COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE

What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed or reprogrammed to process information

and yield meaningful results.

Computer architecture is a description of a system structure showing how a set of software and
hardware technology standards interact to form a computer.

Computer organization refers to the structure and interconnection of the various physical units that
make up the computer system as seen by the user. These units and their interconnections realize the
architectural specifications

1|Computer Organization & Architecture

What a computer looks like…
▪ Inside a desktop computer

CPU
Hard disk

Memory

How a Computer Works…

▪ User input via an input peripheral (mouse, keyboard, e.t.c.) triggers a set of instructions stored
on the hard drive (HDD) or solid-state drive (SSD) to process information from the data storage.
The results of these executions are displayed by the output peripherals (monitor, printer, e.t.c.)

▪ The work of the central processing unit (CPU) is to perform complex logic and computations on
the data and also relay information and control signals to the entire computer system.

▪ Random access memory (RAM) acts as a temporary storage for data during and after processing.
RAM does not retain the data the power supply to the computer is removed/ when the
computer shuts down.

▪ Permanent storage including HDD and SSD keeps data indefinitely until a user decides to alter
the stored data.

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How a full system should be…

PERMANENT
PROGRAM MEMORY

(HDD, SSD)
STORAGE
(RAM)

DATA STORAGE

CENTRAL PROCESSING
CU CLOCK

ALU CACHE

(CPU)
UNIT
REGISTERS

BUSES

MOUSE MONITOR

KEYBOARD PRINTER

PROJECTOR
INPUT PERIPHERALS

OUTPUT PERIPHERALS

Inside a CPU…
The central processing unit (CPU) consists of six main components:

i) the control unit (CU)

ii) arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
iii) registers
iv) cache
v) buses
vi) clock

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All components work together to allow processing and system control.

CU
CLOCK
ALU

REGISTERS

CACHE
CPU
CONTROL BUS

COMPONENTS
EXTERNAL
ADDRESS BUS
DATA BUS

PRIMARY MEMORY

i) Control unit

The CU provides several functions:

• it fetches, decodes, and executes instructions

• it issues control signals that control hardware
• it moves data around the system

ii) Arithmetic logic unit

The ALU has two main functions:

• It performs arithmetic and logical operations (decisions). The ALU is where calculations are done
and where decisions are made.
• It acts as a gateway between primary memory and secondary storage. Data transferred between
them passes through the ALU.

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 iii) Registers

Registers are small amounts of high-speed memory contained within the CPU. They are used by the
processor to store small amounts of data that are needed during processing, such as:

• the address of the next instruction to be executed

• the current instruction being decoded
• the results of the calculations
Different processors have different numbers of registers for different purposes, but most have some, or
all, of the following:

• program counter
• memory address register (MAR)
• memory data register (MDR)
• current instruction register (CIR)
• accumulator (ACC)

iv) Cache

The cache is a small amount of high-speed random access memory (RAM) built directly within the
processor. It is used to temporarily hold data and instructions that the processor is likely to reuse. This
allows for faster processing as the processor does not have to wait for the data and instructions to be
fetched from the RAM.

v) Buses

A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data between the
processor and other components.

Three types of buses are used:

• Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other components such as
primary memory and input/output devices.
• Data bus - carries the actual data between the processor and other components.
• Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components. The control bus
also carries the clock's pulses.

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 vi) Clock

The CPU contains a clock that is used to coordinate all of the computer's components. The clock sends
out a regular electrical pulse that synchronizes (keeps in time) all the components.

The frequency of the pulses is known as the clock speed. Clock speed is measured in hertz. The higher
the frequency, the more instructions can be performed at any given moment.

In the 1980s, processors commonly ran at a rate of between 3 megahertz (MHz) to 5 MHz, which is 3
million to 5 million pulses or cycles per second. Today, processors commonly run at a rate of 3 gigahertz
(GHz) to 5 GHz, which is 3 billion to 5 billion pulses or cycles per second.

How to Instruct a Computer…

compile execute
Program Executable Output

▪ Write a program in a high-level language – C, C++, Java

▪ Compile it into a format that the computer understands

▪ Execute the program

What Computers Understand…

▪ Computers cannot clearly understand instructions of the form:
▪ Multiply two matrices
▪ Compute the determinant of a matrix
▪ Find the shortest path between Kampala and Nairobi
▪ They understand :
▪ Add a + b to get c
▪ Multiply a * b to get c

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