UNIT I: Introduction to open source

Open source Introduction: Open Source – Open

source vs. Commercial Software – What is Linux? –
Free Software – Where I can use Linux? Linux
Kernel – Linux Distributions

1 An Introduction to Open Source Software

Open source software is free software for your business or personal use. Open source developers
freely share their knowledge and make the source code available to the public. The software is
distributed with a license which allows other developers can modify it and/or add to it. Some
examples of open source software are: WordPress, Ubuntu, and Mozilla, creators of the Firefox
browser.
Advantages
• Open source software allows you to make choices
• Open source software is under constant development which addresses vulnerabilities, bug
fixes, enhancements, and more.
• You can modify the software as necessary for your own purposes.
• Some open source programs give the user the option of automatic updates, which keep the
software current. i.e. WordPress.
• A number of open source programs have a core application which can be enhanced by the use
of plug-ins and themes. i.e. WordPress and Joomla.
• Open source software offers a tremendous amount of flexibility.
• Open source software is potentially more secure than commercial programs because the code
is constantly being scrutinized by many programmers, not just a select few.
• Many open source programs can be installed on your computer, unlike a proprietary system
which you can use, but where you have no control. If the software owner doesn’t like what you
are doing they can wipe out your hard work overnight.
Disadvantages
• If you don´t know how to write code , you have to pay for modifications or learn how to code
yourself.
• If the author of a product no longer supports the software you might be out of luck unless the
development is picked up by other programmers You can take over development yourself if you
wish.
• Open source is sometimes referred to as ‘open wallet’ in the sense that it may cost you more
to have open source code modified than it would cost you to buy a commercial program.
• Unless there’s a structure in place to ensure the quality of the code it might wind up with
many changes, bug fixes, and patches, all of which can make the code more complex and/or
degrade the quality, which in turn leads to more maintenance.
• The software might not be well-documented, which could make it difficult to learn.
• Vulnerabilities in the software can be exploited by hackers. Another option is to make sure
you have backups. This will save you a lot of time if you need to restore the site.

1.1Difference Between Commercial and Open

Source
S.No. Commercial Open source
1 Commercial systems are created and Open source systems are overseen by dedicated
supported by for-profit companies communities of developers who contribute
(e.g., Microsoft) that typically sell modifications to improve the product
licenses for the use of their software continually and who decide on the course of the
and that are driven by maximizing software based on the needs of the community.
profits.

2 Commercial software, on the other Open source software is generally free or has
hand, requires purchasing a license. low-cost licensing options.
The up-front license cost of a
commercial CMS could run from a
few thousand dollars to tens or even
hundreds of thousands.

3 Commercial or proprietary software While open source solutions are supported by

also equates to better support and communities of volunteers, your initial cost
typically offers a robust suite of may be lower with this choice, but you will
 features right out of the box. If your most likely need to budget for technical
organization’s needs are very well resources to maintain it over time. With a
planned and documented, your IT limited budget, however, your financial
favors Microsoft products and resources are better directed toward the best
commercially supported software, and possible website as opposed to acquiring
the up-front budget for software licenses and paying mandatory fees for
licensing is not a significant concern, updates.
then Microsoft web stack and
commercial CMS may be a good
option for you.

4 It includes a lot of extra features in It provides a full package in the open source
our commercial version. So you will version but include a more limiting license.
find that the commercial version does
more (printing, text search,
extraction) and it does things better

5 They get money via They get money via

 Consulting Sales
 Product Sales  Support Contracts
 Product Licenses  SaaS - Software as a service / Hosting
 Product Renewals  Donations
 SaaS - Software as service /
Hosting
 Consulting Sales
 Support Contracts
Venture Capital

6 They market via They market via

 Sales Team  Search Engine
 Marketing Team  Word of Mouth - Viral Marketing
 Advertising Dollars  Case Studies
 Search Engine
 Word of Mouth - Viral
Marketing
 Case Studies
1.2 What is Linux?
 Linux is the best-known and most-used open source operating system. As an operating
system, Linux is software that sits underneath all of the other software on a computer,
receiving requests from those programs and relaying these requests to the computer’s
hardware.

 Linux is an Open Source version of Unix developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991 to port Unix
to the Intel x86 processor .This made Unix available on the most ubiquitous computer
hardware that has ever existed, and therefore available to almost everyone.

 Linux has since been ported to almost every processor and function one could imagine,
including game-boxes, personal digital assistants (PDAs), personal digital video recorders,
and IBM mainframes, expanding the original concept of Unix for x86 to Unix for everything.

 For the purposes of this page, we use the term “Linux” to refer to the Linux kernel, but also
the set of programs, tools, and services that are typically bundled together with the Linux
kernel to provide all of the necessary components of a fully functional operating system.

 Some people, particularly members of the Free Software Foundation, refer to this collection
as GNU/Linux, because many of the tools included are GNU components. However, not all
Linux installations use GNU components as a part of their operating system. Android, for
example, uses a Linux kernel but relies very little on GNU tools.

 Linux has a graphical interface, and types of software you are accustomed to using on other
operating systems, such as word processing applications, have Linux equivalents.

 Linux is different from other operating systems in many important ways. Linux is open
source software. The code used to create Linux is free and available to the public to view,
edit, and for users with the appropriate skills—to contribute to.

 Linux is also different in that, although the core pieces of the Linux operating system are
generally common, there are many distributions of Linux, which include different software
options. This means that Linux is incredibly customizable, because not just applications, such
as word processors and web browsers, can be swapped out. Linux users also can choose core
components, such as which system displays graphics, and other user-interface components.
Usage of Linux
Companies and individuals choose Linux for their servers because it is secure, and you can
receive excellent support from a large community of users, in addition to companies like
Canonical, SUSE, and Red Hat, which offer commercial support.
Many of the devices you own probably, such as Android phones, digital storage devices, personal
video recorders, cameras, wearables, and more, also run Linux. Even your car has Linux running
under the hood.

Owners of Linux
Trademark on the name “Linux” rests with its creator, Linus Torvalds. The source code for Linux
is under copyright by its many individual authors, and licensed under the GPLv2 license.

Contribution to Linux
Linux community is much more than the kernel, and needs contributions from lots of other
people besides programmers. Every distribution contains hundreds or thousands of programs that
can be distributed along with it, and each of these programs, as well as the distribution itself,
need a variety of people and skill sets to make them successful, including:

 Testers to make sure everything works on different configurations of hardware and

software, and to report the bugs when it does not.
 Designers to create user interfaces and graphics distributed with various programs.
 Writers who can create documentation, how-tos, and other important text distributed with
software.
 Translators to take programs and documentation from their native languages and make
them accessible to people around the world.
 Packagers to take software programs and put all the parts together to make sure they run
flawlessly in different distributions.
 Evangelists to spread the word about Linux and open source in general.
 And of course developers to write the software itself.
Advantages and Benefits of Linux
 One of the significant benefits of open source software such as Linux is that because it
has no owner, it can be debugged without resource to a license owner or software
proprietor.

 The major advantage of Linux is its cost: the core OS is free, while many software
applications also come with a GNU General public License. It can also be used
simultaneously by large numbers of users without slowing down or freezing and it is very
fast.

 It is an excellent networking platform and performs at optimum efficiency even with

little available hard disk space.

 Linux also runs on a wide range of hardware types, including PCs, Macs, mainframes,
supercomputers, some cell phones and industrial robots. Some prefer to dual-boot Linux
and Windows while others prefer Linux and Mac OS. System76 machines come pre-
installed with Linux in the form of Ubuntu, a Debian distribution of Linux. This is the
most popular distribution of Linux for laptops

Benefits and advantages of Linux over other operating

systems
 It is free to use and distribute.
 Support is free through online help sites, blogs and forums.
 It is very reliable – more so than most other operating systems with very few crashes.
 A huge amount of free open source software has been developed for it.
 It is very resistant to malware such as spyware, adware and viruses.
 It runs in a wide variety of machines than cannot be updated to use newer Windows
versions.
 Since the source code is visible, ‘backdoors’ are easily spotted, so Linux offers greater
security for sensitive applications.
 Linux offers a high degree of flexibility of configuration, and significant customization is
possible without modifying the source code.
1.3 Free Software
 Linux is built with a collaborative development model. The operating system and most of its
software are created by volunteers and employees of companies, governments and
organisations from all over the world. The operating system is free to use and everyone has
the freedom to contribute to its development. This co-operative development model means
that everyone can benefit.

 Because of this, we like to call it Free Software, or Socially Responsible Software. Closely
related is the concept of Open Source Software. Together, Free and Open Source Software
is collectively abbreviated as FOSS.

 Transparency of the code and development process means that it can be participated in and
audited at all levels.

 Linux has many other benefits, including speed, security and stability. It is renowned for its
ability to run well on more modest hardware. Hence, viruses, worms, spyware and adware
are basically a non-issue on Linux.

 Many FOSS developers develop for fun; many others are paid for their time. Because the
code is open, it is actively worked on by all sorts of individuals and organisations. Since
development is shared, it can cost relatively little to work with FOSS.

 When access to the source code is available, there are essentially no limitations to what can
be achieved. Free Software is so named because of the freedom granted to the user.

 FOSS allows people and organisations to do what they want with the computers that they
own, without being beholden to any company. They can make whatever modifications that
they wish, providing unparalleled flexibility.

 Many groups in the government, business and education sectors use Linux as a means of
cutting costs. It also allows them to create products that they would not otherwise be
able to make.

 Schools both nationally and internationally are seeing the benefits of FOSS. There is a vast
wealth of free software designed for children of all ages, including educational programmes
and games. Education is all about imparting knowledge in an open fashion.

 Jimmy Wales, founder and leader of the Wikipedia project, explains, free knowledge cannot
exist unless the tools used to manage it are also free.

 There are over 30 million users of Linux, and that number is growing rapidly. The Mozilla
Firefox Web browser is the most popular Web browser and other open source based Web
browsers such as Chrome, Safari and Konqueror.
 Linux and FOSS are major players in most other markets. The amazing flexibility and
scalability of the software means that Linux can be found in computers both large and small.
1. Linux powers over 85 per cent of the top 500 supercomputers in the world, while
also scaling down to run on one quarter of new smartphones.
2. Over 95 per cent of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects
companies use Linux.
3. Linux drives over half of all Web servers, including 8 of the 10 most reliable hosting
providers. The Apache Web server, a flagship example of FOSS, propels over 60 per
cent of Web sites, including 44 per cent of secure (SSL) sites.
4. The One Laptop Per Child programme, a unique and ambitious collaboration
between the United Nations and a multitude of governments, companies and other
organisations worldwide.

Linux distributions tend to have their own support resources as well:

 for Ubuntu (and derivatives like Kubuntu, Xubuntu, Edubuntu, etc.)

1. Canonical's free technical support page
2. The Ubuntu Community
3. Community documentation
4. Unofficial Ubuntu Guide

 for Fedora
1. Fedora documentation
2. Communicating and Getting Help
3. Unofficial Fedora Guide

 for other distributions, consult the Web site of the project, as well as its DistroWatch
page

Free Open Source Software (FOSS), also called just Open Source or Free Software, is
licensed to be free to use, modify, and distribute. Most FOSS licenses also include a kind of
legal Golden Rule, requiring any changes - such as fixes and enhancements - be released under
the same license. This creates the trust in developers and users that generates large, sustainable
communities that grow the software over time

The term free software refers to a lack of restrictions on individual users as well as zero cost; the
term open source software refers to collaborative or networked development. FOSS, which
embraces the benefits and adherents of both paradigms, is gaining widespread acceptance as
traditional modes of software design are challenged.
The increasing popularity of FOSS has led to frustration in some circles for at least three reasons:
  Conventional software developers, distributors and sellers fear that FOSS will undercut
their profits.
 Abuse of FOSS privileges may lead to questionable claims of copyright or trademark
protection, thereby spawning litigation.
 The monetary value of FOSS is unclear, so governments have trouble figuring out how to
tax it.

Why “Free Software” is better than “Open Source”

This article has been superseded by a major rewrite, “Open Source” misses the point
of Free Software, which is much better. We keep this version for historical reasons.

While free software by any other name would give you the same freedom, it makes a big
difference which name we use: different words convey different ideas.
In 1998, some of the people in the free software community began using the term “open source
software” instead of “free software” to describe what they do. The term “open source” quickly
became associated with a different approach, a different philosophy, different values, and even a
different criterion for which licenses are acceptable. The Free Software movement and the Open
Source movement are today separate movements with different views and goals, although we can
and do work together on some practical projects.
The fundamental difference between the two movements is in their values, their ways of looking
at the world. For the Open Source movement, the issue of whether software should be open
source is a practical question, not an ethical one. As one person put it, “Open source is a
development methodology; free software is a social movement.” For the Open Source
movement, non-free software is a suboptimal solution. For the Free Software movement, non-
free software is a social problem and free software is the solution.

Relationship between the Free Software movement and Open Source movement
The Free Software movement and the Open Source movement are like two political camps
within the free software community.
Radical groups in the 1960s developed a reputation for factionalism: organizations split because
of disagreements on details of strategy, and then treated each other as enemies. Or at least, such
is the image people have of them, whether or not it was true.
The relationship between the Free Software movement and the Open Source movement is just
the opposite of that picture. We disagree on the basic principles, but agree more or less on the
practical recommendations. So we can and do work together on many specific projects. We don't
think of the Open Source movement as an enemy. The enemy is proprietary software.
We are not against the Open Source movement, but we don't want to be lumped in with them. We
acknowledge that they have contributed to our community, but we created this community, and
we want people to know this. We want people to associate our achievements with our values and
our philosophy, not with theirs. We want to be heard, not obscured behind a group with different
views. To prevent people from thinking we are part of them, we take pains to avoid using the
word “open” to describe free software, or its contrary, “closed”, in talking about non-free
software.
So please mention the Free Software movement when you talk about the work we have done,
and the software we have developed—such as the GNU/Linux operating system.

Comparing the two terms

This rest of this article compares the two terms “free software” and “open source”. It shows why
the term “open source” does not solve any problems, and in fact creates some.

Ambiguity
The term “free software” has an ambiguity problem: an unintended meaning, “Software you can
get for zero price,” fits the term just as well as the intended meaning, “software which gives the
user certain freedoms.” We address this problem by publishing a more precise definition of free
software, but this is not a perfect solution; it cannot completely eliminate the problem. An
unambiguously correct term would be better, if it didn't have other problems.
Unfortunately, all the alternatives in English have problems of their own. We've looked at many
alternatives that people have suggested, but none is so clearly “right” that switching to it would
be a good idea. Every proposed replacement for “free software” has a similar kind of semantic
problem, or worse—and this includes “open source software.”
The official definition of “open source software,” as published by the Open Source Initiative, is
very close to our definition of free software; however, it is a little looser in some respects, and
they have accepted a few licenses that we consider unacceptably restrictive of the users.
However, the obvious meaning for the expression “open source software” is “You can look at the
source code.” This is a much weaker criterion than free software; it includes free software, but
also some proprietary programs, including Xv, and Qt under its original license (before the
QPL).
That obvious meaning for “open source” is not the meaning that its advocates intend. The result
is that most people misunderstand what those advocates are advocating. Here is how writer Neal
Stephenson defined “open source”:
Linux is “open source” software meaning, simply, that anyone can get copies of its
source code files.

I don't think he deliberately sought to reject or dispute the “official” definition. I think he simply
applied the conventions of the English language to come up with a meaning for the term. The
state of Kansas published a similar definition:
Make use of open-source software (OSS). OSS is software for which the source code
is freely and publicly available, though the specific licensing agreements vary as to
what one is allowed to do with that code.

Of course, the open source people have tried to deal with this by publishing a precise definition
for the term, just as we have done for “free software.”
But the explanation for “free software” is simple—a person who has grasped the idea of “free
speech, not free beer” will not get it wrong again. There is no such succinct way to explain the
official meaning of “open source” and show clearly why the natural definition is the wrong one.

Fear of Freedom
The main argument for the term “open source software” is that “free software” makes some
people uneasy. That's true: talking about freedom, about ethical issues, about responsibilities as
well as convenience, is asking people to think about things they might rather ignore. This can
trigger discomfort, and some people may reject the idea for that. It does not follow that society
would be better off if we stop talking about these things.
Years ago, free software developers noticed this discomfort reaction, and some started exploring
an approach for avoiding it. They figured that by keeping quiet about ethics and freedom, and
talking only about the immediate practical benefits of certain free software, they might be able to
“sell” the software more effectively to certain users, especially business. The term “open source”
is offered as a way of doing more of this—a way to be “more acceptable to business.” The views
and values of the Open Source movement stem from this decision.
This approach has proved effective, in its own terms. Today many people are switching to free
software for purely practical reasons. That is good, as far as it goes, but that isn't all we need to
do! Attracting users to free software is not the whole job, just the first step.
Sooner or later these users will be invited to switch back to proprietary software for some
practical advantage. Countless companies seek to offer such temptation, and why would users
decline? Only if they have learned to value the freedom free software gives them, for its own
sake. It is up to us to spread this idea—and in order to do that, we have to talk about freedom. A
certain amount of the “keep quiet” approach to business can be useful for the community, but we
must have plenty of freedom talk too.
At present, we have plenty of “keep quiet”, but not enough freedom talk. Most people involved
with free software say little about freedom—usually because they seek to be “more acceptable to
business.” Software distributors especially show this pattern. Some GNU/Linux operating system
distributions add proprietary packages to the basic free system, and they invite users to consider
this an advantage, rather than a step backwards from freedom.
We are failing to keep up with the influx of free software users, failing to teach people about
freedom and our community as fast as they enter it. This is why non-free software (which Qt was
when it first became popular), and partially non-free operating system distributions, find such
fertile ground. To stop using the word “free” now would be a mistake; we need more, not less,
talk about freedom.
If those using the term “open source” draw more users into our community, that is a contribution,
but the rest of us will have to work even harder to bring the issue of freedom to those users'
attention. We have to say, “It's free software and it gives you freedom!”—more and louder than
ever before.

Would a Trademark Help?

The advocates of “open source software” tried to make it a trademark, saying this would enable
them to prevent misuse. This initiative was later dropped, the term being too descriptive to
qualify as a trademark; thus, the legal status of “open source” is the same as that of “free
software”: there is no legal constraint on using it. I have heard reports of a number of companies'
calling software packages “open source” even though they did not fit the official definition; I
have observed some instances myself.
But would it have made a big difference to use a term that is a trademark? Not necessarily.
Companies also made announcements that give the impression that a program is “open source
software” without explicitly saying so. For example, one IBM announcement, about a program
that did not fit the official definition, said this:
As is common in the open source community, users of the ... technology will also be
able to collaborate with IBM ...

This did not actually say that the program was “open source”, but many readers did not notice
that detail. (I should note that IBM was sincerely trying to make this program free software, and
later adopted a new license which does make it free software and “open source”; but when that
announcement was made, the program did not qualify as either one.)
And here is how Cygnus Solutions, which was formed to be a free software company and
subsequently branched out (so to speak) into proprietary software, advertised some proprietary
software products:
Cygnus Solutions is a leader in the open source market and has just launched two
products into the [GNU/]Linux marketplace.

Unlike IBM, Cygnus was not trying to make these packages free software, and the packages did
not come close to qualifying. But Cygnus didn't actually say that these are “open source
software”, they just made use of the term to give careless readers that impression.
These observations suggest that a trademark would not have truly prevented the confusion that
comes with the term “open source”.

Misunderstandings(?) of “Open Source”

The Open Source Definition is clear enough, and it is quite clear that the typical non-free
program does not qualify. So you would think that “Open Source company” would mean one
whose products are free software (or close to it), right? Alas, many companies are trying to give
it a different meaning.
At the “Open Source Developers Day” meeting in August 1998, several of the commercial
developers invited said they intend to make only a part of their work free software (or “open
source”). The focus of their business is on developing proprietary add-ons (software or manuals)
to sell to the users of this free software. They ask us to regard this as legitimate, as part of our
community, because some of the money is donated to free software development.
In effect, these companies seek to gain the favorable cachet of “open source” for their proprietary
software products—even though those are not “open source software”—because they have some
relationship to free software or because the same company also maintains some free software.
(One company founder said quite explicitly that they would put, into the free package they
support, as little of their work as the community would stand for.)
Over the years, many companies have contributed to free software development. Some of these
companies primarily developed non-free software, but the two activities were separate; thus, we
could ignore their non-free products, and work with them on free software projects. Then we
could honestly thank them afterward for their free software contributions, without talking about
the rest of what they did.
We cannot do the same with these new companies, because they won't let us. These companies
actively invite the public to lump all their activities together; they want us to regard their non-
free software as favorably as we would regard a real contribution, although it is not one. They
present themselves as “open source companies,” hoping that we will get a warm fuzzy feeling
about them, and that we will be fuzzy-minded in applying it.
This manipulative practice would be no less harmful if it were done using the term “free
software.” But companies do not seem to use the term “free software” that way; perhaps its
association with idealism makes it seem unsuitable. The term “open source” opened the door for
this.
At a trade show in late 1998, dedicated to the operating system often referred to as “Linux”, the
featured speaker was an executive from a prominent software company. He was probably invited
on account of his company's decision to “support” that system. Unfortunately, their form of
“support” consists of releasing non-free software that works with the system—in other words,
using our community as a market but not contributing to it.
He said, “There is no way we will make our product open source, but perhaps we will make it
‘internal’ open source. If we allow our customer support staff to have access to the source code,
they could fix bugs for the customers, and we could provide a better product and better service.”
(This is not an exact quote, as I did not write his words down, but it gets the gist.)
People in the audience afterward told me, “He just doesn't get the point.” But is that so? Which
point did he not get?
He did not miss the point of the Open Source movement. That movement does not say users
should have freedom, only that allowing more people to look at the source code and help
improve it makes for faster and better development. The executive grasped that point completely;
unwilling to carry out that approach in full, users included, he was considering implementing it
partially, within the company.
The point that he missed is the point that “open source” was designed not to raise: the point that
users deserve freedom.
Spreading the idea of freedom is a big job—it needs your help. That's why we stick to the term
“free software” in the GNU Project, so we can help do that job. If you feel that freedom and
community are important for their own sake—not just for the convenience they bring—please
join us in using the term “free software”.

The free software movement was started by Richard M. Stallman and GNU in 1984, later
the Free Software Foundation was founded.
Free software is defined by the offering of 4 basic freedoms:

 The freedom to run the program, for any purpose (freedom 0).
 The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your needs (freedom 1).
Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
 The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor (freedom 2).
 The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so
that the whole community benefits (freedom 3). Access to the source code is a
precondition for this.
Non-free software is also called proprietary software. Free software should not be confused with
freeware; freeware is free as in free beer, not as in freedom.
Benefits of Free and Open Source Software
These freedoms benefit users in many ways. Without access to the code and the right to modify it
and distribute it, a distribution like openSUSE would not be possible at all.

Fix the software

These freedoms mean that you can fix bugs, which exist in all software, or you can change the
software to do what you need it to do, or even fix security issues. In the case of proprietary
software you can ask the provider to add functionality and fix bugs, and maybe they'll do it when
it suits them, maybe not.

Share
Free software allows you to share software and thus help your friends and neighbours without
you having to breach licenses.

Know and control what is going on

With proprietary software you can't know what a given program _really_ does. Some very well
known proprietary software has been caught spying on users and sending information about their
behaviour and such. Proprietary software also has a tendency to include various digital
restrictions on what the user can do, when, for how long, etc. With free software you have access
to the source code and can study what the program does and change it if you don't like it.

Technical benefits
Open source code makes it possible for more people to see the code and fix it, it can be
developed faster and become better. This system of "peer review" can be compared to the way
scientific research works. In comparison proprietary code is kept secret and rarely seen by
anybody outside the company behind it.

Economic benefits
It's also a way in which companies can share development costs. For example Novell and Red
Hat are competitors yet they develop many of the same programs and thus help each other. IBM
and HP could also be seen as competitors yet they both contribute to the Linux kernel, etc., thus
sharing development costs.
Free software makes a competitive market for support possible, potentially heightening the
quality of support. With proprietary software only the provider who has access to the source code
can realistically offer decent support, and thus has a kind of monopoly.
 1.4 Where I can use Linux?
You can use Linux as Server Os or as stand alone Os on your PC. (But it is best suited for
Server.) As a server Os it provides different services/network resources to client. Server Os must
be:

 Stable
 Robust
 Secure
 High Performance
Linux offers all of the above characteristics plus its Open Source and Free OS. So Linux can be
used as:
(1) On stand alone workstation/PC for word processing, graphics, software development,
internet, e-mail, chatting, small personal database management system etc.
(2) In network environment as:
(A) File and Print or Application Server
Share the data, Connect the expensive device like printer and share it, e-mail within the
LAN/intranet etc are some of the application.

Linux Server with different Client Os

(B) Linux sever cab be connected to Internet, So that PC's on intranet can share the internet/e-
mail etc. You can put your web sever that run your web site or transmit the information on the
internet.
 Linux Server can act as Proxy/Mail/WWW/Router Server etc.

So you can use Linux for:

 Personal Work
 Web Server
 Software Development Workstation
 Workgroup Server
 In Data Centre for various server activities such as FTP, Telnet, SSH, Web, Mail, Proxy,
Proxy Cache Appliance etc

1.5 What Kernel Is?

Kernel is hart of Linux Os.
It manages resource of Linux Os. Resources means facilities available in Linux. For e.g. Facility
to store data, print data on printer, memory, file management etc .
Kernel decides who will use this resource, for how long and when. It runs your programs (or set
up to execute binary files).
The kernel acts as an intermediary between the computer hardware and various
programs/application/shell.
It's Memory resident portion of Linux. It performance following task :-

 I/O management
 Process management
 Device management
 File management
 Memory management

Linux Kernel is the heart of Linux operating systems. It is an open-source (source

code that can be used by anyone freely) software that is most popular and widely
used in the industry as well as on a personal use basis. Who created Linux and why?
Linux was created by Linus Torvalds in 1991 as a hobby project. Since then, many of
the users have contributed to its growth and development of it. Before Jumping
directly to the main topic “Linux Kernel” one must know a few concepts (prerequisites)
to better understand the Linux Kernel.

What is Linux Operating System and Kernel?

An operating system (OS) is a software system that manages the computer that
provides some services for computer programs and manages computer hardware and
software. Basically, it is a communication or resource allocation between computer
hardware and applications. It provides some services like managing input and output
devices, managing file systems, providing UI (User Interface) and also managing
computer memory. It also governs and executes all the programs.
Linux operating System also consists of various components for example system
libraries, user-space utilities, Linux kernel, and applications. The kernel is the core
component of an operating system. This provides a platform for programs and various
services to run on top of it. The Linux kernel is modifiable according to the user’s
needs. Overall, the Linux Operating System and Linux kernel together provide a
strong and user-friendly platform.
In a General-Purpose Computer running many processes simultaneously, we need a
middle layer to manage the distribution of the computer’s hardware resources
efficiently and fairly among all the various processes running on the computer. This
middle layer is referred to as the kernel. The kernel virtualizes the computer’s
common hardware resources to provide each process with its own virtual resources.
This makes the process seem as if it is the sole process running on the machine. The
kernel is also responsible for preventing and mitigating conflicts between different
processes. This is schematically represented below:

Schematical representation of Kernel working

Figure: Virtual Resources for each Process

The Core Subsystems of the Linux Kernel are as follows:
1. The Process Scheduler
2. The Memory Management Unit (MMU)
3. The Virtual File System (VFS)
4. The Networking Unit
5. Inter-Process Communication Unit
 Core Subsystems of the Linux Kernel

Figure: The Linux Kernel for the purpose of this article we will only be focusing on the
1st three important subsystems of the Linux Kernel. The basic functioning of each of
the 1st three subsystems is elaborated below:
 The Process Scheduler: This kernel subsystem is responsible for fairly
distributing the CPU time among all the processes running on the system
simultaneously.
 The Memory Management Unit: This kernel sub-unit is responsible for proper
distribution of the memory resources among the various processes running on
the system. The MMU does more than just simply provide separate virtual
address spaces for each of the processes.
 The Virtual File System: This subsystem is responsible for providing a unified
interface to access stored data across different filesystems and physical storage
media.

Some Basic Commands:

Some Basic Commands we need to know while working on Linux Kernel.

 `ls` : Use to list all the files and directories in a particular location specified by us.
Syntax:
ls [OPTION] [FILE]
Example:
In this example we are going to list all the file and directories in our current location ,
we have one directory name `snap`.
Here in second time we use `a` option (to see all the hidden files).
In third time we specified a `snap` directory.

 mkdir` : In this we will create a new directory.

Syntax:
mkdir [OPTION] DIRECTORY

Example:
In this we will make a directory name `test` and to check it we can use command `ls`.
 `pwd` : In this we will get to know the name and path of the current working
directory.

Syntax: pwd
mkdir command

 `cat` : In this we will print the context inside a text file on terminal.
Syntax:
cat [OPTION] [FILE]
Example:
Printing a content inside a text file name `example`.

1.6 Linux Distributions (Distros)

Introduction to Linux Distribution

Other operating systems like Microsoft combine each bit of codes internally and release
it as a single package. You have to choose from one of the version they offer.
But Linux is different from them. Different parts of Linux are developed by different
organizations.
Different parts include kernel, shell utilities, X server, system environment, graphical
programs, etc. If you want you can access the codes of all these parts and assemble
them yourself. But its not an easy task seeking a lot of time and all the parts has to be
assembled correctly in order to work properly.
From here on distribution (also called as distros) comes into the picture. They assemble
all these parts for us and give us a compiled operating system of Linux to install and use.

o A Linux distribution is an OS made through a software collection that contains

the Linux kernel and a package management system often.

 o Usually, Linux users obtain their OS by downloading a Linux distribution, available

for a range of systems from embedded devices (e.g., OpenWrt) to robust

supercomputers (e.g., Rocks Cluster Distribution).

o A Linux distribution is composed of a Linux kernel, GNU libraries and tools, other

software, a window system, documentation, a desktop environment, and a

window manager.

o Almost every added software is open-source and free and becomes available

both as in source code and compiled binary form, permitting changes to the

actual software.

o Optionally, Linux distributions add a few proprietary software that might not be

available in the source code form, like binary blocks needed for a few device

drivers.

History of Linux Distributions

Linus Torvalds integrated the Linux kernel and shared its first version, 0.01, in 1991.
Initially, Linux was distributed as only source code, and after that, as a combination of
downloadable floppy disk images. Distributions started simplifying the installation
procedure as it was complicated, specifically during the growing numbers of available
software.
Users admired Linux distributions as replacements to the Microsoft Windows and DOS
OSes on proprietary Unix versions, Apple Macintosh Mac OS, and IBM PC compatible
systems. Almost every early adopter was familiar with Unix from school or work. They
accepted Linux distributions for low cost and the source code availability for all or most
of their software.
Linux has become more famous in embedded and server device markets as compared to
the desktop market as of 2017. It is utilized on over 50% of web servers.

Trends and types

Linux distributions might be:

o Non-commercial or commercial

o Developed for home users, power users, or enterprise users

 o Supported on two or more types of platform or hardware-specific, even to the

certification extension via platform vendor

o Developed for embedded, desktop, or server devices

o Highly specialized or general purpose toward particular machine functionalities

(e.g., computer clusters, network routers, and firewalls)

o Targeted at particular user groups, e.g., by language internationalization and

localization or by including several scientific computing and music production

packages

o Primarily, built for comprehensiveness, portability, usability, or security

Rolling release or standard release

The Linux distribution diversity is because of the technical, philosophical, and

organizational variation among users and vendors. Free software licensing defines that
users having sufficient interest and knowledge can customize the existing distributions
or create one to match their needs.

Linux Distributions List

There are on an average six hundred Linux distributors providing different features.
Here, we'll discuss about some of the popular Linux distros today.

1) Ubuntu
It came into existence in 2004 by Canonical and quickly became popular. Canonical
wants Ubuntu to be used as easy graphical Linux desktop without the use of command
line. It is the most well known Linux distribution. Ubuntu is a next version of Debian and
easy to use for newbies. It comes with a lots of pre-installed apps and easy to use
repositories libraries.
Earlier, Ubuntu uses GNOME2 desktop environment but now it has developed its own
unity desktop environment. It releases every six months and currently working to expand
to run on tablets and smartphones.

2) Linux Mint
Mint is based on Ubuntu and uses its repository software so some packages are
common in both.
Earlier it was an alternative of Ubuntu because media codecs and proprietary software
are included in mint but was absent in Ubuntu. But now it has its own popularity and it
uses cinnamon and mate desktop instead of Ubuntu's unity desktop environment.

3) Debian
Debian has its existence since 1993 and releases its versions much slowly then Ubuntu
and mint.
This makes it one of the most stable Linux distributor.
Ubuntu is based on Debian and was founded to improve the core bits of Debian more
quickly and make it more user friendly. Every release name of Debian is based on the
name of the movie Toy Story.

4) Red Hat Enterprise / CentOS

Red hat is a commercial Linux distributor. There products are red hat enterprise Linux
(RHEL) and Fedora which are freely available. RHEL is well tested before release and
supported till seven years after the release, whereas, fedora provides faster update and
without any support.
Red hat uses trademark law to prevent their software from being redistributed. CentOS
is a community project that uses red hat enterprise Linux code but removes all its
trademark and make it freely available. In other words, it is a free version of RHEL and
provide a stable platform for a long time.

5) Fedora
It is a project that mainly focuses on free software and provides latest version of
software. It doesn't make its own desktop environment but used 'upstream' software. By
default it has GNOME3 desktop environment. It is less stable but provides the latest
stuff.

Choosing a Linux Distro

Distribution Why To Use

UBuntu It works like Mac OS and easy to use.

Linux mint It works like windows and should be use by new comers.

Debian It provides stability but not recommended to a new user.

Fedora If you want to use red hat and latest software.

Red hat enterprise To be used commercially.

CentOS If you want to use red hat but without its trademark.

OpenSUSE It works same as Fedora but slightly older and more stable.

Arch Linux It is not for the beginners because every package has to be installed by yourself.

Examples of Linux Distributions

Widely used GNU-compatible or GNU-based distributions
A non-commercial, Debian distribution and one of the primitives, managed by a
volunteer developer association with a commitment to democratic project management
and free software principles.
Some other distributions are also available, such as Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora Linux,
Red Hat Enterprise Linux, openSUSE, SUSE Linux Enterprise, Arch Linux, Manjaro Linux,
Gentoo, etc.
Linux kernel-based OSes

o Android, the commercial operating system of Google, works on the basis of

Android OSP that executes on various devices like set-top boxes, smart TVs,

smartphones, etc.

o ChromeOS, the commercial operating system of Google, works on the basis of

ChromiumOS, which executes only on tablet computers, Chromeboxes, and

Chromebooks. Like Android, ChromeOS contains the Google Play Store and many

Google apps.

Note: However, it is a questionable topic that the above OSes are considered as the
"Linux Distribution". They utilize the Linux kernel; hence, Chris DiBona (open-source
chief of Google) and the Linux Foundation admit that Android is also a Linux distribution.
Lightweight distributions
These distributions have been developed with support for earlier hardware, permitting
earlier hardware to be used productively or for the best possible speed in modern
hardware by giving more resources for use via applications. Some examples include
Slitaz, Puppy Linux, and Tiny Core Linux.
Niche distributions
Some other distributions require specific niches, including:

o Routers: e.g., targeted by OpenWrt (the Tiny embedded router distribution)

o Internet of things: e.g., targeted by Microsoft's Azure Sphere and Ubuntu Core

o Home theatre PCs: e.g., targeted by Mythbuntu, Kodi (formerly XBMC), and

KnoppMyth

o Specific platforms: e.g., the Raspberry Pi platform is targeted by Raspberry Pi

OS

o Education: some examples are Karoshi and Edubuntu, and server systems are

PCLinuxOS-based

o Scientific workstations and computer servers: e.g., aimed by Scientific Linux

o Penetration testing, digital forensics, and computer security: some examples

are Parrot Security OS and Kali Linux

o Anonymity and privacy: e.g., targeted by FreedomBox, Qubes, Whonix, or Tails

o Gaming: e.g., SteamOS

o Offline use: e.g., Endless OS