. Circular No.-P.25 (2002) Ceneral Puroose Roes in Government Schools.
4. Circular No. P. 35 (1999) Discipline in Schools; Suspension, Exchosen and Corporal
Punishment.
5. Circular No. P. 57 (1986) Completion of Staff Reports.
6. Circular No. p.64 (1986) Misconduct Procedures: Offices in the Public Sewice.
7. Circular No. P.77 (2006) Policy Guidelines on the Implementation of the two-pathway
Education Structure in Zinibabwe.
8. Grievance Handling Procedure- Ministry- of Education, sport and Culture .0
I $8

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UNIT 9

COMMUNICATION IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

9.0 It is eminently clear that effective communication is essential in a school setting; it is

difficult in fact to imagine any kind of interpersonal activity at a school which does not
depend upon communication in one way or another. Communication is the way teachers,
pupils, parents and other stakeholders get their points across, get work done and get
recognised for their contributions. Thus communication is the lifeblood of any
educational institution, it facilitates action, and it also lubricates institution’s machinery,
when it breaks down the institution’s activities are hurt.

The purpose of this unit is exploring what communication is, analysing the role of
communication in a school setting, identifying the process of communication in schools
discussing the barriers to communication and identifying the strategies and techniques to
improve communication in Educational Institutions.

9.1 Objectives:

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define communication and state why it is important in a school setting.
 Identify a communication process.
 Describe models of communication process.
 Describe the communication function in a school.
 Describe communication channels in a school.
 Analyse barriers in Educational communication and how they can be overcome.
 Apply approaches, guides and techniques in order to improve communication.

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9.2 What is Communication
Various writers on the concept of communication have come with different definitions
and interpretations on the concept, however, the following definitions have been
considered so as to get a full insight of the concept.

Eyre (1984:132) says communication is, “the transmission and reception of a message or
idea from one party to another in such a fashion that it is mutually understandable.”
Koontz. O’Donnell and Weihizch (1950:688) see communication as, “the transfer of
information from the sender to the receiver with information being understood by the
receiver.”

From the definitions above it is crystal clear that communication is an interactive process
in which members of an organisation relate, relay- to each other views, concerns,
interests, fears and desires in an effort to fulfil the goals of their organisation.
Another view of communication is that by- Simon (1976:154) who defines
communication as, “any process whereby decisional pressures are transmitted from one
member of an organisation to another.”

This idea of communication being a process is further stressed by Kreitner (1983:295)

who defines communication as a social process, communication has to do with the face to
face interaction. This means that communication involves a communicator, a message
and at least one person who is the recipient of the message.

ACTIVITY
 Define the term communication in context of instructional leader’s role and the
teacher in school.

9.3 Communication Process:

Stoner and Freeman (1989:523) have defined communication as, “a process consisting of

245
 a sender transmitting a message through a medium to a receiver who responds.” Kreitner
(1983:298) says communication is a chain-cycle process established to send an idea from
one person to another.

These two definitions indicate three essential elements of communication and these are:
Sender Message Receiver

Communication involves a sequence of steps: ideating encodes transmitting

receiving decoding acting.

In simple terms the sender encodes an idea into a message and transmit the message to a
receiver who decodes the message and acts.

Remember barriers can occur at any of these steps in the process, but most frequently
occur between transmission and reception and between receiving and decoding.

The Communication Process:

Sender barriers barriers Receive

Develops Encode Transmits Receive Decode Ac

Source: Kasambira (1998) Feedback

Explanation of each step in the communication process:

Ideating:
The development of an idea, message or information to transmit to an individual or a

246
group.

Encoding:
Using symbols to formulate a communication message that is known by both the
communicator and recipient e.g. diagrams, words, pictures or even non-verbal cues.

Transmitting:
One the message is developed it is transmitted through several methods which include
telephone, memoranda, circulars and face to face communication.

Receiving:
At this step the receiver has to be ready for the message so that it can be decoded or
converted into a thought.

Decoding:
The receiver takes transmitted messages and gives meaning to them, and then forms on
content. At this stage barrier to communication is most prevalent.

Acting:
At this step the receiver can ignore the message, store it for possible action later or do
something with it.
The receiver must give feedback to the sender that the message was received and
understood.

Feedback:
For the communication process to be effective there is need for feedback. One can never
be sure whether or not the message has been correctly encoded, translated,
decoded and understood until it is confirmed by feedback. This is critical for effective
communication.

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The Functions and Purpose of communication in schools:

Communication is the essence or heartbeat of every school organisation, because the

structure, extensiveness and the scope of these organisations are entirely determined by
communication techniques.

Without communication schools could not teach pupils, teachers could not cooperate with
each other thereby adversely affecting the school activities. In a school situation the
transfer of information from one teacher to another is very crucial. From school head’s
point of view communication is vital to knowing what to do. Teachers use
communication to establish relationships with co-workers, to influence the schools to
make their work more satisfying and to respond to other teachers’ needs.
Administratively all management goals must be passed on to the teachers in such a way
that information is received as is intended by the headmaster and the teachers proceed as
the head expects.

Communication is also essential for maintaining social contact with other teachers.
Teachers like to explore different ideas, meet different people and try to understand each
other, if all this is done communication would be effective, teachers would be stimulated
to be better performers and become more satisfied with their work. Communication is the
lifeblood of every school organisation; it links the individual, the group and the school. It
mediates inputs to the school from the environment and outputs from the school to the
environment.

Communication also facilitates the accomplishment of tasks the achievement of

objectives and adequate implementation of decisions in a school/situation.
The purpose of communication in a school is to effect change, to influence action
towards the welfare of the school. The school requires information on the syllabuses.
What to teach, methodology as well as information about the school cycles.
Communication is essential for the internal function of the school since it integrates the
headmaster’s functions and those of his staff. For this to he maintained communication.

248
Szilagyi (1981) argues that if communication is hampered, the entire school suffer. When
it is accurate, thorough and timely the school can move effectively toward goal
achievement.
Eyre (1984:132) also argues that:

Effective communication plays a vital role in management because without it all

attempts to carry on the activities of an organisation must fall. Without
communication nothing can happen no instructions can be given, no orders taken,
no contacts made with superiors or subordinates and no information provided or
received.

Basically Communication serves the following purpose in a school:

i. It influences the performance of teachers by motivating, directing, instructing,
reporting to and on them and evaluating their performance.
ii. It serves as a vehicle through which teachers can express their feelings, views,
desires, objectives and reservations, all of which have a significant bearing on the
achievement of the school’s goals.
iii. It also helps to define the school structure. The school structure represents all
channels of communication.
iv. It facilitates the obtaining of information from staff and from pupils about what
the school is.
v. It enables the development of plans for their achievement and creates a cl1mate in
which teachers want to contribute.
vi. Communication also relates the school to its external environment; it is through
information exchange that beads become aware of the needs of both pupils and
the community, the government regulations and the concerns of their
communities.
vii. It is through communication that the school becomes an open system interacting
with its environment. The head determines the school’s climate and influence and
the attitude of teachers and. the community through the manner in which they
communicate.

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viii. Communication prepares the workers in the school for a change in the methods
and environment by giving them the necessary information in advance.
ix. It discourages miscue information, ambiguity and rumours in the school.
x. It encourages subordinates in the school to supply ideas and suggestions for
improving upon their environment and taking these suggestions seriously.

ACTIVITY
 What are the main uses of communication in the school situation? List them.
 From the discussions above, which aspect of communication process and
elements is most important? Why do you say so?

Communication in the School

The school head occupies an important position in the School’s Administrative structure.
As such he/she has to communicate with a variety of people in different ways concerning
specific situations, problems or issues. It should be reckoned that in today’s school,
information must flow faster than it used to do since loss of information can be costly. In
this regard, it must he noted that information should be communicated quickly for
corrective action. The amount of information to be relayed should also be considered to
avoid information overload. An effective school head should therefore determine the kind
of information he/she needs to have for effective decision making. Thus to be an effective
communicator, the head needs to be aware of the following six basic aspects of
communication. These are:

 The purpose to be achieved by the message;

 The person(s) to whom the message is directed (receiver/recipient); .- The sender
of the message:
 The context of the message;
 Alternative channels for communication, the message and;

250
  The need form feedback/response to the message.

Tasks for the School Head before Communicating:

The initial task for the head who wished to communicate a message to a particular
individual or group is to think carefully about the objectives that he/she wants his/her
communication to achieve. Ideally this means that he/she should determine whether
his/her objective is to inform, raise questions, to change attitudes, to stimulate action, to
inhibit action, to re-assure, to solidify, to clarify a point or to achieve some other
goals. The implication is that more time should be spent in identifying the specific nature
of the objectives which he/she hopes to achieve as argued by Szuiagyi (1981). After the
identification and clarification of the message and content determination, the Head should
move on to evaluate whether these objectives are attainable. Accordingly, there is great
need for discrimination in the selection of information for use. The head needs to ask
him-herself whether he/she really needs to know for his/her job or what would happen if
he/she does not get this information on a regular basis. Pertinent information is what the
head needs.

The Communication Flow in the School

In an effective School. communication flows in various directions. According to Stoner

and Freeman (1989) communication can flow vertically or laterally. Below are the
dimensions that communication patterns can take.

Downward Communication:

This is a hierarchical flow of information whereby information cascades from a higher

level group in the organisation to a lower group. When the Head, the Deputy Head and
Teacher in Charge pass information to teachers, downward communication takes place. It
is used by heads mainly to:
 Assign goals.

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  Provide job instructions.
 Inform juniors of policies and procedures.
 Point out problems that need attention.
 Provide feedback about the performance of each teacher. (Khan and Katz
(1974).

Downward communication can also be oral or face to the contact. It can also be in the
form of head’s letters to parents informing them about a change in school fees and
levies. Modes of written downward communication include memos, newsletters.
pamphlets, periodicals. and bulletin notes among others. However, this method of
communication has its own pitfalls. The major problem lies in filtering of information.
Typically, this whereby much of the original information does not reach the receiver,
basically the more levels a message must go through to get to the bottom of the hierarchy.
the more likely that a sizeable portion of information is lost or substantially offset,

Upward Communication:

Kasambira (1998) points out that this type of communication also follows a hierarchical
chart and transmits information from lower to higher levels in the organisation. In
schools, it is used to provide feedback to the head; inform him/her of the progress being
made towards goals and to relay current problems in the school’s subsystems. Upward
communication keeps heads aware of how teachers feel about work, co-workers and the
school in general. Heads also rely on this mode of communication as it provides them
with ideas on how things can be improved. However, it is affected by heads of
departments who often filter messages and do not transmit all the information. Upward
communication is primarily non-directive and usually if is found in participative and
democratic schools. The typical means of upward communication in a school include:

 The suggestion box;

 Appeal and grievance procedures designed by the school;

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  Compliant systems;
 Local counselling sessions;
 Group meetings;
 Open door policy; and
 Morale questionnaires.

Effective upward communication requires an environment in which teachers feel free to

communicate. Since the school climate is greatly influenced by the Head, it means that
the responsibility of creating a free flow upward communication rests to a great extent-
although not exclusively-with the head.

Lateral Communication:

This is a communication flow that takes place among members of the same work coups at
the same level, among groups, among members of work groups at the same level, among
heads at the same level or among any horizontally equal personnel such as heads, deputy
heads, teachers or pupils.

Advantages of Lateral/Horizontal Communication:

 Saves time.
 Facilitates co-ordination
 Improves understanding.
 Speedy information flows

Schools use this kind of communication when individual members of different

departments/subject committees are grouped into teams to share common information or
ideas. The effectiveness of this communication is enhanced by magazines, policy
documents, bulletin boards and newspapers.

It is however pertinent to note that teachers should refrain from making commitments

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beyond their authority and apart from this, they should keep their respective heads
informed of important inter-departmental activities to avoid potential difficulties.

Types of Communication:

There are three types of communication. These are:

 Verbal (oral) communication;
 Written communication; and
 Non-verbal communication.

Verbal (Oral) Communication:

Altman and Hodgetts (1979) argue that a manager’s total effectiveness is directly
proportional to his ability to engage in, and direct verbal communication. A great deal of
information is communicated orally. Oral communication can be a face to thee meeting
of two people. or a head addressing a group of teachers or through telephoning. It can he
formal or informal.

Advantages

 Provides speedy interchange with immediate feedback.

 Questions can be clarified immediately.
 Immediate corrections in case of misunderstanding.
 Greater understanding of issues under discussion.

Disadvantages
Verbal (Oral) communication has its own shortcomings and chief among them are:
 Can be misused by powerful heads.
 Does not always save time.
 Costly- in terms of time and money.

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  Sometimes teachers ran fail to raise proper questions or may deviate from issues
at hand

Non- Verbal Communication

This includes body language such as hand symbols, tone and facial expressions. In a
school physical or symbolic structures such as the school bell, office size, office state,
attire, type of desk and physical appearance constitute non-verbal communication. By
using facial expressions such as frowns, disappointed looks or pointing a finger in
accusation, the head will be effectively communicating with teachers and pupils.
However, it is worthy remembering that non-verbal communication should support the
verbal communication otherwise it may convey incomplete or wrong messages when
used on its own.

Communication Networks:

Communication must only not be viewed as an interaction between the sender and
recipient of the message, but must also be considered in context of social system in which
it occurs. Below is a brief discussion of three fundamental networks used in social
systems which are chain, the wheel or star and the circle.

ACTIVITY
 Differentiate downward and upward channels of communication. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each? Suggest ways to overcome these
disadvantages in a school?

The chain is the typical linear command from top to bottom and can be identified by the
master-servant atmosphere. The head gives instructions or commands. The chain is
advantageous in that it is too formalistic in nature and hence it stifles subordinate

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participation.

The Wheel or Star

The wheel network involves a head talking to a group of people at the same level but is
higher than all of them. For example, he may talk to heads of departments, or the head of
department talking to teachers. This type of network is swift and accurate for
simple tasks though it is highly centralised and therefore can stifle subordinate
participation. Moreno, the central leader may suffer from information overload.

The Circle:

In this type of network, alt members are at par. Nobody has the power to give instructions
hence allows members to freely participate and hence each member gets self-satisfaction.
Its major limitations are that it is slow which normally compromises accuracy and
efficiency.

The Grapevine:

When the shortcomings of other types of communication become apparent, teachers and
students build their own channels of communication, grapevines. (Kasambira (1998)).
This communication flow does not have a formal structure but carries much of the
communication in the school. The term grapevine applies to all informal communication
that is communicated verbally between teachers and people in the community. It co-
exists with the administration’s formal communication system and hence this calls for the
school to learn to integrate with formal communication. However, as important as it is,
school heads should make an effort to systematically organise, coordinate and evaluate
the communication systems.

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Barriers to Communication:

Effective communication plays a vital role in accomplishing educational goals. However,

barriers may affect effective communication flow.

Sender - Related Barriers:

Every step in the communication process is necessary for effective communication.

Blocked steps become barriers hence the sender must define the communication goal
encoding ideas, thoughts and feelings into a message so that the receiver can understand
those messages. The communication barriers are caused by or are related to the sender.

Lack of communication goals

There must be some objective or goal in any communication. This provides the sender
with the basis for formulating messages. Lack of goals can lead to formulation of
incoherent messages.

Lack of communication skills

Grammatical errors, incorrect word usage., poor delivering of speeches, incorrect spelling
or pronunciation, and poorly organised sentences or speech make it difficult for the
receiver to comprehend the message.

Lack of interpersonal sensitivity

This happens when the sender is not sensitive in using language that is offensive to other
he/she is indifferent to the needs and feelings of other people. In tins case, the sender
does not communicate the right message.

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Lack of frame reference

People can interpret the same communication differently, depending on their learning,
culture and experience. If the sender and receiver have a common frame of reference, that
is when encoding and decoding of a message is similar and communication is likely to be
effective. If on the other hand, the communicators have different frames of reference,
communication is likely to become distorted.

Sender Credibility:

This refers to the attitude the receiver has towards the reliability of the sender. In other
words, the amount of faith in the message depends largely on how the receiver trusts the
source of information. Therefore, the greater the trust, the greater the receiver’s
willingness to listen to the sender’s message.

Receiver - Related Barriers:

The receiver in any communication process should be as responsible as the sender.

He/she must be responsive and provide feedback. However, the major communication
problems attributed to the receiver are: evaluating the sender instead of the message,
preconceived ideas, selective listening and lack of responsive feedback.

Evaluative Tendency:

If the receiver makes a judgement about the sender or the sender’s message (for some
other reasons) he/she cannot perceive the message effectively. The meaning of the
message is distorted and cannot he registered objectively in the mind.

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Preconceived Ideas

The interpretation or reception of the message can be influenced by receiver’s

preconceived opinions about the idea being communicated.

Selective Listening

People have a tendency of hearing to what they want to hear and also elect not to listen to
what they do not want to hear. This means people tend to be receptive of messages that
satisfy their needs that appeal to them but they deny- or distort messages that are
threatening to them, especially when they are being criticised by others.

Situational Barriers:

There are some communication barriers that are neither sender nor receiver related, but
are related to the situation. Kreitner (1983) argues that these emanate from:
 Semantic Problems.
 Information overload.
 Time pressure.
 Communication climate.
 Status differences.

Semantic Problems

The same words may have different meanings to different people. Thus it is possible for a
school manager and his subordinates to speak the same language but still not transmit
understanding. Unless the words are understood and interpreted the same way by both
sender and receiver, communication cannot take place. Thus semantics can be
communication harrier as a result of misinterpretation of words.

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Information Overload

This happens when receivers are bombarded with more messages than they can handle.
Heads of schools and teachers may get information to act on front several disciplines
which they cannot absorb or adequately respond to. As a result, they select parts of it,
which often leads to incomplete or inaccurate information on which to make decisions,

Communication climate

The climate environment in which communication takes place influences its

effectiveness. The higher the degree of trust and openness in an organisation, the higher
the degree of producing positive response. On the other hand, if communication takes
place where distrust prevails, even a well-intended message can be negatively distorted.

Time Pressure

Poor communication can result from lack of sufficient time to gather and provide
adequate information.

Status Differences

Education systems create status differences through titles, size of office, office
furnishings, stationery, salaries and formal organisational chart. The status of a head
teacher relationships, for example, inhibits the free flow of information vertically
(upward and downward). Thus the higher one’s status in the educational structure, the
less likely he or she will have effective communication with personnel a few levels
removed.

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Facilitating Effective Communication:

There are several approaches that can be used to improve communication. One way is by
carrying out a Communication audit that is a tool for checking communication policies,
networks and activities. The for major communication networks that need to be audited
arc:
 The regulative or task-related networks pertaining to policies, procedures, rules
and superior-subordinate relationships;
 The innovative network which includes problem solving, meetings and
suggestions for change;
 The informative- instructive network. which includes school publications,
bulletin boards and grapevine.
 The integrative network which consist of precise rewards, promotions and those
items that link school goals with personal needs.

Below are some tips that the head can use for effective communication. The head should;
 Clarify ideas before attempting to communicate;
 Examine the purpose of the communication.
 Understand the physical and human environment when communicating;
 Consult with other people to obtain their support as well as their facts;
 Consider the content of the overtones of the message;
 Communicate something that helps or is valued by the receiver;
 Follow-up communication;
 Strive to create a conducive organisational climate dominated by trust and sense
of belonging;
 Be a good listener and avoid premature judgements;
 Delegate duties and authority to the right teacher to free him free him from
information overload;
 Screen information from grapevine carefully;
 Facilitate regular information flow;
 Have a clear record keeping system;

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  Use simple straightforward language and;
 Relay messages only at opportune times.

Head’s Ways of Communicating:

Different heads use various ways of communicating with their staff. Such communication
contributes to the building of good and positive staff relations. The following are some of
the ways that the head may wish to consider when communicating with his/her staff.

Staff Notices

Some notices are permanent while other are temporary. Usually, some heads make use of
the notice boards to display information that need to be acted upon. Other heads use an
exercise book that is passed around the staff who are expected to sign their names to
indicate that they have read through the notice.

Staff Meetings

These can be conducted for various purposes and should be in a professional, business
like friendly spirit. Such meetings can be formal or informal depending on the business at
hand. Minutes of proceedings should be maintained for future reference
and in the interest of application of the resolutions and recommendations made.
Meetings held by the head can include those with:
 Deputy Head;
 Heads of departments;
 Selected class teachers; and
 School council;
 Finance committee;
 Disciplinary Committee;
 School Development Committee;
 BEAM Committee;

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  School Prefects.

The frequency of these meeting depend on their purpose and set agenda.

Discussions

Informal discussions can be an effective means of communicating. The head should

develop a habit of discussing informally with his/her staff as this helps him to be a good
listener than a talker and establish good public relations among staff.

Staff get-togethers

Get-together meetings are useful in reducing tension and enabling staff to relax and talk
on a personal and friendly basis. The serving of beverages and teas at break time
strengthens staff cohesion, fosters effective communication and encourages mutual
understanding among them. Teachers should be encouraged to avail themselves of this
opportunity to be family members and the head should use the same time to meet and talk
to as many teachers as possible. It important to note that they should avoid the temptation
to reduce this to daily formal meetings. Staff rooms where il exists and classrooms can be
used for this.

Staff Seminars

Subject committees or general in-service training (INSET) contribute to staff professional

development as well as communication. The head may arrange for discussion papers by
knowledgeable teachers in the school or resource persons may be invited from outside the
school. Such staff development seminars contribute to improved staff relations.

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ACTIVITY
 Briefly describe the communication process.
 Select a communication problem (barrier) in your school and determine the
causes. How would you bring about better communication in view of this
problem?
 From your school, list different channels of communication you use for
transmitting messages. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages.
 Suggest ways of overcoming the shortfall of upward communication.
 What is information overload?

Summary:

It is noted that heads of all schools spend greater part of their work day communicating.
Communication is a social process involving the transfer of information and
understanding. It is a process which is purposive for both the initiator and the receiver.
Both seek to accomplish personal goals. Individuals exchange ideas or facts with other
teachers when interacting in Social situations. The meanings of the messages are
determined by the people who interpret them. Messages traverse formal and informal
channels by means of a variety of verbal and non-verbal media. To ensure a high, level of
understanding, feedback mechanisms are essential. Several techniques are available to
measure and improve the communication process. Communication is the transfer and
understanding of meanings. It has eight parts: source, message, encoding, channel,
decoding, receiver, feedback and noise. Formal communication follows the chain of
command, while communication can flow downward, upward, laterally and diagonally.
Communication is so pervasive that it is a fundamental and integrative process in
educational administration, it means sharing messages, ideas, or attitudes that produce
understanding between the sender and receiver.

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265
References

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Toronto. W. B Sanders and Co.

Eyre, E.C. (1984): Mastering Basic Management. London, MacMillan Educational Ltd.

Kasambira, K.P. (1998): Education, Administration and Management. Modern Press,

(Pvt) Ltd. Gweru.

Katz, P. and Khan, R.L. (1974): The Social Psychology of Organisations. (2nd Ed) New
York
Kuotnz, H, O’Donnel. C. and Weihrich. H. (1980): Management. New York,
McGraw-Hill. Brook Company.

Kreitner, K. (1983): Management (2nd Ed). London. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Simon, H.A. (1976): Administrative Behaviour. New York, The Free Press.

Stoner, J.A.F. and Freeman, RE. (l9$9). Management. (4th Ed) Eaglewood Cliffs,
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Szihlagyi, A.D. (1981): Management and Performance. Glenview Scott Foreman and
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