Matilda Baines SFC1 A Level + GCSE

GCSE + Start of a level computer science Revision

Paper 1 - Theory
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

System Architecture
This is called Von
Neumann architecture
where the program
instructions and the data
the programs are using
are both stored in the
same memory.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit or CPU is arguably the most important component of a
computer. Its main process is to do the FDE cycle (Fetch, Decode, Execute) and this runs the
instructions given to the computer. It also co-ordinates and manages hardware resources.
A Level Definition: A microprocessor responsible for carrying out the instructions that make
up a computer program by performing the arithmetic, logical, control and input/output
operations specified by the machine instructions it is running
The Central Processing Unit has three main components to it in which allow the cycle to
occur properly. These include the:
o Control Unit (CU) o Arithmetic Logic o Registers (+buses)
Unit (ALU)
Control Unit (CU)
The control unit coordinates and controls all the activities taking place within the CPU:
 It decodes instruction and executes them.
 It ensures the execution of instructions in the correct sequence.
 It receives signals from the system clock.
 It sends and receives control signals to and from other components.
 Makes sure that data goes to the correct place at the correct time.
 It directs the timing and control of other parts of the CPU.
Within the control unit, it contains the system clock.
The clock signal is used to synchronise the operations
of the processor components. It generates regular
clock pulses by emitting a signal that continuously
switches between a low (0) and a high (1) state.
The time taken between two sequential rising edges is
called a clock cycle or period. The clock speed is measured
by the number of clock cycles in a second.
1 clock cycle per second = 1 Hertz.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit is where the actual arithmetic and logical operations are done. For
the arithmetic this includes addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For the logical,
whether something is bigger or smaller etc. But the ALU contains the accumulator which is
one of the registers.

Registers
There are 5 main registers within the CPU:
 Program Counter (PC) – Holds the location of the next instruction/data address in
main memory.
 Memory Address Register (MAR) –
Holds the memory address of the
current instruction about to be
executed.
 Memory Data Register (MDR) –
Stores the data to be sent/received
from RAM.
 Accumulator (ACC) – Holds the
result of an instruction before it is
transferred to memory.
 Current Instruction Register (CIR) –
Holds the current instruction that the processor is executing.
Buses
A bus in the CPU is a data pathway between two
internal components of a computer. They are a set
of parallel wires which connect components. The
width of the bus is directly proportional to the
number of bits that can be transferred
simultaneously.
 Address Bus: The CPU signals to Main
Memory that it wants to fetch (load) data
using the address bus. It is used to specify
the address of a memory location to either
read data from or write data to that memory location. There is a one way connection
from the processor to the address bus and one way connection from the address bus
to the main memory and to I/O controllers
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

 Data Bus: The data bus is used to transfer data and instructions, in which the bus is
bidirectional. Data is transferred to and from the processor + main memory + I/O
controllers. Instruction are carried from main memory into the processor (to be
decoded and executed)
 Control Bus: The control bus is used to send control signals that manage and
orchestrate the operations that take place inside a computer system, it is
bidirectional.
Included is the exchanging of status signals between components, transmitting clock
signals required for the co-ordination of operations. A control signal can be used to:
request communication between two units, acknowledge a communication request,
specify the type of data that is being transferred via other buses and synchronise the
communication between the components using the clock pulses. Thus examples:

 Memory read: Places data from a specific memory location (whose address is on the
address bus) onto the data bus
 Memory write: Stores the data from the data bus onto a specific memory location
(whose address is on the address bus)
 Bus request: Signifies that a component needs to access a bus
 Bus grant: Signifies that a component is informed that it can use the bus it requested
access to
 Bus busy: Signifies that a bus is not available for use (as it is used by another
component)
 Interrupt request: Signifies that an error or exception has occurred that requires the
attention of the processor (CPU)
 Clock signals: The control bus supplies the components with clock pulses generated
by the system clock

Fetch – Decode – Execute Cycle (FDE) – GCSE Version

The CPU operates by repeating three operations: fetch, decode and
execute.
1) The Program Counter (PC) contains the address of the memory
location that has the next instruction which must be fetched.
2) This address is then copied to the Memory Address Register
(MAR). The Program Counter increments by 1 so it can do the
next instruction.
3) The contents at the MAR are copied to the RAM so that it can
find the value in this address which is then copied to the Memory Data Register
(MDR).
4) The contents in the MDR are then copied to the Current Instruction Register (CIR)
5) The Control Unit (CU) decodes and executes the instruction in the CIR and is sent to
the ALU if a calculation is being done.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Fetch – Decode – Execute Cycle (FDE) – A Level

Version
1) The Program Counter (PC) contains the address
of the memory location that has the next
instruction which must be fetched. The contents
of the PC are copied to the Memory Address
Register (MAR), which is connected to the
address bus. The address of the next instruction
to be executed is placed on the address bus

2) The control unit instructs a memory read

operation to allow the contents of the memory
location to be transferred to the processor. The
instruction that is stored at the address is
transferred using the data bus from main
memory to the processor and saved in the
Memory Data Register (MDR). Simultaneously,
the contents of the PC are incremented by 1 so
that the next instruction that needs to be
fetched

3) The contents of the MDR are copied into the

Current Instruction Register (CIR) to ensure that
the current instruction is kept safe thus the MDR
can be used during the execute stage to store
additional data that is needed.

4) The control unit decoded the instruction that is

in the CIR and this involves splitting the
instruction into operand and opcode to
determine the type of instruction needs to be
carried out.

5) The instruction is then executed and the

sequence of operation is dependent upon the
type being executed. If an arithmetic or logical
calculation, it is sent to the Arithmetic Logical
Unit (ALU) and then the final result is stored in
the Accumulator (ACC)

6) At the end of a cycle for each instruction, the

processor checks the status register to see if an
error, exception, or interrupt needs to be
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

handled. For example, if an interrupt is indicated, the control might be transferred to

the corresponding interrupt service routine.

Factors affecting the CPU.

 Clock Speed
 Processor Cores
 Cache
Clock Speed
Everything in a computer happens on the pulse of the internal clock, therefore the faster the
clock speed, the faster the instructions are processed.
Processor Cores
For reference, 1 cycle per second = 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 instruction carried out each second.
In a CPU, it can have multiple cores and a core is an independent processor. This means that
the processor can perform multiple instructions at the same time (depending on number of
cores.)
A dual-core processor has
two processors in the same
integrated circuit, linked
together. It has the potential
to perform two instructions
at the same time – parallel
processing. This allows twice
as many instructions to be
executed; however, it doesn’t
always perform at this rate as
software may not be able to
take full advantage of both
cores.
Effect on Speed: A quad-core processor working on many different tasks simultaneously,
under ideal conditions can be up to four times faster than a single-core processor. If the
computer is running a single program, it is not necessarily any faster since the program may
have been designed to only run on one core.
Cache Memory
Processors have cache and this is a small amount of
very fast, expensive memory in the CPU. The cache acts
as an intermediary between the processor and the
main memory. As programs are executing, the cache
holds commonly used instructions. It can be accessed
faster than regular main memory (RAM). RAM is
relatively slow memory to access, and it is further away
from the processor than cache. It takes longer to
retrieve an instruction or data from RAM than from
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

cache. Program instructions and data that are fetched are stored in cache in case they are
needed again soon.
 Level 1 = Level 1 is extremely fast but small in capacity (between 2-256KB), located
on the CPU. Each core will have its own level 1 cache.
 Level 2 = Level 2 is usually given to each core. It is very fast, but a little slower than
level 1. Level 2 is bigger in capacity and the typical size is 256KB-8MB.
 Level 3 = Level 3 is the slowest type of cache, but still faster than RAM. Bigger in
capacity than Level 1 and Level 2. It is usually located on the CPU and stores 4MB-
50MB. The cache is shared between all the cores on the processor.

Benefits of Cache: The data used most often by the CPU is held in Level 1 cache so is
available extremely quickly. In most systems, Level 1 cache is used about 50% of the time,
with Level 2 cache being accessed about 90% of the time, this greatly reduces the time that
the CPU must wait for data from main memory.

Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a small computer built into a piece of equipment to perform a
specific task. An embedded computer is frequently used to control a device using simple
inputs. A computer system that is made up of both hardware and software is known as
firmware.
All the components are on a single printed circuit board and usually for very specialised
tasks and don’t contain an operating system. They have a single microprocessor with RAM,
ROM and a CPU. Without embedded systems, a digital device would not be able to perform
specific functions. Most embedded systems run the firmware added to the device by the
manufacturer, However, some devices can have their firmware updated by the user.

Characteristics:
o Highly efficient o Slow CPU speeds o Compact in size.
o Extremely reliable o Cheap to produce. o Low in power

Examples:
 Traffic Lights  Fitness Tracker
 Sounds System  Robots
 Tumble dryer  Car Systems
 MRI Scanner  Digital Watch
 Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Memory & Storage

Computers understand only two things: power on or power off. This is represented by
switches and computers are essentially calculators made up of billions of switches.
Power on = 1 Power off = 0

Binary is a base-2 number system containing the valued of 0 and 1

Computers use a binary system consisting of only 0’s and 1’s. Everything that a computer
needs to process must be converted into a binary format. This format is used for storing
numbers, text, images, sound and program instructions.

Units of Data Storage and Binary

1 bit = A single 0 or 1 1 megabyte = 1000 kB
1 nibble = 4 bits 1 gigabyte = 1000 MB
1 byte = 8 bits 1 terabyte = 1000 GB
1 kilobyte = 1000 bytes 1 petabyte = 1000 TB

Binary is a base 2 number system as it Number of Possible combinations

only has 2 digits, 0 and 1.
Switches (Bits) or states
Denary is a base 10 number system,
which is our usual number system. 1 2
Conversions Binary to Denary: 2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
Working right to left, write out the
numbers 1, 2, 4 doubling it each time
7 128
till 128. 8 256
32 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 57.
Binary:
You 00111001
pretty much =doDenary: 57 similar for converting the other way. Just substitute it in into
something
the numbers to add up to the desired number.
The binary number up the top contains 8 bits which makes up 1 byte. In a byte, there are a
total of 256 combinations of numbers you can make, however, the highest number you can
make is 255. If you look at the pattern of the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8 etc there are the same as 2 0,
21, 22, 23 etc.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

The most significant bit (MSB) is the bit with the largest value, so the bit furthest to the left.
The least significant bit (LSB) is the bit with the smallest value, so the bit furthered to the
right.

Binary Arithmetic
This here is binary addition, and you work right to left and
apply these simple rules:
1) Put the binary numbers into columns and starting
from the right, add the numbers in columns.
0+0=0 1 + 1 = 0 (Carry 1)
0+1=1 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (Carry 1)
1+0=1

Overflow Error
Computers work with a fixed number of bits
at a time. If the result of an addition is too
large for the number of bits, the computer
works with there will be an overflow error.
An overflow error can lead to a loss of data
and a loss of accuracy in your answer. It
could also cause software to crash if it
doesn’t have a way of dealing with the extra
bit.
Logical Binary Shift Operations
A binary shift left of one bit moves all the
bits one place to the left. The vacant bit
spaces are filled with zeros. Logical shifts
can very quickly multiply or divide a
binary number by a factor of two. A loss
of accuracy can occur if a 1 is removed.
The 9th bit is known as a the carry bit.
Sign and Magnitude
Decimal
+/- 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 result
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 77
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -127
In this case it is still a byte yet, instead of 128, it is replaced with a +/- in order to represent negative
number up to the numerical value of 127
Binary Complement
Decimal
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
result
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 127
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -128
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 -86

Floating Point Binary Numbers

This works for a floating point
binary in two’s complement

Normalisation
Normalisation is a technique used to help reduce data duplication when designing data structures,
also resulting in an improvement in data integrity.
 Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Hexadecimal
Computers don’t work in hex, but humans use hex numbers when working as it is much
easier to express binary number representation in hex than it is in any other base number
system. Hex is a base-16 number system and as we only have 10 digits, it uses 0-9 and
letters A to F.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
 A hexadecimal value is much easier to read and remember than a string of binary
digits.
 It is quicker to write or type, since hex digit takes up only one character, not four.
 There is less chance of making an error when typing hex characters than a string of
1s and 0’s. Note: the computer does not use hex, but rather it’s a way for us to enter
into the computer for it to convert to binary.
 You can denote that the value is a hexadecimal value by using the symbols 0x
 In general, show your working out completely

Conversions

Denary 234
Su m
ma Binary 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 ry
of
1. Convert
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
to Binary
2 Nibbles 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
2. Split into
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 nibbles
Hexadecimal E A
Uses:
 Display error codes e.g., Error #404
 Notation of colour in HTML
 MAC addresses
 Display machine code.

Characters
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Every character on the keyboard is represented by a binary value. Uppercase letters have
different values from lowercase characters, Punctuation symbols have their own character
code. A British keyboard needs to contain 26 uppercase letters, 26 lowercase letters, 10
numbers and around 36 other characters. Therefore, 7 bits would give 128 different
combinations which can represent a total of 128 different characters.

A character set is a defined set of letters, symbols and digits that can be represented by a
computer. There are two major character sets:
 ASCII  UNICODE

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

ASCII has become the standard code, used worldwide. It was originally developed in the
1960’s for representing the English alphabet. It encodes 128 characters into 7-bit binary
codes.
Character codes are commonly grouped and run-in sequence. Numerous different codes for
representing characters have been created, but ASCII is commonly used on PC’s. Now an
eighth bit used to allow many more characters such as ©, @ etc.
UNICODE (Universal Character Encoding Standard)
To represent other characters for different languages, a new code is needed to allow for
many more characters. Unicode was developed to use 16 bits (65,536 combinations). There
was also a 32-bit version that gave 4,294,967,296 possible combinations.

Images
Digital images can be stored on a computer in many different file formats. But there are two
main categories of this:
Bitmap: BMP, JPG, GIF, PNG + TIF Vector: WMF, SVG + EPS
Bitmap
Bitmap images are made up of pixels (picture element). A pixel is
the smallest identifiable area of an image. Each pixel is a single colour
and is given a binary value which represents that colour. A pixel’s
colour can be changed by changing this value.
 Image resolution: Resolution is the concentration of pixels
within a specific area. The area is defined by the image width
and height in pixels. 72 PPI (Pixels Per Inch) = Typical screen
resolution
 Image Dimension: The area defined by the image width and
height in pixels. For example, an image that is 300 pixels wide
and 168 pixels high (300 * 168) contains 50,400 pixels.
 Image Metadata: Metadata is data about data, and it is
information other than the image data that is stored with a
file. This will include colour depth in bits per pixel, resolution,
date created and the author.
Colour & Bit Depth
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

When you increase the number of colours in an image, you need more bits per pixel. Each pixel can
represent a finite number of colours.
1 bit = 2 colours 3 bits = 8 colours 4 bits = 16 colours
2 bits = 4 colours
o A pixel is attributed a few n bits.
o The number of combinations (2n) dictates the bit depth and therefore the number of colours
that can be represented.
o A higher bit depth gives a greater range of colour and a better quality of image.

Each pixel has a proportion of red, green and blue. Colour values of individual pixels are expressed in
software as denary RGB values and in hexadecimal. RGB values range
between 0-255. The file size of the image is 200 bits
(10 wide * 10 high) * 2 bits.

Sound
Sound travels as waves, which are vibrating particles.
Analogue sounds signals are continuous however the
computer does not like this, so stores it as digital
sounds. Sounds must be converted into a digital form
to be stored and processed by the computer. Digital
is made up of discrete samples of numeric data.

Sound Sampling
A sound sample is a measurement of amplitude of a sound wave at a given time. Sounds is sampled
using a bit depth and a sample rate. Analogue sound passes through an ADC and sampled at regular
time intervals where the amplitude is measured. Each sample is stored as a binary number and
stored sequentially
 The bit depth determines how closely the wave is sampled on the y-axis. It is the number of
bits available for each sample.
 The sample rate is the number of samples taken per second.

The

samples can then be converted

to binary and recorded to the nearest whole number. 18 samples altogether, 6
samples per second, or 6 Hz
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Sample Resolution is the number of bits (audio bit depth) used to record each measurement. More
bits used er sample enables the height of the wave to be more accurately measured but increases
file size.
Sample Rate is usually measured in Hertz (Hz) and 1 Hz is equal to 1 sample per second. The
frequency or sample rate per second affects the level of detail in the digital representation. The
greater the frequency, the greater the accuracy.
Calculating sound file sizes = Sample rate * Bit depth * Duration
6 samples per second * 4-bit resolution * 3 seconds = 72 bits or 9 bytes

Compression
Compression is the name given to algorithms which reduce file sizes. Decompression is the opposite.
This is heavily used with sound, image and video files. Usually, it is used for when files when they are
sent via the internet to reduce download times and data allowances to go further. There are two
types of compression:

File Type of compression File

format usage
Images JPEG Lossy Photos
PNG Lossless Images/photos, may include transparency
Text ZIP Lossless Document compression
GIF Lossless Simple images, may include animation
MP4 Lossy Video file format
MP3 Lossy Music format
FLAC / ALAC Lossless Lossless Music format (Free / Apple)
 Lossy Compression: Lossy Compression permanently loses some data. It removes some data
from the file which limits the number of bits the file needs and so reduces the size of the file.
It results in small mistakes known as ‘digital artefacts’ appearing in images and videos.
 Lossless Compression: Lossless image compression will not lose any of the original data, only
temporarily. The algorithm finds groups of repeating data and records the data once along
with the number of repetitions. When it opens, it restores to its original state.

Buffering
Video or music streaming causes buffering if the download speed is slower than the
playback speed. Therefore, files for video and music streaming are compressed, however
the TV or computer needs to decompress the data as it is playing the video. Before the
video begins playing, it will buffer enough to allow for the network occasionally being slow.

Benefits of Compression
o Smaller files = Fewer packets = Faster transmission time
o Reduces download times of video, sound (including speech used for VOIP systems)
and image files.
o Images inside web pages appear faster.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

o Reduces space on disks/servers.

o Reduces data costs.

Primary Storage
There are many types of memory used in computers. In Von Neumann architecture, primary
storage is memory/storage that is directly accessible to the CPU. It stores programs that are
currently running and need to be accessed by the CPU. The two types of primary storage
are:
 RAM (Random Access Memory) – RAM is often referred to as main memory and the
name comes from the ability of the CPU to access any part of the memory in the
same amount of time.
A Level Definition: The hardware in a computing device where the operating system,
application programs and data in current use are kept so they can quickly reached
and used by the devices processor

It can be read from and written to and at any one time it will normally store: the
operating system, the software currently in use and the data which the software is
using.
The computer stores running programs and data in RAM when your computer is
turned on. When your computer is turned off, data stored in RAM is lost. So, we call
RAM volatile.
o When the computer is first turned on, no data is stored in RAM. However,
when you reach the maximum amount of memory and you need more, it
goes to virtual memory that is part of the hard drive used as an extension to
RAM.
o Advantage: uses cheap secondary storage on the hard drive, prevents error
messages as
 ROM (Read Only Memory) – Some data needs to permanently held in primary storage even
when the computer has no power. ROM holds this data.
o Read – only: Nothing can be written onto it.
o It is non-volatile so no data is lost if the power goes off.
What ROM holds:
o ROM stores the initial program that is run when the device is first turned on, known
as the bootstrap (tells where the operating system is on the hard drive).
o Also stores the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) which controls the basic technical
configuration of the computer such as the processor speed and system time.

Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is non-volatile memory external to the CPU and used for long-term
storage of programs and data. There are three main types of secondary storage:
 Magnetic: Mechanical parts move
over the disks surface to read and write
data magnetically, or a drive head reads a
magnetic tape.
 Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

The disk contains concentric circles called tracks; each is divided into a sector. Mechanical
arms read and write. Parts are magnetised differently; one level of magnetism will be 1 and
the second will be 0.

 Optical: Lasers read and write data using light.

A laser light creates marks (pits and lands) in a
pattern on the disk. A laser light detects where the
marks are and translates this into a readable format.
Data is stored as pits and lands burnt or pressed into
a spiral track circulating outwards from the centre.
A laser beam passes over the pits and lands the
level of reflection is measured. From this signal,
0s and 1s can be derived.

 Solid State: Data is recorded onto solid memory chips without any
moving parts. Solid-state disks use non-volatile flash memory to store
information. Very fast read/write speeds as it doesn’t need to wait for
a disk to spin to the correct location and an arm to move. No
mechanical or moving parts meaning these disks are very durable.

Flash memory is how data is stored in an SSD. It is non-volatile memory that can be read from and
written to. Large electric current used to force electrons through a barrier and trap them on the
other side. They remain on the other side until ‘flashed’ with a new current. Trapped (charged) or
not trapped = 0 or 1

Storage Characteristics
 Capacity: How much data can be stored – e.g., 700 MB, 50 GB or 2 TB
 Speed: The rate (usually in MB/s) at which data can be read or written
 Portability: how easy it is to carry – is the device small and portable?
 Durability: will the device break if dropped? How well does it work with extreme
temperatures or magnetic fields?
 Reliability: how likely is the data (or some of it) to be lost?
 Cost: what is the cost of a device? How much is it to store 1 MB of data.

Device Capacit Speed Portabilit Durabilit Reliabilit Cost

y y y y
Optical 3 3 2 2 3 2
Magneti 1 2 3 3 2 1
c
 Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Solid 2 1 1 1 1 3
State

Networks & Protocols

A network is a system that allows computer systems to communicate and share resources
with each other. There are two main types of networks: LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN
(Wide Area Network)
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Wide Area Network

A WAN is collection of
computers and networks
connected using
infrastructure from ‘third-
party carriers’ such as BT.
These networks span across a
large geographical area.
WANs are made up of loads
of LANs connected.
The internet is a WAN, it is a
collection of interconnected
networks that span the world. The internet itself is the hardware – the cables, wireless
connections and the routers that make it up. You can connect to the internet via an ISP
(Internet Service Provider) with an IP address and they provide a connection through a
router that connects to their network. They can also provide services such as email
addresses and web space.
Circuit and Packet Switching
When you make a phone call, a dedicated connection is made between the devices for the
duration of the call. This is circuit switching. It is good for telephone calls but not sending
data across the internet.
When you send things across the internet to someone else, this process is known as packet
switching. The file is broken up into ‘packets’ and in the header of each contains:
 IP address it is going to.  Error checking data
 IP address it has come from.
 Sequence number of
packet
 Number of packets in
communication

Each packet is then sent independently to its destination and via different networks on its
route. The router at each node decides the route a packet should take. Once at its
destination, the packets are reordered. Corrupt or missing files are re-sent. Breaking data
into smaller packets allow for a faster, efficient and secure transfer.
IPv4 and IPv6
An IP address is the unique identification number given to every device by the ISP that is connected
to the internet. It represents the unique location on which you are connected to the internet,
allowing devices all over the world to communicate with each other; basically, the set of rules
governing the format of data sent via the internet or local network.
An IPv4 address looks like - 65.123.217.14 – There 4.3 billion of them and there are four 8-bit fields
separated by full stops.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

An IPv6 address looks like - BC43:71A6:0000:044C:3879:0000:55FD:286B – eight 16 bit fields,

Alphanumeric values separated by colons. There are way more unique available addresses (340
trillion)

Domain Name System (DNS)

The DNS comprises of multiple domain name servers. A domain name is the address you type in the
web browser for a website. You can also use the URL (Uniform Resource Locator). To these, an IP
address is linked so people can access the pages using browser software.
When you type in www.google.com into a browser, the web page sends a request to the Domain
Name Server on the internet. This server has a database that matches the domain name to an IP
address so there can be a translation. If the IP address is found, it is passed back to the browser. If
not, it goes to multiple domain name servers until an error message is displayed. The web browser
sends a request directly to that IP address for the page/file the user wants.

Local Area Networks

A local area network is in a small geographical location such as a home, or school or hospital etc.
A topology is the way in which parts of a system are connected – layout. There are two types of
topologies used including:
 Star: In a star networks, computers and
nodes are all connected to a central switch.
There is a fast data transfer to the switch as
each wire is not shared with other
computers. If one cable fails, the other
computers are not affected. Any device can
be added to the network as it will not affect
the rest. There are less data collisions.
It requires additional hardware such as a
central switch and cables. If the central
switch fails, the whole network goes down.
 Mesh: In mesh networks, every device
connects directly to each other, instead of the
switch. Data can flow in any direction. Nodes act as routers for data in order to relay and
propagate (spread) data.
Partial Mesh: In a partial mesh network, each
node is connected to some but not all other
nodes. This is more practical for a wired network
rather than wireless.
Wireless mesh networks have enormous potential to
provide Wi-Fi solutions:
 Only one node needs a wired connection.
 The more nodes using it, the more routes for
data.
 A node within broadcast distance of three other
nodes, will have triple the bandwidth.
Advantages = no single point of failure, expansion and modification will not disturb the network and
data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Disadvantages = can involve redundant connections, expensive if wired connection, network

administration and maintenance is difficult
A virtual network is a network that can securely connect geographically unrelated computers via the
internet. They form their connections through the internet, so no physical connection however they
can share files and communicate.

Network Hardware
Network Interface Card (NIC) = A component in the computer that is required to connect to a
network. It can do both wired and wireless connections. It is hard-wired with a unique 'address',
called a Media Access Control address (or MAC address). No two MAC addresses are the same; thus,
networks can use them to uniquely identify the connected devices and use them to direct data to
the correct device.
The NIC is responsible for converting data on the computer into the format used by the network,
and vice versa. Each network has its own set of rules, called a network protocol, and it's the NIC's job
to ensure that the connected device follows these rules.
Router = The router selects paths for data packets to cross networks and reach destinations. It is
essentially responsible for the transmission of data between networks as it connects them together.
It receives packets from a network and
forwards them to other computers on the
network.
Switch = Switches connect each node in a
LAN. It learns the MAC address of each
individual device and it forwards inbound
packets only to the intended recipient, using the recipient’s MAC address and the port it is
connected to.
Wireless Access Point (WAP) = A wireless transmitter receives data via a physical connection, and
this converts it into radio waves that are then transmitted. Any wireless device receives this radio
signal through a Wi-Fi adapter which allows us to communicate or download data from the data
source.
Transmission Media = the way that communication is sent through the network. CAT 5e/6 are 4
twisted copper cables, the twist reduces internal interference. Coaxial are a single copper wire with
plastic around for insulation and shielding. Fibre-Optic cables are made of flexible glass where data is
transmitted as light. They don’t suffer interference and last distance without a loss of signal.

Wireless Technologies
Wi-Fi: Wireless connections use
radio waves to transmit data
through the air. Devices
communicate with a wireless
access point (WAP).
Bluetooth: Wireless method of
connecting devices together over a
short distance. Pairing Bluetooth
devices together mean making a
persistent link between two
devices.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Encryption
Encryption is the encoding of data so that it can no longer be easily understood. When using
websites such as shopping or banking, you want to keep your data safe. The encryption
method used is called SSL (Secure Socket Layer). A tiny padlock appears in your browser
window, and the website address starts with HTTPS:/
 Plaintext: the original message to be  Key: a sequence of numbers used to
encrypted encrypt or decrypt, often data using a
 Ciphertext: the encrypted message mathematical formula
 Encryption: the process of converting  Encryption algorithm: the formula for
plaintext into ciphertext encrypting the plaintext.
Symmetric encryption: A single key is used to encrypt and decrypt a message and must be given to the
recipient of your message to be able to decrypt the data.

Asymmetric encryption: Two keys are used – a public key to encrypt and a private key to decrypt data.
This is more secure as it means that you never have to send or reveal your decryption key.

Organisation of Networks
Client Server: A server is a powerful computer which
provides services and resources required by any of the
clients. A client is a computer which requests the services or
resources from the server.
Clients send requests to the server and the server
processes the request and responds.
Pros of Servers: easier to keep track of files as they are
centrally stored; easier to perform backups; easier to
manage network security; are reliable and always on,
easier to install software updates.
Cons of Servers: expensive to setup and needs IT specialists to maintain the network and servers;
server dependence; can be overloaded.
Peer-to-Peer Networks:
Here, there are no servers. All computers on a P2P can see files on all other
computers and they can communicate with each other without a server.
Pros of P2P: easier to setup as computers can be cabled together; no
need for dedicated server equipment; individual computers can share a
printer, router etc.
Cons of P2P: malware is more easily transferred as there is no central
firewall.; data recovery and backup is not done centrally, so each has to have its
own backup system; files are not centrally managed; if a computer is turned off,
data on there cannot be retrieved from other computers.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

The ‘Cloud’ is a term used to refer to multiple remote servers working together to create
one service. It is a location on the internet from which software applications are run and
where data is stored.
This enables users connected to any Internet-enabled computer can access these services.
Hosting = An organisation or business that stores web pages/databases/files on server on
the Internet so that websites can be accessed at all times by thousands of users
Some cloud computing
applications include iCloud,
Google Drive, OneDrive and
Dropbox. These applications
provide services including
email, file transfer, cloud
storage and software. Cloud
data is stored on cloud file
servers and a hosting
company is responsible for
storing data for thousands of Cloud Storage
people on these file servers.

Protocols and Layers

A protocol is a set of rules (standard) for how computers can transfer data. Therefore,
communication protocols are set rules of data for communicating electronically.
A standard is an agreed way of doing things. They ensure that hardware and software meet
minimum specifications and criteria.
Ethernet is a standard because it is used by nearly all manufacturers in many devices; this
allows compatibility with other devices; it has good bandwidth with inbuilt security. It is a
family of protocols to connect devices to form a local area network.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the protocol that is used to access and receive web
pages via the Internet. This protocol requests a web page from the web server to which
responds with the web page.
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 HTTPS (HTTP Secure) encrypts the information so that it cannot be eavesdropped

upon. Banks and shopping websites would use this type of protocol.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used for sending and retrieving files to or from a file server. A
client can upload a file/folder onto the file server and equally download contents from the
file onto their device.
How Emails Work:
When an email is sent, it will first send to a mail
server with SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) and continues to be forwarded onto
other SMTP servers until the destination mail
server where it is stored.
POP3 (Post-Office Protocol) will download
every new message to your local device and will then no longer be available on the server.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) will leave messages on the server. They can be
accessed by multiple devices and only removed if the user deletes them.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the protocol that deals with
packet switching and how packets are sent across the internet.
 TCP breaks up messages sent over the internet into small chunks (packets)
 Reassembles the packets in the destination.
 Detects errors and resends lost messages.
 IP routes the individual packets from one IP address to the next
A layer is a division of network functionality and splits processes up depending
upon their functions. There are multiple layers within the TCP/IP stack and this
means that everything is self-contained, thus programmers can concentrate on
particular parts of the network. Layers can also be taken out and edited without
affecting other layers therefore promoting interoperability between vendors and
systems.
Thus, one layer can be changed without affecting the others. There are 4 layers: Application
(HTTP/S, SMTP, FTP), Transport (TCP), Internet (IP), Link (MAC, Ethernet, Wi-Fi)
- Application: encodes data to allow communications between clients and servers
- Transport: Splits the encoded data into packets to allow them to be sent over a network
- Internet: Adds the IP address if the sender and recipient to each packet
- Link: Adds the MAC address of the sender and recipient and converts the data into electrical signals

Factors affecting networks:

 Bandwidth: this is the amount of data that can be transferred in a given time. The
greater the bandwidth, the better network performance. Bandwidth is shared
between the users of a network thus too many users result in congestion and a slow
network.
 Wired or Wireless: Wired connections are generally faster and more reliable than
wireless. Fibre optic are the best compared to coaxial. Wireless performance
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

depends upon the quality of signal – the range of the device, interference from other
devices and physical obstructions.
o Number of users o Type of media
o Interference o Wi-Fi Frequency
o Bandwidth
 Latency: Latency is the measure of how long it takes a message to travel between
devices across a network. Limited bandwidth affects this, as well as the type of
network.
 Error Rate: Less reliable connections increase the number of errors that occur when
data is transferred. This means the data has to be resent until it arrives correctly.

Network Security
There many different forms of attack and threats posed to a network. There are mainly
three categories of cyber security threats:
 Hacking  Social Engineering
 Malware

Malware
Malware refers to any software written with malicious intent. Malware is executable
programs that run on a computer. They could be used to disrupt computer users from their
work, corrupt files, gain unauthorised access to a computer program or files. Types of
malwares:
 Spyware  Adware
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

 Viruses  Trojans
 Ransomware
 Worms
 Virus
A virus attaches itself to existing software programs which will activate and infect
your computer when you run a program. They corrupt or delete data on a computer,
even delete everything on the hard disk. They can replicate and spread to others
connected to you via email, LAN connection, swapping removable disks and peer-to-
peer file sharing.
 Worms
A worm is a standalone file that does not need a host program to attach itself to. A
worm can replicate itself without any human interaction.
 Trojans
A trojan is a non-self-replicating virus that masquerades as a harmless file that
tempts you to open it.
 Ransomware
A ransomware holds a computer hostage by locking or encrypting access to it or files.
If the data is encrypted, not even a cyber security professional will be able to recover
the data unless backups are available. Once a ransom is paid to the attacker, access
is restored.
 Keylogging
Keylogging is a type of spyware that records the action of when keys are struck so
that the person using the keyboard is unaware that they are being tracked. This is to
attempt to gain fraudulent access to passwords and other confidential information.

Exploiting vulnerabilities
There are several ways in which hackers can exploit technical vulnerabilities, two of these
include:
 Unpatched software – if software updates and security updates are not installed
then the software will be vulnerable.
 Out-of-date anti-malware – if this isn’t updated regularly then it won’t be able to
detect the latest viruses.

Social Engineering
Social engineering is the ability to obtain confidential information by asking people for it
or influencing people.
A common form of social engineering takes place over the telephone – someone rings
up an employee of a company and pretends to be a network administrator usually. The
social engineer gains their trust and persuades them to disclose confidential
information.

Phishing
Phishing is when criminals send emails or texts claiming to be from a well-known
business. These emails contain links to spoof versions of websites. They require them to
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

update personal information. When they type this in, the criminal then has access to
their actual login details. You should look out for:
 Greeting: The phishers don’t know your name – just your email address, so the
greeting is not personalised
 The sender’s address is often a variation on a genuine address.
 Forged link: The link looks genuine, but it may not link to the website given. Roll
your mouse over it to check. Also, no http instead of https
 Request for personal information: Genuine organisations never do this.
 Sense of urgency: Criminals try to persuade you that something bad will happen
if you don’t act fast.
 Poor spelling and grammar

Denial of Service (DoS)

In a denial-of-service attack, a hacker will use or infect a computer so that: it sends as many
requests to the server as it can (known as a flood). The server cannot respond fast enough
so it slows down or goes off. Additionally, an attacker can send out millions of spam
messages to an email account and eventually their account will become full, preventing
legitimate emails from reaching the account.

Man in the Middle Attack

A man-in-the-middle attack (MITM) allows the attacker to intercept communications
between the user and server. The attacker can then ‘eavesdrop’ to find passwords and
personal information or add different information to a web page or other communications
such as an email.

Brute Force Attacks

A brute force attack is a type of active attack used to gain information by cracking passwords
through trial and error. Brute force attacks use automated software to produce hundreds of
likely password combinations.

SQL Injections
Networks which use databases are most vulnerable to this type of attack. SQL stands for
Structured Query Language, and it is one of the main coding languages used to access
information in databases. SQL injections are pieces of SQL typed into websites input box
which then reveal sensitive information.

Preventing Vulnerabilities
With all these attacks and security issues, people these days need to be able to protect and
prevent these from occurring. Some of the ways to look after your data is:
 Penetration Testing  Passwords
 Anti-Malware Software  Encryption
 Firewalls  Physical Security
 User Access Levels
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

 Penetration Testing – ‘Pen’ testing is the practice of deliberately trying to find

security holes in your own systems. The goal of this is to identify the targets of
potential attacks, identify possible entry points, attempt to break in and report back
the findings.
 Anti-Malware – Anti-malware software will detect and remove malware. It is sent to
the company who verify it and make a signature of the virus. It is added to the
database and computers are made to run an update:
o Perform a real-time scan of incoming traffic to detect whether they have
been infected with a virus.
o Performs periodic scans of the whole system looking for malicious
applications.
o If a virus or other malware is detected, it is quarantined. This prevents it
from running and allows users to clean or remove it.
 Firewalls – Firewalls are designed to prevent unauthorised access to a network and
attempts by malware to send data packets out of the network from infected
machines. A packet filtering firewall is a network security feature that controls the
flow of incoming and outgoing network data. The firewall examines each packet,
which comprises user data and control information and tests them according to a set
of pre-established rules. The criteria may include:
o The MAC address of the computer sending the data.
o The type of data being sent or received.
o The IP address filtered to prevent users and programs from accessing specific
internet sites.
 User Access Levels – User levels on a network are arranged in groups and each group
has different access rights to software, downloads and files that they can use.
 Passwords – Passwords are often checked as they are created to make sure that
they conform to the parameter given in a required policy. Parameters should include
length and a combination of characters to prevent a brute force attack.
 Encryption – Encryption is a way of securing data so that it cannot be read without
the encryption key. Passwords stored by websites are almost always stored in an
encrypted form. If a hacker obtains the data in the database, they won’t be able to
easily read the passwords.
o Transmitted data: Websites that use HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transfer
Protocol) encrypt the connection to the server. Your web browser sends its
key and form data, encrypting it with the server’s key. The server encrypts
the web page you request using your web browser’s key.
o Individual files: Files can be encrypted individually on a computer using a
password. They can then only be viewed by people who have the password.
Software such as zip files allow encryption to be applied.
o Drives: Ordinary computer drives can be encrypted so that a password is
needed to access the information. This prevents a hacker from understanding
the contents of the hard drive if it is removed and installed in a different
computer. For removable media, special hardware can be purchased which
encrypts data on the disk.
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

 Biometric Authentication – A security process that relies on the unique biological

characteristics of an individual to verify that they are who they say they are. Scans
are compared to the scans held in the database.
 Two Factor Authentication – Electronic authentication method in which a user is
granted access to a website or application only after successfully presenting two
pieces of evidence. Two pieces of evidence may include a username/password and a
randomly generated passcode that has a limited life span.
 Physical Security – Physical security is about protecting hardware, software,
networks and data from physical actions. Physical security methods include:
o CCTV o Security guards
o Intruder alarms o ID cards and signs
o Locks on doors o Turnstiles and gates
o Fences, walls, barbed wire

System Software

System Software is the software that provides

a platform for other software to work.
There are many different types of Operating
Systems including: Microsoft Windows, macOS,
iOS, Chrome OS and Android etc.
Operation System is software that manages
computer hardware and software. It supplies
an interface for the user and important utilities for managing the computer.
The OS loads to the computer when it is first switched on, it is the first action of the
computer. The ROM BIOS (Basic Input Output System) stores these instructions and remain
on there. Whenever electricity is turned on, the BIOS instructions get copied to RAM and
executed. They control the peripherals and look in the Hard Disk for the operating system.
When the OS is loaded, it is ready for use.

A user interface is a program that looks a user to interact with a computer. There are many
types including:
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): GUI uses a term called WIMP which shows how we
can interact the computer. WIMP stands for Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers. It the
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

easiest one to use and looks most pleasing to the eye; but requires a lot of
processing to be shown.
 Menu-Driven Interface: Menu-driven interfaces are often used by devices that have
a dedicated function including MP3 players, ATM machines and Self-Service
checkouts.
 Command Line Interface (CLI): Text commands are entered into the computer. This
requires very little processing and can save on the need for an expensive graphics
card, yet they are extremely powerful. For expert users, who know the commands it
can be far faster to enter commands than using a mouse. A command line interface
requires much less hard disk storage space. It will also require less RAM.
 Voice Activated: Speech recognition technology that allows people to interact with a
computer through voice commands. (Apple’s Siri, Amazon’s Alexa and Microsoft’s
Cortana)
 Real-Time: Sensors detect inputs, actuators output actions.

Memory Management
To run a program, the computer must copy the program from storage into main memory.
Data used by the program is copied into main memory. The operating system keeps a record
of where each program and its data are located. The operating system will make sure not to
overwrite existing programs and data.

Multi-Tasking
Multi-tasking is where an operating system manages many tasks happening at the same
time. This may be having a web browser open whilst playing music and messaging friends.
Many other background processes are also running. The operating system decides which
process will run next on the CPU and for how long.

Peripheral Management
Peripheral hardware is any hardware device that is not inside the computers main body.
This will include any input/output device as well as storage devices. But for each to work a
device drive must be installed. It is a small program that controls peripheral devices such as
printers, mice and displays. Each device communicates with the OS via its own drive.

Interrupts
An interrupt are signals sent to the CPU by external devices to indicate an event that needs
immediate attention. It requires the operating system to stop and figure out what to do
next. It temporarily stops a service or current process.
 Hardware interrupts are generated by hardware devices: printer out of paper.
 Software interrupts are generated by programs: divide-by-zero error.

Sending Data to a printer

Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

The computer can send data to a printer much faster than it can be printed. The data will be sent to
a print queue or buffer which is a special area of memory in a computer print server.
 Any data in the print queue is transmitted to the printer, typically a page at a time.
 The printer will send its status back to the operating system which reports any errors it the
user. For example, the operating system may display an “out of paper” error message.

Disk and File Management

The hard disk in a computer is a storage peripheral. The operating system manages where
on the disk files are written, keeps track of where they are so they can be retrieved and
makes sure no file overwrites another file. File management is carried out by the operating
system. The following features are available:
 Naming files  Saving files
 Allocating files to folders  Copying files
 Moving files  Deleting files

User Management and Security

The operating system is responsible for user logins and passwords. It will store all users and
their passwords in a file or database. It ensures that the person using it, is actually the
owner of the device. When logged in, it can also give user access levels that will allow you to
restrict things for particular people on a network for example.

Access Rights
If a computer is used by more than one person, each user should be able to see only their
own files. Users and system administrators have different levels of access rights, and some
users may be allowed to read files but not edit them.
Utility software helps to keep the computer working well. Utility programs perform extra
functionality and housekeeping tasks that keep the computer running efficiently. Some
tanks performed by utility programs:
 Disk Defragmentation = reduce the
amount of fragmentation in file
systems (magnetic storage)
 Disk Clean-Up = deleting unwanted
files
 Encryption = Disguises the contents of
files so it can only be understood by
the authorised users
 File Management = searching, opening, renaming, deleting and grouping
 Compression = unused files can be compressed, stored and easily extracted when
required.
 Disk Management = manage various drives such as hard drives, optical drives and
flash drives
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

 Anti-Virus and Firewall = prevent harmful programs and files from entering the
system
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

 Backups = sometimes files might be accidentally or intentionally overwritten or

deleted. To prevent loss, regular copies of the data should be made known as a
backup. They contain a copy of all files on a computer or just specified ones. Backups
are usually made to high-capacity secondary storage or the cloud. Data is able to be
retrieved from the backup. There are two types of backups: full or incremental. Full
includes making a copy of every file on the computer or network. This requires a lot
of storage space and is incredibly time consuming. Incremental take a copy of any
new files created since the most recent backup or of any changes made to other
ones. Most network managers make an initial full backup and then switch to daily
incremental backups. This way all data is backed up and daily backups are small and
less time-consuming.

Impacts of Technology
With technology, there is often a huge impact upon society as they are developed very
quickly. These include:
 Ethical: refer to issues that are morally right or wrong
 Legal: refer to issues that are illegal or against the law
 Cultural: refers to issues that impact ideas, behaviours, beliefs and values of groups
of people
 Environmental: refer to issues that have an impact on the environment
 Privacy: refer to issues about our personal details and details of our activity
Ethical Issues Privacy Plagiarism Fake News
Censorship Net Neutrality Netiquette
Internet of Things Social Media Trolling/Bullying
Job loses De-skilling
Legal Issues Copyright designs Data Protection Computer Misuse
and Patent Act Act/GDPR Act
Software
Cultural Issues Digital Divide Remote working Education
Social Divide Health and Work life balance
Consumers Wellbeing Globalisation
Social Interaction
Environmental E-waste Energy Carbon dioxide
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Issues Landfill Toxic materials (production)

Precious metals Planned Batteries (lead and
obsolescence lithium)
Privacy Issues Online activity Cookies Face recognition
Location services Government Purchase history
(GPS data) intelligence agencies

A stakeholder is anyone who is affected by the actions, objectives or policies of an

organisation.

Legal Issues with Technology

Data Protection Act – 2018: This act was made in order to ensure users data was protected
by organisations. The principles of the act include:
 Fair, lawful and transparent processing: peoples personal data must be processed
lawfully and fairly for the purpose it was originally acquired for and with their
consent. People must know what their data is being used for and how this is
protected.
 Purpose limitation: the data must only be used for legitimate, specified and explicit
reasons.
 Data minimisation: has to be relevant and not excessive amount of personal data, it
also should not be held for longer than it needs to be.
 Accuracy: has to be accurate and up to date data
 Data retention periods: data must not be kept for longer than necessary periods and
if someone asks for it to be erased, it has to be securely deleted.
 Data security: all data has to be kept safe from unauthorised access and unlawful
processing.
 Accountability: data controllers have to be able to prove that their protection
methods are sufficient.
Computer Misuse Act – 1990: This has principles designed to prevent unauthorised access
of programs or data. Some of the offences include:
 Unauthorised access to computer material
 Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate a crime.
 Unauthorised modification of computer material
 Making, supplying or obtaining anything which can be used in computer misuse
offences.
The Copyright Designs and Patents Act – 1988: This act protects the creators of many
materials including books, music, videos and software from having their work illegally
copied. It is illegal to use, copy or distribute commercially available software without buying
the appropriate licenses.
 Copyright protects a creation or an implementation.
 Patents protects an idea/invention.
Software Licences:
Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

A software license is a license agreement giving permission to an individual or an

organisation to use a piece of software.
 Open-Source Software: software that is licensed for use but there is no charge for
that license, anyone is able to use it. There is no copyright. It has to be distributed
with the source code so anyone may modify it. Developers can sell the software they
have created. The software can have many authors enabling programmers to
contribute to its development over time. A modified version is known as a derivative.
These must also be made freely available for anyone else to use or adapt. The
disadvantages of it includes that there is no guarantee that it will work properly since
it is not a requirement to ensure it is bug free.
Freeware: known as free software which may be free to use but no source code is given and
has restrictions.
 Proprietary Software: software that is copyrighting and can only be obtained through
paying for a licence. It is always bug free and help can always be sought from the
organisation who have made it. There are extra facilities often available. Only the
executable program is distributed, not the source code – so that somebody cannot
steal it, they can only use it for the function it was made. Disadvantages include that
there will either be an initial or subscription cost; software cannot be adapted to
meet the user’s needs.
 Creative Commons Licensing: a type of copyright licensing that allows free sharing
and distribution of a product. These licences allow copyright owners to share their
work while keeping the copyright. They can say exactly what others are able to do
with it.

Cultural Issues with Technology

Cultural issues deal with the change of behaviour for a group of people or in general society.
The main cultural issues involves:
 Digital Divide: This is the division that exists between those who can use technology
comfortably and those not so much.
Younger generations find it easier to adjust, with older generations feeling excluded
due to a lack of understanding, such as use of social media websites.
This extends to those who are unable to afford technology which makes modern day
life much more difficult for them. Also depends upon where you live and the
broadband that it available to you.
Many employers now require employees who have a good IT skill set rather than
those without, meaning they have less of a chance to be employed.

 Changing nature of employment: Since the pandemic, many companies have

allowed their employees to work from home and communication with them would
occur through the technology. They would usually use cloud storage and
applications. Technology has also meant many jobs have been replaced with
automations but new jobs to deal with this technology has arisen.

Ethical Issues with Technology

Matilda Baines GCSE Computer Science Year 11

Ethics are moral principles or rules that govern a person’s behaviour or attitude. These apply
to the use of computers as well as other things. The main ethical issues include:
 Ensuring Public Safety: As new technologies are constantly arising to the shops,
keeping public safety is of paramount importance. Driverless cars are an example of
this.
The designers not only have to be concerned with the drivers and passengers safety,
but those of other drivers and pedestrians. Ethics applies here on when the software
has to make a priority of who to ensure the safety of.
 Data Security: Personal data is very precious to the person and has to be kept safe.
Many people try to hack accounts such as social media to obtain this. Some even use
malware such as ransomware where people are forced to hand it over otherwise,
they are denied access to their device. The data is all encrypted and will not be
released until a ransom is paid.