NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD

Translations

The graph of y = f(x) + c can be obtained from the graph of y = f(x) by

translating the graph of y = f(x) vertically up for c units if c > 0, or down for
|c| units if c < 0.
 Translations

The graph of y = f(x + c) can be obtained from the graph of y = f(x) by

translating the graph of y = f(x) horizontally to the left for c units if c > 0, or
to the right for |c| units if c < 0.
Example 4. Sketch the graph of
a) y = x − 3, b) y = x + 3.
Example 5. Sketch the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 5.
 New functions from old - reflections

• The graph of y = f(−x) is the reflection of the graph of y = f(x) about the y-axis
because the point (x, y) on the graph of f(x) is replaced by (−x, y).
• Similarly, the graph of y = −f(x) is the reflection of the graph of y = f(x) about
the x-axis because the point (x, y) on the graph of f(x) is replaced by (x, −y)
[the equation y = −f(x) is equivalent to −y = f(x)].
Example 6. Sketch the graph of y = 3
2 − x.
Example 7. Sketch the graph of y = 4 − |x − 2|.
 Stretches and compressions

If c > 0, then the graph of y = cf(x) can be obtained from the graph of y = f(x)
by stretching the graph of y = f(x) vertically by a factor c if c > 1, or
compressing it by a factor 1/c if 0 < c < 1.
 Stretches and compressions

If c > 0, then the graph of y = f(cx) can be obtained from the graph of y = f(x)
by compressing the graph of y = f(x) horizontally by a factor c if c > 1, or
stretching it by a factor 1/c if 0 < c < 1.
 Symmetry

The graph of a curve C in the xy-plane is

symmetric with respect to the x-axis, if
for each point (x, y) on the graph of C, the
point (x, −y) is also on the graph.

The graph of a function cannot be

symmetric with respect to the x-axis. Why?
 Symmetry

The graph of a curve C in the xy-plane is

symmetric with respect to the y-axis, if
for each point (x, y) on the graph of C, the
point (−x, y) is also on the graph.

The graph of a curve C in the xy-plane is

symmetric with respect to the origin, if
for each point (x, y) on the graph of C, the
point (−x, −y) is also on the graph.
Theorem 1. (Symmetry Tests)
(i) A plane curve is symmetric about the y-axis if and only if replacing x by −x
in its equation produces an equivalent equation.
(ii) A plane curve is symmetric about the x-axis if and only if replacing y by −y
in its equation produces an equivalent equation.
(iii) A plane curve is symmetric about the origin if and only if replacing both x
by −x and y by −y in its equation produces an equivalent equation.

Example. Identify the symmetry in the graph of x = y2.

 Even and odd functions
If the graph of a function f is symmetric with respect to the y – axis, then for
each point (x, y) = (x, f(x))  Гf, the point (−x, y) = (−x, f(−x))  Гf. From the
first point, we have

y = f(x),

and from the second one,

y = f(−x).

The last two equations have the same left side, so the right sides must be equal.
We have:

f(−x) = f(x).

This is satisfied for each x  Df.. A function which has the last property is
called an even function.

Hence, if a graph of a function f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, then f

is an even function, and vice versa. `
 Even and odd functions
If the graph of a function f is symmetric with respect to the origin, then for
each point (x, y) = (x, f(x))  Гf, the point (−x, −y) = (−x, f(−x))  Гf. From the
first point, we have

y = f(x),

and from the second one,

−y = f(−x), i.е., y = −f(−x).

The last two equations have the same left side, so the right sides must be equal.
We have:

−f(−x) = f(x), i.е., f(−x) = −f(x).

This is satisfied for each x  Df.. A function which has the last property is
called an odd function.

Hence, if a graph of a function f is symmetric with respect to the origin, then f

is an odd function, and vice versa.
Lines
 A line through two points

• Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two fixed points.

• There exists a unique line l which passes through them.
• Let’s find its equation.

P(x1, y1)
• If x1 = x2 then the line l is
vertical and its equation is x = x1.

Q(x1, y2)

x1
 A line through two points
• Let x1  x2. Let R(x, y) be an
arbitrary third point on the
line l.
• Let’s construct the triangles
PSQ and PTR (as in the R(x, y)
Figure).
• Notice that the triangles Q(x2, y2)
PSQ and PTR are right
triangles which have three P(x1, y1)
equal angles S(x2, y1) T(x, y1)
• This means that PSQ and
PTR are similar.
• In this case, the lengths of the R(x, y)
corresponding sides are proportional.
Q(x2, y2)
y − y1
y2 − y1
P(x1, y1) x2 − x1
RT QS
= S(x2, y1) T(x, y1)
PT PS
y − y1 y2 − y1 x − x1
=
x − x1 x2 − x1

y2 − y1
(1) y − y1 = ( x − x1 ) two-point equation
x2 − x1
Example 1. Find a two-point equation of the line that passes through the
points (2, 3) and (4, 7).

7−3
y −3 = ( x − 2)
4−2
y − 3 = 2( x − 2)
y = 2x −1
 The slope of a line

• We can prove that the quotient

y2 − y1
x2 − x1

does not depend on the choice of two points from the line, i.e., this quotient
is equal for every two chosen points from the line.
• It is called the slope of the line l.
 Point-slope equation

• Let
y2 − y1
m= .
x2 − x1

• Substituting in (1), we have

(2) y − y1 = m( x − x1 ) Point-slope equation

Example 2. Find a point-slope equation of the line that passes through (1, 2)
with the given slope and sketch the line.
a) m = 2; b) m = 0; c) m = −1.

Solution.
а) y −2 = 2(x − 1)
y = 2x

b) y −2 = 0(x − 1) (1, 2) y= 2
y=2

c) y −2 = −1(x − 1)
y=−x+3
 Discussion about the slope
• The point (x1, y1) belongs to the line given by

(2) y − y1 = m( x − x1 )
• Let’s find the y – coordinate of the point of the line whose x-coordinate is
x1 + 1. Substituting in (2), we obtain

y − y1 = m (x1 + 1 − x1)

y = y1 + m

i.e., the point (x1 + 1, y1 + m) belongs to the line l.

 Discussion about the slope

1. If m > 0, then y1 + m > y1, which means that the point (x1+1, y1+m) is
higher than (x1, y1), In this case, the line increases from left to right.

2. If m < 0, then y1 + m < y1, which means that the point (x1+1, y1+m) is
lower than (x1, y1), In this case, the line decreases from left to right.

3. If m = 0, then y1 + m = y1, i.e., the points (x1, y1) and (x1+1, y1) have the
same height. This means that the line is horizontal.
Discussion about the slope
 Another description of m

Q(x2, y2)

y2 − y1

y2 − y1
m= = tg 
P(x1, y1) 
x2 − x1
x2 − x1 S(x2, y1)

•  is called the angle of inclination.

• If  is an acute angle (0    /2) then l increases from left to right.

• If  is an obtuse angle then l decreases from left to right.

 Slope-intercept equation

• Let l be a non-vertical line. Then l intercepts the y-axis in a point (0, b).

• Let’s find b.

• Since (0, b) is a point from the line

y − y1 = m(x − x1)

by substitution, we have
b − y1 = m(0 − x1)
b = y1 − mx1
• Let’s transform the equation

y − y1 = m( x − x1 )
y − y1 = mx − mx1
y = mx + y1 − mx1
b

• b is called the y-intercept of l.

(3) y = mx + b slope-intercept equation

Example 3. Find the slope-intercept equation of the line with the slope 3 and
y-intercept −1.
Solution: y = 3x − 1
 Parallel and perpendicular lines

Theorem 1. Let l1 and l2 be two non-vertical lines given by their slopes m1 and
m2, correspondingly.

i ) l1 || l2  m1 = m2
 1 
ii ) l1 ⊥ l2  m1m2 = −1,  i.e., m2 = − 
 m1 
Families of functions
 Families of functions
The graph of a constant function f(x) = c is the graph of the equation y = c, which
is the horizontal line (see (a)). If we vary c, then we obtain a set or family of
parallel (horizontal) lines (see (b)).
Constants that are varied to produce families of curves are called parameters.
For example, recall that an equation of the form y = mx + b represents a line of
slope m and y-intercept b.
• If we keep b fixed and treat m as a parameter, then we obtain a family of
lines whose members all have y-intercept b (see (a)).
• If we keep m fixed and treat b as a parameter, we obtain a family of parallel
lines whose members all have slope m (see (b)).

The family y = mx + b The family y = mx + b

(b fixed and m varying) (m fixed and b varying)
(а) (b)
Example 1.
а) Find an equation for the family of lines with slope ½.
b) Find the member of the family in part (a) that passes through the point (4,1).
c) Find an equation for the family of lines whose members are perpendicular to
the lines in the part (a).
Solution.
а) The lines of slope ½ are of the form
1
y = x + b,
2
where the parameter b can have any real value.
b) To find the line in the family which passes through the point (4,1),
we must find the value of b for which the coordinates x = 4 and y = 1
satisfy the previous equation. We have
1
1= ⋅ 4 + 𝑏, 𝑖. е. 𝑏 = −1,
2
1
so the equation of the line is y = x − 1.
2
c) y = −2x + b
 Power functions
A function of the form f(x) = xp, where p is constant, is called a power function.

The family y =xn

Let p be a positive integer, let’s say p = n.

The graphs of the curves y = xn, for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are given in the figure
below.

For n ≥ 2 the shape of the curve y = xn depends on whether n is even or odd.

 Let n  2 and n is an even number

• The function y =xn is an even function, so

its graph is symmetric with respect to the
y-axis.
• The graphs all have the general shape of
the graph of y = x2, and each graph passes
through the points (–1, 1), (0, 0) and (1, 1).
• As n increases, the graphs become flatter The family y = xn
over the interval −1 < x < 1 and steeper (n even)
over the intervals x > 1 and x < −1.
 Let n  2 and n is an odd number
• The functions f(x) = xn are odd, so
their graphs are symmetric about
the origin.
• The graphs all have the general
shape of the curve y = x3, and
each graph passes through the
points (−1,−1), (0, 0), and (1, 1).
• As n increases, the graphs become
flatter over the interval −1 < x < 1
and steeper over the intervals x > The family y = xn
1 and x < −1. (n odd)
 The family y =x–n
Let p be a negative integer, let’s say p = – n. Then y = x–n = 1/xn.
The graphs of y = 1/x and y = 1/x2 are given in the figure below.
The graph of y = 1/x is called an equilateral hyperbola.

The shape of the curve y =x–n depends on whether n is even or odd

Let n be an even number

The functions f(x) =1/xn are even, so

their graphs are symmetric about the
y-axis.
The graphs all have the general shape
of the curve y = 1/x2, and each graph
passes through the points (−1, 1) and
(1, 1).
As n increases, the graphs become
steeper over the intervals −1 < x < 0
and 0 < x < 1 and become flatter
over the intervals x > 1 and x < −1.
The family y = 1/xn
(n even)
 Let n be an odd number

• The functions f(x) = 1/xn are odd, so

their graphs are symmetric about the
origin.
• The graphs all have the general shape
of the curve y = 1/x, and each graph
passes through the points (1, 1) and
(−1,−1).
• As n increases, the graphs become
steeper over the intervals −1 < x < 0
and 0 < x < 1 and become flatter over
the intervals x > 1 and x < −1.

The family y = 1/xn

(n odd)

For both even and odd values of n, the graph y = 1/xn has a break at the
origin (called a discontinuity), which occurs because division by zero is
undefined.