D

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

A TECHNINCAL REPORT ON THE STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

UNDERTAKEN
AT
TENCHARIS GLOBAL

BY

VROMOJO, OGAGAOGHENE DANIEL

U2020/5545089

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR DEGREE IN PLANT SCIENCE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY.

COURSE CODE: PSB 309.2

COURSE TITLE: STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
(SIWES)
COURSE COORDINATOR: DR. JOSEPHINE OGUGBUA
DR. CHIKA WAHUA
DR. PETER EREMENA

JANUARY, 2025.

i
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this report totally to God Almighty for His grace and strengthening in the course of

my industrial training.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I deeply acknowledge my supervisor for his guidance and instruction towards the success of

this report.

I acknowledge my parents and my siblings for being a source of encouragement throughout the

period of my Industrial Training.

A big thank you to Tencharis Global.

To my friends, thanks for your support.

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 ABSTRACT
SIWES, the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme, is a Nigerian program established in
1973 to address the gap between theoretical learning and practical industry experience for
tertiary institution students. It mandates students to undergo a period of hands-on training in
industries related to their fields of study. The program's primary objectives include providing
practical exposure, developing industry-specific skills, fostering collaboration between
academia and industry, enhancing employability, facilitating professional networking, offering
career guidance, and ensuring education aligns with industry standards. Haven carried out my
Industrial Training at Tencharis Global, this report captures the activities I have been furnished
and exposed to in different units such as Biogas production, Mushroom Production,
Bioremediation, Charcoal Briquette, Phytochemistry and Hydroponics. Several
recommendations, appraisal and advices have been captured in this report to improve and better
the SIWES programme.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of Contents v

List of Tables vii

List of Plates viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historical Background of SIWES 1

1.2 Objective of SIWES 2

1.3 Relevance of SIWES 2

1.4 History of Tencharis Global 3

1.5 Vision and Mission Statement of Tencharis Global 3

1.6 Organizational Chart of Tencharis Global 3

1.7 Various Departments in Tencharis Global 4

1.8 Functions of various Departments in Tencharis Global 4

CHAPTER TWO: ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT

2.1 Orientation 6

2.2 Safety Precautions 6

2.3 Biogas Production 7

2.4 Hydroponics 17

2.5 Mushroom Production 18

2.6 Charcoal Briquette 23

2.7 Phytochemistry 27

v
CHAPTER THREE: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

3.1 Challenges Encountered 31

3.2 Relevance of the SIWES programme 31

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND GENERAL APPRAISAL OF THE PROGRAMME

4.1 Ways of improving the programme 32

4.2 Advice for the future participants 33

4.3 Advice for the SIWES managers 33

4.4 Conclusion 33

REFERENCES 34

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historical Background of SIWES

SIWES was founded in 1973 by ITF (Industrial Training Funds) to address the problem of

tertiary institution graduates' lack of appropriate skills for employment in Nigerian industries.

The Students' Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was founded to be a skill training

programme to help expose and prepare students of universities, Polytechnics and colleges of

education for the industrial work situation to be met after graduation.

This system facilitates the transfer from the classroom to the workplace and aids in the

application of knowledge. The program allows students to become acquainted with and

exposed to the experience required in handling and operating equipment and machinery that

are typically not available at their schools.

Prior to the establishment of this scheme, there was a rising concern and trend among

industrialists that graduates from higher education institutions lacked appropriate practical

experience for employment. Students who entered Nigerian universities to study science and

technology were not previously trained in the practical aspects of their chosen fields. As a result

of their lack of work experience, they had difficulty finding work.

As a result, employers believed that theoretical education in higher education was unresponsive

to the needs of labour employers. Thousands of Nigerians faced this difficulty till 1973. The

fund's main motivation for establishing and designing the scheme in 1973/74 was launched

against this context.

The ITF (Industrial Training Fund) organization decided to aid all interested Nigerian students

and created the SIWES program. The federal government officially approved and presented it

in 1974. During its early years, the scheme was entirely supported by the ITF, but as the

financial commitment became too much for the fund, it withdrew in 1978. The National

1
Universities Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)

were given control of the scheme by the federal government in 1979. The federal government

handed over supervision and implementation of the scheme to ITF in November 1984. It was

taken over by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in July 1985, with the federal government

bearing entire responsibility for funding.

1.2 Objectives of SIWES

Specifically, the objectives of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) are
to:

1. Provide avenue for Students in Institutions of higher Learning to acquire industrial skills

and experience in their course of study.

2. Prepare Students for the industrial work situation they are to meet after graduation.

3. Expose Students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery

that may not be available in their Institutions.

4. Make the transition from school to the world of work easier, and enhance Students contacts

for later job placement.

5. Provide Students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work situation

thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice.

6. Enlist and strengthen Employers involvement in the entire educational process and prepare

Students for employment after graduation.

1.3 Relevance of SIWES

1. It provides a great opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge to practical problems.

2. Helps to learn the importance of teamwork, communication, and problem-solving skills.

3. Understand the industrial environment and to become familiar with the processes and

procedures used in the industry.

4. Helps students to develop their professional skills and to learn how to work in a team

environment.

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1.4 History of Firm (Tencharis Global)

Tencharis I.T world is a subsidiary of Tencharis global solely owned by Dr. Stella Nwigbo.

The birth of Tencharis global came as a result of the quest for technology advancement and

solving unemployment problems in Africa. In addition, seeing students come out of school and

joining the long queue of unemployed graduates, the founder decided to partner with NYSC to

train corps members on various trending technology as a means of alleviating poverty and

building entrepreneurs. In addition, students in the university finds it difficult to get a space for

industrial attachment as a result, end up roaming the street or being attached to an area not

relevant to their course of their study thereby giving birth to half-baked graduates which has

become a problem in our society: Tencharis IT world decided to accommodate them and

provide the requisite skill and knowledge to bridge the gap between the industry and the

academic environment.

1.5 Vision of Mission Statement of the Firm

Tencharis I.T world is set out to build human capacity by equipping Africans with requisite

skills to meet up the global standard.

1.6 Organizational Chart of the Firm (Tencharis Global)

Plate 1: Organizational Chart/Organogram

3
1.7 Various Departments in the Firm (Tencharis Global)

Tencharis global consists of many departments which includes;

❖ Biogas

❖ Hydroponics

❖ Organic Farming

❖ Charcoal Briquette

❖ Mushroom Production

❖ Bioremediation

1.8 Functions of Various Departments in the Firm (Tencharis Global)

1. Biogas Unit

A biogas unit is a facility that produces biogas through the anaerobic digestion of organic

materials like animal waste, agricultural residues, food waste, and sewage. It utilizes a

controlled environment where microorganisms break down these organic materials in the

absence of oxygen, producing biogas—a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas

can be used as a renewable energy source for cooking, heating, electricity generation, and

even as a fuel for vehicles.

2. Hydroponic Unit

Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil, where plants are cultivated in a

nutrient-rich water solution. A hydroponic unit typically consists of a controlled

environment where plants' roots are submerged in or intermittently sprayed with the

nutrient solution. This method allows for more efficient water usage, controlled nutrient

delivery, and faster plant growth. Hydroponic systems are commonly used in agriculture

for growing vegetables, fruits, and herbs in both small-scale and large-scale setups.

4
3. Charcoal Briquettes Unit

Charcoal briquettes are compacted blocks made primarily from charcoal dust or fines,

combined with various binding agents and often other ingredients. They're commonly used

as a fuel source for grilling, barbecuing, and outdoor cooking.

4. Organic Farming

Organic farming is an agricultural approach that relies on natural methods and prohibits the

use of synthetic chemicals, pesticides, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and

artificial fertilizers. It emphasizes sustainable practices, crop rotation, natural fertilizers

(like compost and manure), biological pest control, and maintaining soil health. Organic

farming aims to produce food in an environmentally friendly and sustainable manner while

promoting biodiversity and minimizing the impact on ecosystems.

5. Mushroom Production

Mushroom production involves the cultivation of various types of edible fungi for

consumption or commercial purposes. It typically includes creating a controlled

environment conducive to mushroom growth, providing the right substrate (such as

composted materials), humidity, temperature, and light conditions. Mushrooms are rich in

nutrients and can be grown for culinary purposes or for medicinal and industrial uses.

6. Phytochemistry

Phytochemistry is the branch of chemistry that focuses on the study of plant-based

chemicals, their properties, structures, and biological activities. It involves identifying,

isolating, and analyzing the chemical compounds present in plants. Phytochemicals often

have medicinal, nutritional, or therapeutic properties and play a significant role in

pharmaceuticals, herbal medicine, nutrition, and drug discovery.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT

Several activities were carried out in Tencharis Global in the course of my industrial training.

The Industrial Training at Tencharis Global started with an orientation on safety precautions,

rules and regulations by the industrial supervisors which must be strictly observed throughout

the duration of the training.

2.1 Orientation

The Industrial Supervisor emphasized so much on the essence of SIWES programme in

building up the social, and skill lives of the students. However, the students were encouraged

to be punctual and rule abiding as lateness was highly prohibited.

2.2 Safety Precautions

1. Ensure the feet are safeguarded during work by wearing safety boots.

2. Protect hands during practical tasks by wearing hand gloves; discard if torn or damaged.

3. Wear a laboratory coat to shield clothing and skin from infections or accidental spills.

4. Prohibit eating or drinking while engaged in any work within the unit.

5. Properly dispose of any broken glasses or equipment.

6. Wear nose masks in areas with unpleasant odors while working.

7. Avoid handling any machinery or equipment without the presence of a supervisor.

2.3 Biogas Production

The global energy demand is growing rapidly, and about 88% of this demand is met at present

time by fossil fuels. Scenarios have shown that the energy demand will increase during this

century by a factor of two or three (IEA 2006). At the same time, concentrations of greenhouse

gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere are rising rapidly, with fossil fuel-derived CO2 emissions

being the most important contributor. In order to minimize related global warming and climate

change impacts, GHG emissions must be reduced to less than half of global emission levels of

6
1990 (IPCC 2000). Another important global challenge is the security of energy supply,

because most of the known conventional oil and gas reserves are concentrated in politically

unstable regions. In this context, biogas from wastes, residues, and energy crops will play a

vital role in future. Biogas is a versatile renewable energy source, which can be used for

replacement of fossil fuels in power and heat production, and it can be used also as gaseous

vehicle fuel. Methane-rich biogas (biomethane) can replace also natural gas as a feedstock for

producing chemicals and materials. The production of biogas through anaerobic digestion

offers significant advantages over other forms of bioenergy production. It has been evaluated

as one of the most energy-efficient and environmentally beneficial technology for bioenergy

production (Fehrenbach et al. 2008).

Biogas is the anaerobic production of renewable gas generated when micro-organisms degrade

organic materials in natural or controlled condition. This process, known as anaerobic

digestion, occurs in a controlled environment and relies on microorganisms to break down

organic materials like agricultural waste, animal manure, sewage, or food waste. As these

materials decompose, they release biogas—a mixture primarily composed of methane and

carbon dioxide.

2.3.1 The Process and mechanism of Biogas Formation

For biogas to form, different microbes with differing environmental requirements are active in

four consecutive stages;

1. Hydrolysis: Microorganisms excrete enzymes to break down organic matter like

carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acid into the smaller units such as glucose, glycerol,

purines and pyridines.

2. Acidogenesis: Fermentative bacteria process products of hydrolysis into acetate,

carbon dioxide, hydrogen and volatile fatty acids.

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 3. Acetogenesis: Volatile fatty acids and alcohols are oxidized into acetate, hydron,

carbon dioxide before conversion into methane. This process is closely interlinked with

methanogenesis.

4. Methanogenesis: Specialized single celled microorganisms (archaea) produce methane

from acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This is the slowest step in process and

severely influenced by the operation conditions like feedstock, feeding rate,

temperature and pH.

2.3.2 Steps involved in setting up a Biogas Plant

1. Construction of a Biodigester: The type of Biodigester constructed was a Floating

Digester.

a. Preparation of the Containers: Three plastic (HDPE) 30- 50-gallon containers

are needed for the setup of a biogas plant. The one with the removable lid will be

used as the biodigester itself. So, it needs a feed pipe, a gas outlet, a drain, and an

overflow provision.

b. Addition of Feed tube to the Digester: Measured and drilled the lid to fit a PVC

tube, ensuring it's submerged but doesn't reach the bottom. A coupler, threaded

adapter, PVC cement, and clear silicone was used to secure a sealed fit. A threaded

plug allows easy filling and access.

c. Add the Drain Valve/Overflow tube: The overflow tube goes toward the top

using 3/4-inch PVC pipe and fittings. To keep the digester sealed, a valve is added.

d. Add Biogas Outlet

e. Build the Gas Collector

f. Add the Biogas inlet to the Collector

g. Connect the Digester to the Collector and Feed the Digester

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2. Pre-treatment and Filling the Digester

Multiple types of organic matter, called substrates, go into the digester. Some substrates

can be liquid manure, renewable raw materials (such as corn or grass), or waste

produced by the food industry. Some of them may need to be stored in cement

containers and pre-treated before entering the air-tight tank. One plant can include

several digesters, depending on its size.

3. The Fermentation Process: The substrates are heated to various temperatures inside

the fermenter, and a series of microorganisms start breaking down the organic matter

in the absence of light and oxygen. During the process, the organic matter is shifted to

prevent layers from forming at the top and bottom of the tank.

4. Producing biogas: As a result of the fermentation, biogas with methane as the main

ingredient is produced inside the fermenters. At this stage of the process, the gas

includes, besides methane and carbon dioxide, water and hydrogen sulfide—which is

one of the main reasons containers should be made in steel, known to withstand the

effects of the gas for long periods.

5. Pulling out the residues: After fermentation, the residues called digestate are pulled

out of the tank to be used as environment-friendly, high-quality fertilizer. This way,

the biogas production process becomes a zero-waste system of eliminating garbage

from landfills while providing a solution for better crops at the same time.

6. Eliminating impurities: The biogas goes through a cleanup process, in which water,

hydrogen sulfide, and impurities are removed to produce biomethane that can further

be used to generate energy and heat. The biogas is permanently monitored to ensure

the quality of the final product.

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 2.3.3 Operational Parameters for Biogas Production

The production of biogas is factored by operational parameters. Some parameters that affect

the production of biogas include temperature, pH, pre-treatment, particle size, agitation, rate of

organic load, retention time etc. Any rapid change in these parameters can adversely affect the

production of biogas.

1. Temperature: The biogas production process is highly influenced by the temperature inside

the digester. The process can be operated under three temperature ranges:

a. Thermophilic (40°-70°C)

b. Mesophilic (25°-40°C)

c. Psychrophilic (below 25°C). Rise in temperature aids increased gas production but results in

lesser methane content and increased percentage of CO2 leading to lower heating value of

biogas. Hence, the optimum temperature was found to be 32°-35°C for efficient and continuous

biogas production.

2. pH: pH plays a pivotal role in the operation as the pH changes at different stages of the

anaerobic digestion. pH and temperature are interdependent. The optimum pH which helps to

enhance biogas yield lies between 6.5-7.2.

3. Feedstock: All the biodegradable waste containing carbohydrates, fats, proteins, cellulose and

hemicelluloses can be used as feedstock in bio-digesters (Weiland, 2010). Table 1 shows the

theoretical COD and the potential biogas yield from different types of nutrients in the

substrates. The productivity differs due to varied biochemical structure and rate of its

biodegradability.

4. Particle Size: Solid content is the total amount of fermentable substrate present in a unit

volume of slurry. Higher level of dry solids especially lignocellulosic content affects the

hydrolysis process.

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5. Organic Loading Rate (OLR): The amount of organic matter subjected to the digester volume

with respect to time or the biological conversion capacity of the substrate is termed as organic

loading rate (OLR). The gas production is mainly influenced by the OLR. The OLR is directly

proportional to the number of volatile solids to be loaded in the digester which also influences

the biogas yield. Lesser the OLR, higher the methane produced.

6. Water Content: Water is the vital element for micro-organisms’ life and their activity. The

movement of bacteria and activity of extra cellular enzyme etc are highly determined by the

water content in the digester. Optimum moisture content has to be maintained in the digester

and the water content should be kept in the range of 60 -95%.

Table 2.1: Mixing ratio of different biomass

Biomass Mixing Ratio (waste: water)

Fresh Cattle dung 1:1

Semi-dry cattle dung 1:2
Dry cattle dung 1:2-3
Pig dung 1:2-3
Poultry Dropping 1:2-3
Kitchen Waste 1:1
Dry Saw dust 1:2
Maize Straw 1:1

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2.3.4 Summary of Activities in Biogas Unit

Plate 2: Biodigester with Cow Dung as biomass

2.4 Hydroponics System of Farming

Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil, where the roots are submerged in a
nutrient-rich water solution. Instead of soil, plants receive all the necessary nutrients directly
through water. It can be done in various setups, such as using water-based solutions, inert
mediums like perlite or gravel, or even through aeroponics (where the roots are suspended in
air and sprayed with a nutrient mist). This method allows for precise control over the plant's
environment, nutrient intake, and growth conditions, often resulting in faster growth rates and
higher yields compared to traditional soil-based cultivation.

2.4.1 Types of Hydroponics System of Farming

1. Deep Water Culture (DWC): In this method, plants are suspended in a nutrient

solution with their roots directly immersed. An air pump provides oxygen to the roots,

and the plants typically float on a Styrofoam platform, allowing the roots to access the

nutrient-rich water.

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 2. Nutrient Film Technique (NFT): NFT systems involve a continuous flow of nutrient

solution that runs through narrow channels, exposing the roots to the solution while

allowing them to access oxygen. The excess solution is then collected and recycled,

reducing waste.

3. Ebb and Flow (or Flood and Drain): This system operates by periodically flooding

the plant containers with a nutrient solution and then allowing it to drain away. It uses

a pump and a timer to control the flooding cycles, ensuring the roots receive both

nutrients and oxygen.

4. Aeroponics: Here, plant roots are suspended in the air within a chamber or container.

Nutrient solution is misted directly onto the roots, providing both nutrients and oxygen.

This method is known for maximizing oxygen exposure to the roots, promoting rapid

growth.

5. Wick System: Considered one of the simplest hydroponic systems, the wick system

uses a wick (such as cotton or felt) to passively transport the nutrient solution from a

reservoir to the plant roots. It's a low-maintenance option but may not be suitable for

larger or more demanding plants.

6. Drip System: Drip systems involve dripping a nutrient solution directly onto the base

of each plant through a network of tubes or pipes. This method provides precise control

over nutrient delivery and is commonly used in commercial hydroponic setups.

2.4.2 How to setup Hydroponics System for Onions (Allium Cepa).

2.4.2.1 Materials Needed:

• Container: Choose a container suitable for the number of onions you plan to grow. It

could be a shallow tray or a series of containers.

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 • Growing Medium: Consider using perlite, vermiculite, or rockwool cubes to support

the spring onion roots.

• Nutrient Solution: Get a hydroponic nutrient solution suitable for leafy greens or

general vegetables.

• pH Tester and Adjusters: Ensure the pH of your nutrient solution remains between

5.5 and 6.5, as spring onions prefer slightly acidic conditions.

• Seeds or Seedlings: Obtain spring onion seeds or seedlings to start your crop.

• Net cups

• Fertilizer

2.4.2.2 Steps to Set Up

• Selecting the hydroponic method for growing onions involves considering options like
Deep Water Culture (DWC), Nutrient Film Technique (NFT), or Ebb and Flow
systems. Factors such as available space, budget, and desired production scale should
guide your choice.
• Assemble the necessary materials: A reservoir or container is needed for the nutrient
solution, a suitable growing medium like perlite, coconut coir, or rockwool, a
submersible pump (if applicable), PVC pipes or tubing for nutrient delivery, and a
nutrient solution appropriate for onion cultivation.
• Prepare the setup by arranging the growing trays or containers where the onions will
thrive, ensuring sufficient space between plants. Ensure the containers are robust
enough to support the growing medium and onion plants. Prepare the nutrient solution
according to the instructions, aiming for a pH level around 6.0-6.5 for optimal growth.
• Plant your onion seedlings into the chosen growing medium, such as rockwool cubes,
ensuring appropriate spacing between plants for bulb development.
• Assemble the system by setting up the tubing or channels for nutrient delivery to each
onion plant. Install a pump if necessary to circulate the nutrient solution.
• Fill the reservoir with the prepared nutrient solution and closely monitor its flow to
guarantee all onion plants receive adequate nutrients.

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 • Ensure regular maintenance by monitoring and adjusting pH and EC levels within the
optimal range. Regularly check and replenish nutrient solution levels and promptly
address any pest or disease issues.
• If growing onions indoors, ensure they receive adequate light, especially during the
vegetative growth stage, by providing around 12-16 hours of light per day using grow
lights.
• Harvest onions when the tops begin to yellow and fall over, gently lifting them from
the growing medium.

2.4.3 Importance of Hydroponics System of Farming

1. Water Efficiency: Hydroponic systems use significantly less water compared to

traditional soil-based farming. The closed-loop systems recirculate water, minimizing

wastage and making it an efficient choice, especially in regions facing water scarcity.

2. Space Utilization: Hydroponics allows for vertical farming and can be set up indoors

or in urban areas where space is limited. This vertical growth maximizes the use of

available space, making it possible to grow more plants in a smaller area.

3. Year-Round Growth: With controlled environments, hydroponics enables year-round

cultivation regardless of external weather conditions. This continuous production can

provide consistent access to fresh produce, reducing dependence on seasonal

availability.

4. Nutrient Control: It allows precise control over nutrient composition, pH levels, and

other environmental factors. This control leads to healthier plants, optimized growth,

and can even enhance the nutritional value of crops.

5. Higher Yields: Plants grown in hydroponic systems often experience faster growth

rates and higher yields compared to traditional farming. The optimized conditions and

direct access to nutrients promote healthier and more productive plants.

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2.4.4 Disadvantages of Hydroponics System of Farming

1. Initial Setup Costs: Setting up a hydroponic system can be more expensive compared

to traditional soil-based farming. Costs include equipment (pumps, grow lights,

reservoirs), nutrient solutions, and ongoing maintenance expenses.

2. Technical Expertise: Successful hydroponic farming requires some knowledge of the

system's mechanics, nutrient solutions, pH levels, and environmental controls. It might

have a learning curve for beginners or those unfamiliar with the intricacies of

hydroponic farming.

3. Risk of System Failures: If the system encounters a malfunction or a power outage,

plants can quickly suffer without access to water and nutrients. This dependency on

technology and consistent power sources can pose a risk.

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2.4.5 Summary of Activities in Hydroponics Unit

Plate 3: Growing Media Plate 4: Beans Seedling soaked for 24 hours

Plate 5: A complete Hydroponics System

17
2.5 Mushroom Production Unit

Mushroom is defined as a micro-fungus that can grow on the surface of the soil, under the soil,

on decayed wood and on composted materials. Mushroom grows at a pH of 5 – 6.

Mushroom (White oyster)

Kingdom - fungi

Division - Basidiomycota

Class - Agarimycotes

Order - Agaricales

Family - Pleurotaceae

Genus- Pleurotus

Species - ostreatus

Edible mushroom- Pleurotus spp, Bisporus spp, Agaricus spp

Medicinal mushroom- Gandoderum spp, Lucidium spp, letriulaedodes spp

Poisonous mushroom – Amarita museria, Amarita phalloides

2.5.1 Techniques/Processes involved in Mushroom (Oyster) Production

1. Spawn Production: Spawn production is a critical step as it ensures the availability of a

healthy and vigorous mycelial culture that can be used to inoculate larger batches of substrate

for commercial mushroom cultivation. It's essential to maintain sterile conditions during spawn

production to avoid contamination and ensure successful mushroom cultivation.

Methods of Spawn Production

a. Tissue Culture

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 b. Replication/Multiplication Method

a. Tissue Culture: Tissue Culture is the original source of spawn production, the first

method of spawn production.

Steps involved in Tissue Culture

1. Prepare a PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) medium

2. Peel and weigh 200g of Irish potato

3. Add ½ litre of water at least and boil, when soft, filter it.

4. Add 20g of glucose – D or ordinary glucose into the water filtered from the potato.

5. Add 20g of Agar (powder form) then stir.

6. Sterilize for 15 – 20 minutes.

7. Allow it to cool by turning off the heat

8. Pour the PDA into a petri dish, when it is cold, it becomes solidified.

9. When it solidifies, cut the mushroom out, the very internal tissue of the matured

mushroom and drop on the solidified PDA (this is the tissue culture).

10. The tissue culture will give rise to the spawn and can be multiplied.

2. Grain Sterilization: Basically, guinea corn is used and this involves five steps in sterilizing

the grain, which includes;

• Washing: Wash the guinea corn for about 4 – 5 times, the floating seeds are not

good seeds or viable. Remove the floating seeds and throw them away.

• Parboiling: Pour water into a pot and boil the guinea corn until it is soft and filter

out the water.

• Air Drying: Dried the parboiled guinea corn

• Bottling: Put it in a transparent bottle and cover it with cotton wool and band it

with paper and rubber ring.

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 • Final Sterilization: For 1hr 30mins, put the bottle in a pressure pot or autoclave,

so the pressure and temperature can be regulated (temperature – 120oC).

3. Substrate Preparation: Sawdust is the most preferred substrate for growing oyster

mushroom. For every 93kg of sawdust, you add 7kg wheat bran, 400g of lime and 70 -80

litres of water. The wheat bran act as a fertilizer and helps to boast the growth of the

mushroom.

4. Inoculation: This is simply the planting of the seed or spawn or mycelium, on the sterilized

substrate. Before inoculation, the bag is sterilized using ethanol or methylated spirit,

sterilize for 3 – 4 hours before inoculation under heat in a dry pot.

5. Colonization: This is the gradual growth of the seed of spawn on the substrate. It keeps

growing until the whole substrate, become white. Colonization takes place within 3 – 4

weeks.

6. Fruiting and Harvesting: After colonizing, the fruiting occurs, then cut and open the bag

and allow to fruit after 3 days. Spent substrate should last for 3 – 4 months. As mushroom

is fruiting. You are harvesting until it becomes a spent substrate.

2.5.2 Contamination

This is the biggest challenge in mushroom production. The contamination might be via;

1. Improper sterilization

2. Using contaminate spawn/seed

3. Excessive discussion which causes inoculation of microbes into the medium.

2.5.3 Preservation Mechanism

1. Drying using solar dryer (Dried mushroom can stay for 6 months – 1 year)

2. Refrigeration (3 – 4 days).

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2.5.4 Daily Routine Management Practices

1. Harvest matured mushrooms on a daily basis as they are highly perishable due to the

high-water content, 70% - 80%.

2. Remove the spent substrate from the new ones because they can attract maggots.

3. As soon as you harvest, add clean water to surface of the substrate because, it is very

stiffed.

2.5.5 Equipment/Materials Needed to Set-Up Mushroom Farm

1. Three rooms are needed in setting up mushroom farming are:

a. Laboratory: This is where tissue culture processes is carried out and other

biological stuffs.

b. Inoculation Room: This is where colonization takes place.

c. Fruity/Harvesting Room/Cropping Room: This is where the fruiting and

harvesting takes place.

2. Pressure Pot

3. Constant Water Supply

4. Metallic Drum

5. Shovel, Gas, Cotton wool and Thermometer.

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2.5.6 Summary of Activities in Mushroom Unit

Plate 6: Grain sterilization Plate 7: Fruiting

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 2.6 Charcoal Briquette

Charcoal briquettes are compacted blocks made primarily from charcoal dust or fines,

combined with various binding agents and often other ingredients. They're commonly used as

a fuel source for grilling, barbecuing, and outdoor cooking. The process of making charcoal

briquettes involves compressing charcoal powder with a binder and shaping it into uniform

blocks or briquettes.

The binding agents used can vary and might include starch from different sources like corn,

cassava, or other additives to help the briquettes hold their shape and burn evenly. Once formed,

these briquettes are dried, resulting in a fuel source that burns slower and more consistently

than traditional lump charcoal.

2.6.1 Composition Materials

Briquettes are made of combustible material obtained from agricultural, forest waste or coal

dust. Briquettes are produced by the densification of these raw materials.

Table 2.2: Material Composition of Charcoal Briquette

S/N ORIGIN RAW MATERIALS THAT CAN BE USED

1 Agricultural waste Cassava stalk, wheat straw, cotton stalks, coconut frond,
coconut stalk, straw, millet, frond palm oil, sugar reed leaves
2 Industrial processing residue Cocoa beans, coconut shell, coffee husk, coconut seed hulls,
from agriculture peanut shells, cobs and wraps corns, oil palm stalk, rice ball,
sugar cane bagasse.
3 Bio energy crop Acacia spp, Cunninghamia lanceolate, Eucalyptus spp, Pinus
spp, Populus spp, Platanus spp, Robinia pseudoacacia, Salix
spp
4 Wood industry waste Saw dust
5 Forest development Leaves, branches, and twisted trunks
6 Plantation and forest residues Leaves, branches, stumps, roots, etc

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2.6.2 Steps Involving in Charcoal Briquette Production

The process of making charcoal briquettes involves several steps:

1. Collection of Raw Materials: Charcoal briquettes are typically made from charcoal

fines or dust, which can be obtained from various sources like charcoal production,

sawdust, agricultural wastes, or other biomass materials.

2. Carbonization: This involves heating the raw materials in the absence of oxygen to

create charcoal. This process removes volatile components and moisture, leaving

behind carbonized material.

3. Crushing and Sizing: The charcoal produced is crushed into fine particles or powder

and sized to ensure uniformity in the final briquettes.

4. Mixing: The charcoal fines are mixed with a binding agent. Common binders include

starch from sources like corn, cassava, or other materials that help hold the charcoal

particles together. Sometimes other additives like sawdust, wood chips, or accelerants

for easier lighting are added at this stage.

5. Compression: The charcoal mixture is fed into a briquetting machine where pressure

is applied to compact the mixture into the desired shape—typically blocks or briquettes.

The pressure helps the particles stick together and form solid blocks.

6. Drying: The formed briquettes are dried to remove excess moisture, making them

easier to handle and store. This step might involve air drying or using specialized drying

chambers or ovens.

7. Packaging: Once dried, the charcoal briquettes are packaged and prepared for

distribution and sale.

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The proportions of charcoal fines, binding agents, and any additives used can vary based on

the desired quality, burning characteristics, and intended use of the briquettes. The process

might differ slightly among manufacturers or depending on the specific equipment used, but

these steps generally outline the production of charcoal briquettes.

2.6.3 Benefits of Charcoal Briquette

1. Environmental Benefits

a. Using renewable energies can contribute to sustainable forest management

b. Low Sulphur emission

c. Ash from briquettes burning can be used a fertilizer

2. Social Benefits

a. Creates job through the supply chain

b. It promotes confidence in renewable energy at local and rural levels

3. Economic Benefits

a. Enables the valorisation of sub-products and even waste

b. Positive life cycle economic balance, cost lower than fossil fuels

2.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Charcoal Briquettes

Advantages

1. High calorific fraction

2. International marketing with standardized composition

3. It is cost effective

4. Combustion is more uniform

5. Absence of Sulphur hence reduction in air pollution

Disadvantages

1. Potentially higher prices conditioned by manufacturing process.

2. It is tedious (time consuming).

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2.6.5 Summary of Activities in Charcoal Briquette

Plate 8: Mixing/Crushing of materials Plate 9: Charcoal briquettes

26
2.7 Phytochemistry Unit

Throughout history, medicinal plants have served as remedies for a vast array of ailments and

injuries across various cultures globally. They form a crucial part of a country's heritage,

evident through the ethnobotanical knowledge documented in their medicinal repositories.

These plants represent a wealth of phytochemicals and natural elements like alkaloids,

terpenes, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids.

Photochemistry, therefore, delves into the exploration of these phytochemicals, derived

specifically from plants. Some of these compounds are thought to safeguard cells from

potential damage that might trigger conditions like cancer. These beneficial phytochemicals

are present in fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, and an assortment of other plant-based

sources.

2.7.1 Potential Phytochemicals

1. Polyphenols: These include flavonoids, phenolic acids, and other compounds found in

fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, and red wine. They are known for their antioxidant

properties and potential in reducing the risk of chronic diseases.

2. Alkaloids: These nitrogen-containing compounds have diverse effects on the human

body. Examples include caffeine in coffee, nicotine in tobacco, and morphine in opium

poppies. They can have stimulant, sedative, or pain-relieving effects.

3. Terpenes: Found in essential oils of various plants, terpenes contribute to their aroma

and potentially have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and even anti-cancer properties.

Examples include limonene in citrus fruits and pinene in pine trees.

4. Phytosterols: Similar to cholesterol in structure, these plant-derived compounds are

found in nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils. They may help lower cholesterol levels and

have potential cardiovascular benefits.

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 5. Carotenoids: Responsible for the vibrant colors in many fruits and vegetables (like

carrots and tomatoes), carotenoids like beta-carotene can convert to vitamin A in the

body and act as antioxidants.

6. Saponins: Present in legumes, grains, and some herbs, saponins have been studied for

their potential cholesterol-lowering effects and other health benefits.

7. Glucosinolates: These sulfur-containing compounds found in cruciferous vegetables

(such as broccoli, cabbage, and kale) are thought to have anti-cancer properties.

2.7.2 Phytochemical Techniques for Extraction

To get the desired phytochemicals certain extraction processes used are;

1. Maceration

2. Digestion

3. Decoction

4. Infusion

5. Percolation

6. Soxhlet extraction

2.7.3 Materials for Soxhlet Extraction

1. Soxhlet Extractor: This apparatus consists of a round-bottom flask, an extraction

chamber (Soxhlet thimble), and a condenser. The extractor allows for continuous

solvent cycling through the solid material.

2. Solvent: Depending on the compounds being extracted and their solubility, various

solvents can be used. Common ones include ethanol, hexane, acetone, methanol, or a

combination of solvents suited for the targeted compounds.

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 3. Solid Material: This refers to the plant material or substance from which the

compounds are to be extracted. It's packed into the Soxhlet thimble and placed in the

apparatus.

4. Heating Source: A heat source, like a heating mantle or hot plate, is used to provide

gentle heating to the solvent, causing it to evaporate and cycle through the Soxhlet

apparatus.

5. Condenser: This component allows the evaporated solvent to condense back into

liquid form and drip back into the extraction chamber, ensuring a continuous extraction

process.

6. Overhead Tank

7. Retort Stand

2.7.3 Procedures for oil extraction from seeds of Jatropha curcas

1. Preparation of Seeds: Grind or crush the Jatropha curcas seeds into small particles to

increase the surface area for extraction.

2. Loading the Soxhlet Thimble: Place the ground Jatropha curcas seeds into the

Soxhlet thimble. Ensured they were properly packed but not too tightly to allow the

solvent to flow through easily.

3. Setting Up the Apparatus: Assemble the Soxhlet extraction apparatus. This includes

setting up the round-bottom flask containing the solvent, attaching the Soxhlet thimble

with the Jatropha curcas seeds, and connecting the condenser.

4. Starting the Extraction: Begin heating the round-bottom flask containing the solvent.

The solvent will vaporize and rise up through the Soxhlet thimble, extracting

compounds from the Jatropha curcas seeds.

29
 5. Continuous Extraction: As the solvent vapor reaches the condenser, it condenses back

into liquid form due to cooling and drips back into the Soxhlet thimble. This continuous

cycle allows for continuous extraction.

6. Monitoring and Adjusting: Monitor the process and adjust the heating to maintain a

gentle reflux of the solvent. The extracted material (in this case, Jatropha curcas oil)

collects in the round-bottom flask.

7. Completion of Extraction: The extraction continues until a significant amount of oil

has accumulated in the round-bottom flask or until the desired extraction level is

achieved.

8. Collection and Recovery: Once the extraction is complete, the solvent containing the

extracted oil can be recovered through further processing (such as evaporation) to

isolate the oil.

9. Safety and Cleanup: Ensure proper safety precautions are taken with solvents. After

completion, clean the equipment thoroughly.

This oil gained interest in the past for its potential as a feedstock for biodiesel production due
to its high oil content

Plate 8: Solvent extraction

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 CHAPTER THREE

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING THE STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES) PROGRAMME

3.1 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED

The challenges I encountered during my industrial attachment period include:

1. Lack of proximity of I.T Place: This was one of my major challenges, the distance

from my residence to the place of my industrial training is far and much money were

spent on transportation.

2. Lack of Allowance: For the whole duration of my work experience, no money was

paid to the interns to support themselves.

3. Tedious Activities: Some activities were quite stressful and tiring due to the

cumbersome work employed to achieve the desired results.

3.2 RELEVANCE OF THE SIWES PROGRAMME

The relevance SIWES programmes can never be over emphasized, this includes;

• Practical Learning: SIWES offers students the chance to apply theoretical knowledge
gained in the classroom to real-world work situations. This hands-on experience helps
bridge the gap between theory and practice, enhancing the overall understanding of
their field.
• Skill Development: Through SIWES, students acquire practical skills, workplace
etiquette, problem-solving abilities, and teamwork experience. These skills are
invaluable for their future careers.
• Industry Relevance: It exposes students to industry practices, technologies, and work
environments, allowing them to understand the dynamics of their chosen field and its
demands.
• Employability: Experience gained through SIWES can significantly enhance a
student's employability after graduation. Employers often value practical experience
and the ability to apply knowledge in real-world scenarios.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION AND GENERAL APPRAISAL OF THE SIWES PROGRAMME

4.1 WAYS OF IMPROVING THE SIWES PROGRAMME

Haven thoroughly undergone my Industrial Work Experience; I humbly make the following

recommendations;

1. The SIWES allowance for students and supervisors needs an increase due to Nigeria's

higher living costs since the last raise in 1981. Paying the allowance immediately after

the program ends would help students afford printing the required three copies of their

industrial training report.

2. The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) should mandate that institutions and organizations

hosting student training provide sufficient first aid supplies.

3. Before starting industrial training, each student should undergo a medical examination

to determine their health status and find the most suitable training establishment.

4. Encouraging companies to willingly accept industrial training applicants is crucial.

Recognizing and rewarding firms committed to accepting these applicants could

motivate others to follow suit. Awards and public acknowledgment for such

commitment might encourage future participation.

4.2 ADVICE TO FUTURE PARTICIPANTS

1. Endeavor to register for the SIWES programme as soon as possible so as to collect the

industrial training letter from the SIWES unit, which can they use to apply for the place

of attachment.

2. Attend the respective institution SIWES orientation programme before going on

attachment.

3. Record all training activities and other assignments in the log book as well as fill all

necessary forms to ensure proper assessments.

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 4. Participants are advised to take their SIWES program seriously, as the training could

provide an opportunity directly pot indirectly for job after graduating either in the place

of placement or anywhere else.

5. Above all, be honest, diligent and conscientious, and take pride in protecting the

employers’ property throughout their attachment period’

6. Ensure to know the rules and regulation of the company and make sure you adhere to

them.

4.3 ADVICE TO SIWES MANAGERS

• SIWES Managers should introduce this programme to other institutions as well as other

departments that do not participate in this programme.

4.4 CONCLUSION

The SIWES programme is a platform that has exposed the students to the application of

theoretical knowledge. The programme furnishes the student with employable and commercial

skills which can better their lives.

Through my Industrial Training Programmes at Tencharis, I have earned valuable skills in

biogas production, mushroom production, Herbicide spray etc. Beyond that, it has also been a

platform that have enhanced my communication skills and instilled discipline and

responsibility in me. SIWES programme is pivotal, essential and indispensable in the academic

journey of students.

33
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Falk, H.M.; Benz, H.C. Monitoring the Anaerobic Digestion Process; IRC-Library;

Information Resource Center der Jacobs University Bremen: Bremen, Germany, 2011.

Hren, R.; Petroviˇc, A.; Cuˇcek, L.; Simoniˇc, M. Determination of Various Parameters during

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Piwowar, A. Agricultural Biogas—An Important Element in the Circular and Low-Carbon

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Refai, S. Development of Efficient Tools for Monitoring and Improvement of Biogas

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Rohstoffe, F.N. Guide to Biogas from Production to Use; Federal Ministry of Food; Agriculture

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