Science

- is a systematic study that is concerned with facts and principles, and methods that could
be observed in our natural or physical and social environment. It comes from the Latin
word ‘scire’ that means 'to know’.
- is both a body of knowledge and a process
– a way of thinking, a way of solving problems
The Branches of Science
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Physics: The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them.
Physicists study such subjects as gravity, light, and time.
Albert Einstein, a famous physicist,
developed the Theory of Relativity.
Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the
structure of matter.
The chemist Louis Pasteur, for example, discovered pasteurization- which is the process of
heating liquids such as milk and orange juice to kill harmful germs.
Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere.
THE EARTH SCIENCES
Geology: The science of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical,
chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is experiencing.
Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean.
Paleontology: The science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
Meteorology: The science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as
weather and climate.
Botany: The study of plants.
Zoology: The science that covers animals and animal life.
Genetics: The study of heredity.
Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness, disease, and injury.

Scientific Method
-Is the logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to explain different
phenomena in nature.
A thing observed by the senses is called a phenomenon; a scientifically tested
observation is called a fact. The scientific method has six basic steps, namely:
a. Identify and clearly state the problem. Questions arise from something observed as
unusual; problem that is specific, measurable, and attainable is identified.
b. Gather information pertinent to the problem. This is done by recalling past experiences
concerning the problem, interviewing people who are knowledgeable of the problem, and
researching in libraries and research centers.
c. Formulate hypothesis. Based on information or data gathered, an 'educated guess' can be
made.
d. Test the hypothesis. Carrying out experiments.
Controlled experiment - manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may affect the result
of
experiment.
1) Trials - number of times experiment is repeated.
2) Controls - factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment
3) Variables - factors that change during the experiment.
Kinds:
1. Independent or experimental - factors that are changed.
2. Dependent - factors that change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
Presentation of Data
Tables - easy to read, organized presentations.
Graphs - readily show patterns of data.
Kinds:
1. Line - proper to use when comparing two continuously changing variables.
2. Bar - appropriate to use when comparing a changing value with an unchanging value.
e. Draw a generalization or conclusion.
Conclusion - a statement about the result of the experiment.
Law - a statement which describes what happens but does not explain the cause of the
occurrence.

Theory - hypothesis that can be explained from observations.

f. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations.
Scientific Traits
Scientific knowledge may also be obtained through the use of models and ideas, or through
serendipity or accidental discovery. In scientific study, .some standards or procedures must be
observed. Scientists should always exhibit scientific attitudes like the following:
a. Curiosity - keen observation of things and events in the surroundings.
Galileo's intensive desire to study heavenly bodies drove him to use a telescope to
study the moon, the planets, the sun, and the stars
b. Logic and system - use of step-by-step experimental method and keeping of
accurate records.
Gregor Mendel was successful in his study of hereditary traits because he used logical
experimental methods and accurately recorded his observations.
c. Open-mindedness - readiness or willingness to change or modify ideas or principles
when necessary.
Johannes Kepler changed his notion about the popular belief during his time that
the planets moved along perfect circles to a more accurate information that
these follow elliptical orbits.
d. Intellectually honest - -acknowledging contribution of others to one's success.
Isaac Newton recognized the role of Galileo and others in his formulation the
Laws of Motion.
e. Hardwork and perseverance
Marie Curie and his husband Pierre had to work on several thousand kilograms of
uranium ore to strain a tenth of a gram of pure uranium.
f. Not opinionated – using hard evidences to prove ones theory.
John Dalton used experimental evidences to support his atomic theory.
g. Creativity and critical thinking
Albert Einstein did not just depend on established facts and accepted beliefs during his
days. Rather, he used these to develop his own theory in different perspective.
Technology
is defined as the application of scientific knowledge to practical purposes. In
short, it is an applied science. It is classified into three kinds, namely:
a. Machines - include tools, gadgets or devices that help us do our activities faster and
better. They make life more pleasant to us to do certain things which we normally
cannot do. (e.g., airplane, internet, CT scan. and computers.)

b. Products - materials produced or made through artificial or natural means. They

make life more pleasant, more convenient, and more comfortable. (e.g., steel,
toothpaste, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides)
c. Processes - include the ways of doing things. (e.g., food Preservation, prawn culture
and induced fruiting.)
Measurement
International System (SI) of Measurement
Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity with a chosen standard. The
International System (SI) is the system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is legally
enforced in almost all parts of the world. There are seven basic quantities in this system:
Quantity Unit
Length Meters (m)
Mass Kilograms (kg)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric current Amperes (amp)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Amount of substance Moles
Luminous intensity / light Candelas
Two factors affect the degree of measurements. They are (a.) the ability to use the measuring
instruments properly and (b.) the precision of the instrument. The unit factor method is a
systematic technique for solving numerical problems. The factors are derived from fixed
relationships between quantities. The main purpose is to cancel units not desired using fixed
relationships, leaving behind the unit desired. Units of a derived quantity like density may be
inverted to be able to cancel the unit not desired.
Metric Prefixes
Metric prefixes are pretty easy to understand and very handy for metric conversions. You don't
have to know the nature of a unit to convert, for example, from kilo-unit to mega-unit. All metric
prefixes are powers of 10.
Prexis Symbo
l
Factor
giga G 109 = 1,000,000,000
mega M 106 = 1,000,000
kilo k 103 = 1,000
hecto h 102 = 100
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Most people even in the countries where metric system is used only know the most important
metric
prefixes like 'kilo' and 'milli'. They are very handy for understanding metric conversions.
Temperature
There are three temperature scales in use today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.
Fahrenheit temperature is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for the
boiling
point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts. The conversion formula
for a temperature that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation
is:
F = 9/5C + 32.
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based on 0 for
the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by the
Swedish
astronomer Anders Celsius, it is sometimes called the centigrade scale because of the
100-degree
interval between the defined points. The following formula can be used to convert a temperature
from its representation on the Fahrenheit ( F) scale to the Celsius (C) value: C = 5/9(F - 32). The
Celsius scale is in general use wherever metric units have become accepted, and it is used in
scientific work everywhere.
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in the
International System (SI) of measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point
(equilibrium
among the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases) of pure water. The Kelvin (symbol K without the
degree
sign) is also the fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale, an absolute temperature scale named for
the
British physicist William Thomson, Baron Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale.
The
difference between the freezing and boiling points of water is 100 degrees in each, so that the
Kelvin
has the same magnitude as the degree Celsius. To convert Celsius to Kelvin: K = °C + 273
Volume
Volume refers to the amount of space that an object occupies. It is often used to signify more
accurate
measurements.
deka da 101 = 10
deci d 10-1 = 0.1
centi c 10-2 = 0.01
milli m 10-3 = 0.001
micro µ 10-6 = 0.000,001
nano n 10-9 = 0.000,000,001
pico p 10-12 =
0,000,000,000,001
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Application:
The volume of an object weighing 2.5 g is 1.4 cc. Will the object float or sink on
water
Given : V = 1.4 cc M= 2.5 g
Solution:
D = M/ V
= 2.5 g / 1.4 cc
= 1.79 g/cc
Answer: the object will sink since it is denser than water. (Density of
water = 1 g/cc)
Density
Density is the mass of the object per unit volume. Substances differ in their densities. Each
substance has a specific density.
All materials with a density les than 1 g./cc (density of water) will float on water, and all those
with density greater than 1 g/cc will sink.
(p) = density p = m/v
Force
- normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull
- anything that changes the speed and direction of moving objects or that which
causes a stationary object to start moving in a straight line
- f = (m)(a) f – force (Newton), m – mass (kg) , a – acceleration (m/s2)
MEASURING FORCE
Gravitational force is the pull that the earth exerts on all objects and is measured by the
weight of an object. Some instruments for measuring weight are : the bathroom scale and the
balance (or kilohan) you often see in the market.
TYPES OF FORCES
1. Contact Forces
a. Applied Force
b. Spring Force
c. Drag Force
d. Frictional Force
e. Normal Force
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Application:
How much work do you do by pushing a sack of rice with a force of 50 N
across a distance of 10 meters?
Given: F= 50 N
D = 10 m
Solution:
W=Fxd
= 50 N x 10 m
= 500 Nm or 500 J
* note : 100 g = 1 N
2. Non-contact Forces
a. Gravitational Force
b. Nuclear Force
c. Electromagnetic Force
MASS vs WEIGHT
Mass indicates the quantity of matter in a material object. It does not change, thus it a
property that is constant. It is measured in a unit called kilogram. Weight on the other hand, is th
measure of the pull of gravity on an object. On earth, it depends on the mass of the object and
its
distance from the venter of the earth. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its
weight.
The closer is to the center of the earth, the greater is its weight. Weight is expressed in N unit.
100g = 1N.
Work
In science, work is done only when the force applied to an object actually moves the object
in the direction of the force. This is represented as:
WORK = force x displacement
Force- anything that causes motion or a change in motion
Displacement – the distance and direction through hich an object is moved
CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF WORK
W=Fxd
(Newton) ( meter)
= Newton-meter or joule
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Machines
Machine is any mechanical device that we use yo help us do our work, or make our work easier
Simple Machines – machines that have only one or two parts
Compound Machines – machines that make use of or more simple machines
SIMPLE MACHINES
a. Lever – any rigid body which is pivoted about a point called fulcrum (e.g. crowbar,
hammer, pliers, nutcracker, tongs, table knife, baseball bat)
b. Pulley- a wheel with a grooved rim over which a rope passes.( as in flag pole)
c. Wheel and axle – consists of a wheel attached to an axle so that if you push on the
wheel, the axle turns also ( e.g. doorknob, eggbeater, screw driver)
d. Inclined plane –a flat surface with one and higher than the other. The longer it is in
relation to its height, the larger is its mechanical advantage (e.g. plank, ladder, winding
road)
e. Wedge – an inclined plane with either one or two sloping sides. The smaller the angle
of the wedge,the greater the mechanical advantage ( nail,scissors, chisel, knife)
f. Screw – spiral inclined planes.Works by transferring force exerted on the
circumference of the screw (food grinder, metal screws)
Energy
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial (en meaning in and ergon ,
meaning work). Anything that is able to do work possess energy. Energy is the ability to do work
or
the ability to exert force on an object and make it move.
FORMS OF ENERGY
a. Mechanical Energy
kinetic energy – energy possessed by an object or a body in motion
potential energy- energy possessed by a body because of its position or state
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy coming from the attractive
and repulsive forces of all the particles or molecules in a body
c. Heat Energy – energy which flows from one body to another due to a
temperature difference between them, and the flow is always from the hotter
to the colder body
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of electrons flowing through conductors,
like copper wires and aluminum wires.
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to forces of attraction and to the
arrangement of subatomic particles in atoms and of atoms in the molecules of
substances.
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f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic waves , radio waves, infrared rays,
visible light, ultraviolet rays, x rays and gamma rays.
g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear fusion or fission of atomic nuclei of
heavy element or light element.
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction
The molecules in a material are always moving. When one part of a material is heated, the
molecules in that part move faster and collide with other molecules. As this goes on, heat is
conducted from molecule to molecule until the heat is spread throughout the material. This is
conduction. A conductor is the material through which heat passes easily. An insulator is a
material
that conducts heat poorly.
Convection
The movement of a gas or liquid brought about by temperature differences creates a
convection current. Heat is transferred by Convection when a gas or liquid moves from one
place
to another.
Radiation
Heat transfer when heat is given of in all directions around them is radiation. The sun and
other hot objects radiates energy.
ENERGY RESOURCES
a. Fossil Fuels
1. Coal – being mined formed from trees and other vegetation buried in swamps
crated by the encroaching sea
2. Petroleum - a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid hydrocarbons.
3. Natural Gas- composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane
and other hydrocarbons.
4.
b. Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power pertains to the production of electricity by means of generators driven by
water turbines.
c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the earth, energy of steam from beneath the
earth’s surface
d. Wind Energy- energy harnessed through the windmill
e. Solar Energy- energy from the sun, radiant energy. The visible light is harnessed to produce
the
electricity by means of so-called solar cells or photovoltaic cells, which generate eletricity when
exposed to sunlight
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Earth
Formation of the Earth
BIG BANG
In the beginning there is only a super-massive gaseous point in our empty universe.
Instantaneously and randomly, enough energy is created to break the gravitational bond holding
this massive body together, exploding the super-heated particles throughout space. In less than
one
millionth of a second, protons, neutrons, electrons, and their anti-particles begin to form.
FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM
As matter began to condense and stars began to form, one such star appeared where the
Sun now appears within the Milky Way Galaxy. After igniting with fusion and burning its usable
hydrogen and other larger elements, the star exploded, sending matter out in all directions.
Once
again, through gravitational forces, this matter eventually cooled and collected in a few key
areas,
forming the planets and the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt is simply an early form of the
collection
of matter that was not able to completely form a planet due to Jupiter's gravity. Some early
planets may have collided with other early planets, creating larger planets, moons, or possibly
space rocks. In the meantime, a smaller star began to form at the center of the previous
explosion
and our Sun started its fusion process again.
Earth’s Structure
The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the
crust. The core is the inner part of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the
mantle. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this moment it hasn't been possible to
take
a look inside the earth because the current technology doesn't allow it. Therefore all kinds of
research had to be done to find which material the earth consists, what different layers there are
and which influence those have (had) on the earth's surface. This research is called seismology.
THE CORE - The inner part of the earth
is the core. This part of the earth is
about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below
the earth's surface. The core is a dense
ball of the elements iron and nickel. It
is divided into two layers, the inner
core and the outer core.
The inner core - the center of earth - is
solid and about 780 miles (1,250 km)
thick.
The outer core is so hot that the metal is always
molten, but the inner core pressures are so great
that it cannot melt, even though temperatures
there reach 6700ºF (3700ºC). The outer core is
about 1370 miles (2,200 km) thick. Because the
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earth rotates, the outer core spins around the inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism
THE MANTLE - The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins about 6 miles (10 km) below
the oceanic
crust and about 19 miles (30 km) below the continental crust (see The Crust). The mantle is to
divide into
the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick and makes up
nearly 80
percent of the Earth's total volume.
THE CRUST - The crust lies above the mantle and is the earth's hard outer shell, the surface on
which we are
living. In relation with the other layers the crust is much thinner. It floats upon the softer, denser
mantle.
The crust is made up of solid material but these material is not everywhere the same. There is
an Oceanic
crust and a Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of
heavy rocks,
like basalt. The Continental crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles (30 km) thick.
It is mainly
made up of light material, like granite.
Plate Tectonics
Continental drift
The drift of the plates across the surface of the earth has been going on over millions of years,
which still changes the outward appearance of the earth. When you look at the map of the
world,
you see how well the east coast of North and South America fits into the west coast of Europe
and
Africa. Over millions of years these continents have slowly drifted apart. (continental drift).
Diverging plates
Where plates pull apart, hot molten rock (fluid magma) emerges as lava and so new matter is
added
to the plates. In this way new oceanic plates are formed. The place where this happens is
known as
a mid-ocean ridge. Mid-ocean ridges are rarely more than about 4,920 ft. (1,500 m) high, but
they
may snake along the ocean bed for thousands of miles. Beneath each of the world's great
oceans
there is a mid-ocean ridge. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, which
stretches from the North Pole to the South Pole. Mid-ocean ridges are areas of much volcanic
and
earthquake activity.
Converging plates:
In many places the huge plates of the earth's surface are slowly moving together with
unimaginable
force. Sometimes the edge of one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision,
sometimes the
impact simply crimps the plates' edges, thereby creating great mountain ranges.
When one tectonic plate bends beneath the other, it is called subduction. Most of the time this
happens because a dense oceanic plate collides with a lighter continental plate. You can see
this
along the Pacific coast of South- America. The oceanic plate dips beneath into the
Asthenosphere.
Through the heat of the Asthenosphere the subducted plate melts. At the surface an ocean
trench
is created, followed by an arc of islands. In this area also volcanic activities and earthquakes
occur.
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Seafloor Spreading
DIASTROPHISM – the process which involves movements of the earth’s crust such that a
portion id
pushed up, push down or forced sideways
Folding – the process when the sideward forces acting on rocks deform the
rocks into wavelike folds after tilting, bending of wrinkling.
Faulting sliding or moving over of rock layers over one another along the
break or fracture, may occur vertically or horizontally.
Volcanoes
A Volcano is a gap in the earth where molten rock and other materials come to the earth's
surface.
Some volcanoes are just cracks in the earth's crusts. Others are weak places in the earth's
crust,
which occur on places where magma bubbles up through the crust and comes to the earth's
surface. Magma is molten rock that occurs by partial melting of the crust and the mantle by high
temperatures deep down in the ground. Once magma comes to the earth's surface it is called
lava.
ACTIVE AND NON-ACTIVE VOLCANOES
There are volcanoes in different phases of activity: Active volcanoes, which are likely to erupt at
any
moment, dormant volcanoes, which lie dormant for centuries, but then erupt suddenly and
violently, and extinct volcanoes, ones no longer likely to erupt.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
The ordinary volcanoes can be divided in different types, relating to their forms:
The shield volcano: This is a broad, shallow volcanic cone,
which arises because the running lava,
which is fluid and hot, cools slowly.
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0-43 miles (0-70 km) below ground: shallow earthquakes
43-186 miles (70-300 km) below ground: intermediate earthquakes
deeper than 186 miles (300 km) below ground: deep earthquakes
Earthquakes
An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused by sudden movements in the earth's
crust.
The biggest earthquakes are set off by the movement of tectonic plates. Some plates slide past
each
other gently, but others can cause a heavy pressure on the rocks, so they finally crack and slide
past
each other. By this, vibrations or shock waves are caused, which go through the ground. It is
these
vibrations or seismic waves which cause an earthquake. The closer to the source of the
earthquake (the focus or hypocenter), the more damage occurs. Earthquakes are classified
according to the depth of the focus.
The closer the focus to the surface, the heavier the earthquake. The earthquake is always the
most intense on the surface directly above the focus (Epicenter). In general big earthquakes
begin
with light vibrations (foreshocks). These are the initial fractures in the rocks. After the main
shock,
there may be minor aftershocks, most of the time for months. This occurs as the rocks settle
down.
Rocks
Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
a. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) from within Earth cools and solidifies.
There are two types: intrusive igneous rocks solidify beneath Earth's surface; extrusive
igneous rocks solidify at the surface. Examples: Granite, basalt, obsidian
b. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits of rock plus material such as shells and
sand) gets packed together. They can take millions of years to form. Most rocks that you see
on the ground are sedimentary. Examples: Limestone, sandstone, shale
The dome volcano: This one has a steep, convex slope from
thick, fast- cooling lava
The ash-cinder
volcano:
Throws out - besides lava - much ash into
the air. Through this the volcanic cone is
built up from alternate layers of ash and
cinder.
The composite
volcano:
These are also built up from alternate layers
of lava and ash but, besides its main crater,
it has many little craters on its slope.
The caldera volcano: An older volcano with a large crater which
can be 62 miles(100km) wide. In this crater
many little new craters are formed.
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c. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been transformed by heat,
pressure or both. Metamorphic rocks are usually formed deep within Earth, during a process
such as mountain building. Examples: Schist, marble, slate
THE ROCK CYCLE
The three major types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are
interrelated by a series of natural processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and
crystallization
of hot molten lava and magma. Igneous rocks undergo weathering and erosion to form
sediments.
Sediments are deposited and lithified by compaction and cementation to form sedimentary
rocks.
Sedimentary rock become buried by additional sedimentary deposition, and when they are deep
within the Earth, they are subjected to heat and pressure which causes them to become
metamorphic rocks. With further burial and heating, the metamorphic rocks begin to melt.
Partially
molten metamorphic rocks are known as migmatite. As melting proceeds with increasing
temperatures and depths of burial, eventually the rock becomes molten and becomes magma,
which cools and crystallizes to form plutonic igneous rock, or which is erupted onto the Earth's
surface as lava, and cools and crystallizes to form volcanic igneous rock.
Further complications within the rock cycle include (1) weathering of sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks (in addition to igneous rocks), and (2) metamorphism of igneous rocks and
repeated metamorphism of metamorphic rocks.
WEATHERING – Breaking down of rocks brought about by either physial or chemical means
giving rise
to sediments or ther rock fragments
Types of Weathering
A. Physical or mechanical weathering
 Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes
Exfoliation or unloading -
o rock breaks off into leaves or sheets along joints which parallel the ground surface;
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o caused by expansion of rock due to uplift and erosion; removal of pressure of deep burial;
Thermal expansion -
o repeated daily heating and cooling of rock;
o heat causes expansion; cooling causes contraction.
o different minerals expand and contract at different rates causing stresses along
mineral boundaries.
B. Chemical weathering
Rock reacts with water, gases and solutions (may be acidic); will add or remove elements from
minerals.
Dissolution (or solution) -
o Several common minerals dissolve in water
halite
calcite
o Limestone and marble contain calcite and are soluble in acidic water
o Marble tombstones and carvings are particularly susceptible to chemical weathering by
dissolution. Note that the urn and tops of ledges are heavily weathered, but the
inscriptions are somewhat sheltered and remain legible.
o Caves and caverns typically form in limestone
speleothems are cave formations
speleothems are made of calcite
form a rock called travertine
stalactites - hang from ceiling
stalagmites - on the ground
o Karst topography forms on limestone terrain and is characterized by:
caves/caverns,
sinkholes,
disappearing streams,
springs
Oxidation
o Oxygen combines with iron-bearing silicate minerals causing "rusting"
o Iron oxides are produced . Iron oxides are red, orange, or brown in color
o Mafic rocks such as basalt (which may contain olivine, pyroxene, or amphibole)
weather by oxidation to an orange color
o "Georgia Red Clay" derives its color from the oxidation of iron bearing minerals
Hydrolysis
C. Biological weathering
EROSION- the process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried along by such
agents as
wind and running water
DEPOSITION- the process by which rock fragments and sediments ae carried by agents of
erosion
are dropprd or deposited in other places.
COMPACTING – the process by which rock fragments and other materials that accumulated,
usually at
the bottom of a thick column of water, get cemented together and harden into rock
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METAMORPHISM - a change in constitution of a rock brought about by pressure, heat and
chemical
action resulting in a more compact and highly crystalline condition of the rock.
Minerals and Gems
Minerals are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that are found in and on earth. Most are
chemical compounds, which means they are made up of two or more elements. For example,
the
mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum and oxygen. A few minerals, such as gold, silver and
copper, are made from a single element. Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks.
Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals.
Gems are minerals or pearls that have been cut and polished. They are used as ornaments,
such as
jewelry.
Precious stones are the most valuable gems. They include diamonds, rubies and emeralds
Atmosphere
The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is called the earth's Atmosphere.
Without this atmosphere life on earth isn't possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and protects us
against harmful rays of the sun and against meteorites.
This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust.
The atmosphere is made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78 percent
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.93 percent argon, 0.03 percent carbon dioxide and 0.04 percent
of
other gases.
The Troposphere is the layer where the weather happens. Above this layer is the Stratosphere
and in between them is the Ozone layer, that absorbs the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Above
the
Stratosphere is the Mesosphere, the Thermosphere including the Ionosphere - and the
Exosphere.
The atmosphere measures about 500 miles (800km).
Layers of the Atmosphere
THE TROPOSPHERE
The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and measures about 7 miles(12 km).
It contains over 75 percent of all the atmosphere's gases and vast quantities of water and dust.
As
the sun heats the ground, it keeps this thick mixture churning. The weather is caused by these
churnings of the mass. The troposphere is normally warmest at ground level and cools higher
up
where it reaches its upper boundary (the tropopause).
STRATOSPHERE
The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to its boundary (the Stratopause), 31
miles(50 km) above the Earth's surface. In this layer there is 19 percent of the atmosphere's
gases
and it contains little water vapour. Compared to the troposphere it is calm in this layer. The
17
movements of the gases are slow. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a band of ozone
gas,
that absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The higher you get in the atmosphere, the
warmer
the air gets. The temperature rises from -76 ºF(-60 ºC) at the bottom to a maximum of about 5
ºF(10 ºC) at the stratopause.
MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere is the next layer above the stratopause and extends to its upper boundary
(the Mesopause), at 50 miles(80 km) above the ground. The gases in the mesosphere are too
thin to
absorb much of the sun's heat. Although the air is still thick enough to slow down meteorites
hurtling into the atmosphere. They burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. The temperatures
in
the mesosphere drop to -184 ºF(-120 ºC) at the mesopause.
THERMOSPHERE
The Thermosphere is the layer above the mesopause. The gases of the thermosphere are
even thinner than those in the mesosphere, but they absorb ultraviolet light from the sun.
Because
of this, the temperatures rise to 3,600 ºF (2,000 ºC) at the top. This is at a height of 430 miles
(700
km) of the earth's surface. In the thermosphere is a separate layer, the Ionosphere. This layer
extends of 62 miles(100 km) to 190 miles(300 km) of the earth's surface.
IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is part of the thermosphere. It is made of electrically charged gas particles
(ionised). The particles get this electric charge by ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ionosphere has
the important quality of bouncing radio signals, transmitted from the earth. That’s why places all
over the world can be reached via radio.
EXOSPHERE
The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and extends from 430 miles (700 km)
to 500 miles (800 km) above the ground. In this layer gases get thinner and thinner and drift off
into
space.
18
Weather and Climate
WEATHER- describes the condition of the atmosphere in a particular time (cool and dry, humid,
windy, rainy, or stormy)
CLIMATE- average weather in a region over a number of years or usually decades (tropical)
CLOUDS - little drops of water or ice hanging in the atmosphere. A ceilometer measures the
height of
clouds.
Winds
The major wind systems in the Philippines are
a. Northeast Trade Winds – from north, north east and east
b. Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from Southeast Trade winds south of the
equator
c. Northeast monsoon (amihan)- from east, south east
CYCLONES – low pressure areas in the tropics
a. tropical depresssion- with wind speed of less than 63 kph
b. trpical storm – with wind speed of 63-118 kph
c. typhoon – with wind speed of more than 118 lph
The Ozone Layer
Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen atoms. It is blue in color and has a strong odor.
Normal oxygen, which we breathe, has two oxygen atoms and is colorless and odorless. Ozone
is
much less common than normal oxygen. Out of each 10 million air molecules, about 2 million
are
normal oxygen, but only 3 are ozone.
CFCs - are stable substances that only exposure to strong UV radiation breaks them down.
When that happens, the CFC molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can destroy
over 100,000 ozone molecules. The net effect is to destroy ozone faster than it is naturally
created.
Cloud Type Descriptive Name Description
Cirrus Mare's tails thin, feathery
Cirrocumulus Mackerel sky small patches of white
Cirrostratus Bed sheet clouds thin, white sheets
Stratus High fogs Low, gray, blanket
Cumulus Cauliflowers Flat-bottomed, white puffy
Cumulonimbus Thunderheads Mountains of heavy, dark clouds
19
Astronomy
The Universe
How old is the universe? What is it made of? For the first time, scientists have clarity.
13.7 billion years: Age of the universe
200 million years: Interval between the Big Bang and the appearance of the first stars
4%: Proportion of the universe that is ordinary matter
23%: Proportion that is dark matter
73%: Proportion that is dark energy
COLORS OF THE UNIVERSE
Blue Planets - Earth, Neptune, and Uranus are all blue because of gases in their
atmosphere. Blue Stars - These are the hottest stars, with a surface temperature of
more than 37,000°F. Yellow Stars - These are warm stars, such as the Sun. Their
temperature is about 10,000°F. Red Stars- The coolest stars are red. Their surface
temperature is less than 5,500°F.
Red Shift - When light coming from a distant star is seen through a spectroscope (an instrument
that separates light into its different colors); the light we receive continues to shift toward the red
area of the spectrum, which is the least powerful. This means that, since the light is becoming
weaker and weaker, the stars must be traveling away from us. This makes scientists believe that
our universe is expanding.
Red Spot - A swirling cloud on the planet Jupiter is a raging storm of gases, mainly red
phosphorus.
Space Glossary
Galaxies are immense systems containing billions of stars. Astronomers have estimated that the
universe could contain 40 to 50 billion galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes: some are spiral,
others
are elliptical, or oval- shaped, and some are irregular.
The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Just about all that you can see in the sky belongs to our
galaxy—a
system of roughly 200 billion stars. The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about 100,000 light-
years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years in thickness.
The solar system is made up of the Sun (solar means sun) at its center, the nine planets that
orbit it,
and the various satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites that are also controlled by the
Sun's
gravitational pull.
The Sun is the closest star to Earth and the center of our solar system. Every second, it
converts 49
million tons (45 million metric tons) of matter into pure energy, which reaches us in the form of
light.
The Sun weighs more than 300,000 times as much as Earth and is 109 times larger.
20
Sunspots appear as dark spots on the Sun, and are believed to be cooler than the rest of the
Sun.
They appear in 11-year cycles.
Planet is the term used for a body in orbit around the Sun. The word comes from the Greek
planetes, and means “wanderers.” Our solar system has nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. An easy way to remember their names in the
correct
order is to keep in mind the following sentence: My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine
Pickles. The first letter of each word is the first letter of each planet. Since 1994, evidence has
been
found that planets also exist beyond our solar system. At least 10 planets existing in other solar
systems have been discovered.
Satellite (or moon) is the term for a body in orbit around a planet. As long as our own Moon was
the
only moon known, there was no need for a general term for the moons of planets. But when
Galileo
Galilei discovered the four main moons of the planet Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a
letter
suggesting he call them “satellites” (from the Latin satelles, which means attendant). The word
means the same thing as “moon.”
Orbit is the term for the path traveled by a body in space. It comes from the Latin orbis, which
means circle. Some orbits are nearly circular, but the orbits of most planets are
ellipses—shaped
like ovals.
Asteroids, also known as the minor planets, are small bodies orbiting the Sun that resemble
planets. More than 5,000 asteroids have been discovered, and most are found between Mars
and
Jupiter. Usually having an irregular shape, asteroids—at least those discovered thus far—can
range
in size from 580 miles (940 km) in diameter, which is the size of the asteroid Ceres, to just 33 ft.
(10
m) in diameter.
Comets are made up of frozen dust and gases, and have been described as large, dirty
snowballs
with icy centers. They often travel on extremely elongated orbits around the Sun. Some comets
have orbits that take just 10 years to circumnavigate while other comets have orbits that take
hundreds of thousands of years to circulate. The tail of a comet, called a coma, forms when the
comet comes within 100 million miles of the Sun. It is then affected by the solar wind (hydrogen
and helium that travel away from the Sun at high speeds), which causes a tail of dust and gases
to
form behind the comet.
Meteors are fragments of comets, planets, moons, or asteroids that have broken off. It is
estimated
that a billion meteors enter our atmosphere every day. Contact with our atmosphere causes
most
to disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do not disintegrate completely but fall to Earth
are called meteorites.
Stars are composed of intensely hot gasses, deriving their energy from nuclear reactions going
on
in their interiors. Our Sun is the nearest star. Stars are very large — some are even bigger than
planets. Our Sun has a diameter of 865,400 miles—making it a comparatively small star.
White dwarfs occur when a star runs out of energy and shuts down. The force of gravity at its
center pulls the mass of the star in on itself, forcing it to collapse. It resembles the glowing
cinders
of a fire that has died down. It is called a white dwarf because it emits a white glow.
Brown Dwarfs are also called failed stars. They lack enough energy to be true stars but are also
too
massive and hot to be planets.
21
A supernova is an extremely large exploding star. Just before the star dies, it releases huge
amounts of
energy, briefly becoming millions of times brighter than it was. Then it immediately shrinks.
Neutron stars are formed after a supernova explodes and shrinks. The shrunken form of the star
becomes incredibly dense and compact as gravity pulls all of its matter inward. It becomes so
compressed that a million tons of its matter would hardly fill a thimble. This density crushes
together the electrons and protons that make up its atoms, turning them into neutrons.
Pulsars are believed to be rapidly spinning neutron stars that give off bursts of radio waves at
regular
intervals. Pulsar is a shortened version of Puls[ating st]ar.
Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to be the most remote objects in the universe.
Despite
their small size they produce tremendous amounts of light and microwave radiation: not much
bigger than Earth's solar system, they pour out 100 to 1,000 times as much light as an entire
galaxy
containing a hundred billion stars.
A black hole is created by the total gravitational collapse of a massive star or group of stars. It is
the
final phase of some stars, in which gravity sucks the star in on itself—it implodes rather than
explodes. This makes it so dense that not even light can escape its gravitational field.
A nebula is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made up of dust and gas. Nebulae were thought
to
have been galaxies that appeared as a blur because they were so far away, but as more
powerful
telescopes were created, they showed that nebulae were not clumps of stars but in fact a hazy
cloud of gasses. A nebula is illuminated by bright stars nearby. More than 300 nebulae have
been
named.
The Solar System
THE SUN
The diameter of our closest star, the Sun, is 1,392,000 kilometers. The Sun is thought to be
4.6 billion years old. The Sun is a medium–size star known as a yellow dwarf. It is a star in the
Milky
Way galaxy and the temperature in its core is estimated to be over 15,000,000 degrees Celsius.
In the Sun's core, hydrogen is being fused to form helium. The energy created by this process
radiates up to the visible boundary of the Sun and then off into space. It radiates into space in
the
form of heat and light.
Because the Sun is so massive, it exerts a powerful gravitational pull on everything in our
solar system. It is because of the Sun's gravitational pull that Earth orbits the Sun in the manner
that it does.
The Sun has several layers: the core, the radiation zone, the convection zone, and the
photosphere (which is
the surface of the Sun). In addition, there are two layers of gas above the photosphere called
the
chromosphere and the corona.
22
Events that occur on the Sun include sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and solar prominences.
Sunspots are magnetic storms on the photosphere that appear as dark areas. Sunspots
regularly
appear and disappear in eleven-year cycles.
Solar flares are spectacular discharges of magnetic energy from the corona. These discharges
send
streams of protons and electrons outward into space. Solar flares can interrupt the
communications network here on Earth.
Solar winds are the result of gas expansion in the corona. This expansion leads to ion
formation.
These ions are hurled outward from the corona at over 500 kilometers per second.
Solar prominences are storms of gas which erupt from the surface in the form of columns which
either shoot outward into space or twist and loop back to the Sun's surface.
The Sun gives off many kinds of radiation other than light and heat. It also emits radio waves,
ultraviolet rays, and X-rays. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of the
ultraviolet rays and the X-rays.
The Sun does rotate, but because it is a large gaseous sphere, not all parts rotate at the same
speed.
This is known as a differential rotation.
THE PLANETS
Mercury
Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, has almost no atmosphere, and its dusty surface of
craters
resembles the Moon. The planet was named for the Roman god Mercury, a winged messenger,
and it travels around the Sun faster than any other planet. Mercury is difficult to see from
Earth—
in fact, the famous astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, for all his years of research and
observation,
never once was able to see Mercury.
Venus
Venus is often called Earth's twin because the two planets are close in size, but that's the only
similarity. The thick clouds that cover Venus create a greenhouse effect that keeps it sizzling at
864°F. Venus, named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, is also known as the
“morning
23
star” and “evening star” since it is visible at these times to the unaided eye. Venus appears as a
bright, white disk from Earth.
Earth
Earth is not perfectly round; it bulges at the equator and is flatter at the poles. From space the
planet looks blue with white swirls, created by water and clouds.
Mars
Because of its blood-red color (which comes from iron-rich dust), this planet was named for
Mars,
the
Roman god of war. Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun, situated between Earth and Jupiter.
Three-quarters red, Mars also has dark blotches on it and white areas at the poles—these are
white polar ice caps.
Jupiter
A belt of asteroids (fragments of rock and iron) between Mars and Jupiter separate the four
inner
planets from the five outer planets.
Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, was named for the most important Roman god
because of its size. Its most distinguishing feature is “the Great Red Spot,” an intense
windstorm
larger in size than Earth, which has continued for centuries without any signs of dying down. It
has 63
moons and 4 rings.
Saturn
Saturn, the second-largest planet, has majestic rings surrounding it. Named for the Roman god
of
farming, Saturn was the farthest planet known by the ancients. Saturn's seven rings are flat and
lie
inside one another. They are made of billions of ice particles. It has 31 moons and about 1000
rings.
Uranus
Uranus is a greenish-blue planet, twice as far from the Sun as its neighbor Saturn. Uranus
wasn't
discovered until 1781. Its discoverer, William Herschel, named it Georgium Sidus (the Georgian
star) after the English king, George III. Later its name was changed to Uranus, after an ancient
Greek sky god, since all the other planets had been named after Roman and Greek gods. It has
27
moons and 11 rings.
Neptune
Neptune, named for an ancient Roman sea god, is a stormy blue planet about 30 times
farther from the Sun than Earth. Neptune was discovered when astronomers realized that
something was exerting a gravitational pull on Uranus, and that it was possible that an unknown
planet might be responsible. It has 13 satellites and 4 rings.
24
Pluto
Pluto, named after the Roman and Greek god of the underworld, is the outermost
dwarf planet in our solar system. Pluto and its moon, Charon, are called “double planets”
because
Charon is so large it seems less of a moon than another planet. Pluto was predicted to exist in
1905
and discovered in 1930. That definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a dwarf planet.
Pluto is
the largest and second-most-massive (after Eris) known dwarf planet in the Solar System, and
the
ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun
In August 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) downgraded the status ofPluto to
that of
"dwarf planet." This means that from now on only the rocky worlds of the inner Solar System
and the
gas giants of the outer system will be designated as planets.
THE MOONS
Earth's Moon is a small ball of gray rock revolving 239,000 miles around Earth. It is just one of
many in the solar system. The Moon has no air and no water. It is about one-fourth as large as
Earth.
The Moon travels around Earth in an oval orbit at 36,800 kilometers per hour. The Moon does
not have an atmosphere, so temperatures range from -184 degrees Celsius during its night to
214
degrees Celsius during its day except at the poles where the temperature is a constant -96
degrees
Celsius.
The Moon is actually a little lopsided due to the lunar crust being thicker on one side than the
other. When you look at the Moon, you will see dark and light areas. The dark areas are young
plains called maria and are composed of basalt. The basalt flowed in and flooded the area
created
by a huge impact with an asteroid or comet. The light areas are the highlands, which are
mountains that were uplifted as a result of impacts. The lunar surface is covered by a
fine-grained
soil called “regolith” which results from the constant bombardment of the lunar rocks by small
meteorites.
The gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth affects the ocean tides on Earth. The closer the
Moon is to
Earth, the greater the effect. The time between high tides is about 12 hours and 25 minutes.
“Full Moon and No Moon describe two phases of the Moon as it orbits Earth. When the
Moon is between the Sun and the Earth, its sunlit side is turned away from the Earth and we say
there is no Moon. When the Earth is between the Sun and Moon, we can see the entire sunlit
side
of the Moon and call it a full Moon.
The Far Side of the Moon is always facing away from Earth because of the force of gravity. So
when we look at the Moon, we always see the same side.
The moons of Jupiter: Jupiter has 63 moons. 45 of these moons were discovered between
2000 and 2003. Astronomers believe that the moon count of Jupiter could go as high as 100.
The
newer moons were named after members of the god Jupiter's (Zeus to the Greeks) entourage,
among them : Themisto, Iocaste, Harpalyke, Praxidike, Taygete, Chaldene, Kalyke, Callirrhoe,
Megaclite, Isonoe, and Erinome.
25
The moons of Saturn: Saturn has 31 moons. 12 of them were discovered in late 2000 and
another one was announced in 2003. The older moons were named after figures in Greek
mythology
(Pan, Atlas, Pandora, Calypso, etc.). The newer moons of Saturn were named after Norse
(Ymir,
Thrym, Skadi, Suttung, Mundilfari), Celtic (Tarvos, Albiorix), and Inuit (Paaliaq, Siarnaq, Kiviuq,
Ijiraq)
legends.
The moons of Uranus: Uranus has 27 moons. Astronomers detected five of them between
1787 and 1948. The space probe Voyager discovered 10 more in 1985 and 1986. The names of
these moons are the names of characters from plays by Shakespeare. They are: Oberon,
Titania,
Umbriel, Ariel, Miranda, Puck, Portia, Juliet, Cressida, Rosalind, Belinda, Desdemona, Cordelia,
Ophelia, and Bianca. Miranda, with its deep scars and jumbled surface is one of the strangest
objects in the solar system. It seems to have been shattered by a collision, then pulled back
together
by gravity! In 1997, two more moons were discovered, Caliban and Sycorax—also characters
from
Shakespeare. 1999 brought Stephano, Prospero, and Setebos. A satellite discovered in 2001
was
dubbed Trinculo.
The moons of Neptune: Neptune has 13 moons, with Triton the largest. It is covered with a
frosty crust, where active volcanoes shoot crystals of nitrogen that look like geysers. The
surface
temperature of Triton is –390°F, making it the coldest object in the solar system. Five new
Neptunian moons were discovered in 2002 and 2003.
26
COLLEGE ENTRANCE
TEST REVIEW
SCIENCE
BIOLOGY POINTERS
BIOLOGY
- the area of science dealing with living things. It includes biological concepts and process skills,
technology and attitudes and values for addressing the needs and problems of society. In recent
years, the development of techniques in genetic engineering and increased understanding of
the molecular basis of cellular processes have led to the emergence of a new and exciting field
of scientific research called biotechnology.
Introduction
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- characterized by the presence of carbon covalently bonded with atoms like Hydrogen,
Oxygen, and Nitrogen.
a. Carbohydrates - are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (e.g., sugar, starches, and
cellulose) atoms. They have the general formula CnH2nOn. Their sizes range from the small
simple sugars like glucose and fructose to the large and complex forms like starch and
glycogen. Only the simple sugars (monosaccharides) can easily pass across cell membranes.
Most carbohydrates serve as energy molecules or energy reserves in living organisms.
Cellulose - gives strength and protection to plant cells.
b. Lipids – are macromolecules such as fats, oils and waxes. They are made up of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. The building blocks used to form fats are fatty acids and glycerol.
Some excess food in the body is stored as fats. Lipids that are liquid at room temperature
are known as oils. Waxes serves as protective body covering to organisms. They make plant
and animal tissues water-resistant.
c. Proteins - are made up of repeating units of amino acids. They are a component of the
muscles and all other tissues. In the form of enzymes, they control the rate of chemical
reactions inside the cell. Without the enzymes, such chemical processes hardly occur.
d. Nucleic Acids - are carriers of hereditary information in living organisms. What an organism
looks like, and what it can do, are controlled by nucleic acids.
e. Vitamins - are substances necessary in very small amount for body growth and activity. They
are also needed to prevent certain diseases. Vitamins are organic substances essential to life
but not required as energy sources. The sources of most Vitamins are plants and bacteria.
27
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- characterized by the absence of carbon. It lacks carbon-hydrogen bonds.
a. Water - is the most abundant inorganic compound. About 65% to 95% of the substances of
every living thing is water. It is the medium of transport for food, minerals and other
substances in living system.
b. Carbon dioxide - supplies the carbon found in substances made by living things.
- are chemical elements or compounds occurring naturally. They may come from the soil
maybe dissolved in water, or maybe found as salt in seawater. Minerals are absorbed by
plant roots in the form of ions.
LIFE FUNCTIONS
- All living things carry out certain activities or functions in order to maintain life.
a. Nutrition is the process of ingesting and absorbing food to provide the energy for life,
promote growth, and repair or replace damages tissues.
b. Transport involves movement of nutrients water, ions, and other materials into and out of
the various cells and tissues of organisms. This process includes absorption of small molecules
across cell membranes and secretion of biochemicals such as enzymes, mucous, and
hormones. In many species, the circulatory system plays an important role in transport.
c. Metabolism includes the process by which nutrients and simple molecules are used to form
more complex molecules for growth, repair, and reproduction (anabolism). Metabolism also
includes the process of breaking down complex molecules to release energy from chemical
bonds (catabolism) and to provide small molecules such as simple sugars and amino acids as
budding blocks for more complex molecules (anabolism).
d. An internal balance in all aspects of metabolism and biological function is called homeostasis.
e. Digestion is a special form of catabolism that breaks food down into smaller molecules and
releases energy.
f. Absorption allows small molecules to pass through cell membranes throughout the body
tissues. This allows for a gas exchange and in some species such as plants and fungi nutrients
are obtained by absorption from soil and water.
g. The behavior of living things is a response to stimuli in the environment. These stimuli may
include things such as light, chemical signals, noise, or a change in the seasons.
h. Excretion is the elimination of waste products.
i. Reproduction is the process by which an organism produces offspring either sexually or
asexually. Its main purpose is for the perpetuation of species. It is classified into two types,
namely:
1. Asexual - is the reproduction without the use of gametes or sex cells. One parent
organism ran reproduce by itself.
a. Fission - is the splitting of the body of an organism into two identical
parts. (e.g., Paramecia and planaria)
b. Budding - is the growing of bud out of the parent cells of bodies which
when detached can grow into another organism that resembles the
appearance of parent (e.g., sponges, and yeast)
c. Sporulation - is the spore formation as in fern plant and mushrooms.
2. Sexual - requires the union of male and female gametes called "fertilization".
Male gametes are called sperm cells and female gametes are called egg cells.
Fertilization is classified into two types, namely:
28
a. External Fertilization - the union of sperm cells and egg cells
happen outside the body of the female organisms. (e.g., seashells,
starfishes, frogs, fishes)
b. Internal Fertilization - the union of sperm cells and egg cells happen
inside the body of a female organism (e.g., higher forms of animals
and human)
Cells
- are the smallest structures capable of basic life processes, such as taking in nutrients,
expelling waste,
and reproducing. All living things are composed of cells. Some microscopic organisms, such as
bacteria
and protozoa, are unicellular, meaning they consist of a single cell. Plants, animals, and fungi
are
multicellular; that is, they are composed of a great many cells working in concert.
Cell Structure
PROKARYOTIC CELL
- found only in bacteria and archaebacteria, all the components, including the DNA, mingle
freely
in the cell’s interior, a single compartment.
- are among the tiniest of all cells, ranging in size from 0.0001 to 0.003 mm (0.000004 to 0.0001
in) in diameter.
- can be rod like, spherical, or spiral in shape, are surrounded by a protective cell wall.
- live in a watery environment, whether it is soil moisture, a pond, or the fluid surrounding cells in
the human body. Tiny pores in the cell wall enable water and the substances dissolved in it,
such as oxygen, to flow into the cell; these pores also allow wastes to flow out.
Plasma Membrane is a thin membrane pushed up against the inner surface of the prokaryotic
cell wall.
The plasma membrane, composed of two layers of flexible lipid molecules and interspersed with
durable
proteins, is both supple and strong. Unlike the cell wall, whose open pores allow the
unregulated traffic of
29
materials in and out of the cell, the plasma membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it
allows only
certain substances to pass through. Thus, the plasma membrane actively separates the cell’s
contents
from its surrounding fluids.
Cytoplasm is the semifluid that fills the cell enclosed in the plasma membrane. Composed of
about 65
percent water, the cytoplasm is packed with up to a billion molecules per cell, a rich storehouse
that
includes enzymes and dissolved nutrients, such as sugars and amino acids. The water provides
a favorable
environment for the thousands of biochemical reactions that take place in the cell. Within the
cytoplasm of
all prokaryotes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a complex molecule in the form of a double
helix, a shape
similar to a spiral staircase.
Ribosomes, also immersed in the cytoplasm are the only organelles in prokaryotic cells—tiny
bead-like
structures. These are the cell’s protein factories. Following the instructions encoded in the DNA,
ribosomes churn out proteins by the hundreds every minute, providing needed enzymes, the
replacements for worn-out transport proteins, or other proteins required by the cell.
EUKARYOTIC ANIMAL CELLS
- are typically about ten times larger than prokaryotic cells. In animal cells, the plasma
membrane,
rather than a cell wall, forms the cell’s outer boundary. With a design similar to the plasma
membrane of prokaryotic cells, it separates the cell from its surroundings and regulates the
traffic across the membrane.
Eukaryotic cell cytoplasm is similar to that of the prokaryote cell except for one major difference:
Eukaryotic cells house a nucleus and numerous other membrane-enclosed organelles. Like
separate
rooms of a house, these organelles enable specialized functions to be carried out efficiently. The
building of proteins and lipids, for example, takes place in separate organelles where
specialized
enzymes geared for each job are located.
Plasma Membrane
30
The plasma membrane that surrounds eukaryotic cells is a dynamic structure composed of two
layers of phospholipid molecules interspersed with cholesterol and proteins. Phospholipids are
composed of a hydrophilic, or water-loving, head and two tails, which are hydrophobic, or water-
hating. Tiny gaps in the membrane enable small molecules such as oxygen (upper right) to
diffuse
readily into and out of the cell.
Nucleus of a Cell
is the largest organelle in an animal cell. It contains numerous strands of DNA, the length of
each
strand being many times the diameter of the cell. The nucleus, present in eukaryotic cells, is a
discrete
structure containing chromosomes, which hold the genetic information for the cell. Separated
from
the cytoplasm of the cell by a double-layered membrane called the nuclear envelope, the
nucleus
contains a cellular material called nucleoplasm. Nuclear pores, present around the
circumference of
the nuclear membrane, allow the exchange of cellular materials between the nucleoplasm and
the
cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is an elongated membranous sac attached to the nuclear membrane.
Endoplasmic reticulum takes two forms: rough and smooth. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) is so
called because it appears bumpy under a microscope. It functions on synthesis of membrane
proteins,
secretory proteins and hydrolytic enzymes and also formation of transport vesicles. Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum functions on lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism in liver cells,
detoxification in liver cells and calcium ion storage.
Ribosomes in eukaryotic cells have the same function as those in prokaryotic cells—protein
synthesis—
but they differ slightly in structure. Eukaryote ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum
help
assemble proteins that typically are exported from the cell. The ribosomes work with other
molecules
to link amino acids to partially completed proteins. These incomplete proteins then travel to the
inner
chamber of the endoplasmic reticulum, where chemical modifications, such as the addition of a
sugar,
are carried out. Chemical modifications of lipids are also carried out in the endoplasmic
reticulum.
31
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER), lacks ribosomes and has an even surface. Within the
winding
channels of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the enzymes needed for the construction of
molecules such as carbohydrates and lipids. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is prominent in
liver
cells, where it also serves to detoxify substances such as alcohol, drugs, and other poisons.
Golgi apparatus, an organelle that resembles a stack of deflated balloons. It is packed with
enzymes
that complete the processing of proteins. These enzymes add sulfur or phosphorous atoms to
certain
regions of the protein, for example, or chop off tiny pieces from the ends of the proteins. The
completed protein then leaves the Golgi apparatus for its final destination inside or outside the
cell.
During its assembly on the ribosome, each protein has acquired a group of from 4 to 100 amino
acids
called a signal. The signal works as a molecular shipping label to direct the protein to its proper
location.
Lysosomes are small, often spherical organelles that function as the cell’s recycling center and
garbage
disposal. Powerful digestive enzymes concentrated in the lysosome break down worn-out
organelles
and ship their building blocks to the cytoplasm where they are used to construct new organelles.
Lysosomes also dismantle and recycle proteins, lipids, and other molecules.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. Within these long, slender organelles, which can
appear
oval or bean shaped under the electron microscope, enzymes convert the sugar glucose and
other
nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This molecule, in turn, serves as an energy battery
for
countless cellular processes, including the shuttling of substances across the plasma
membrane, the
building and transport of proteins and lipids, the recycling of molecules and organelles, and the
dividing of cells. Muscle and liver cells are particularly active and require dozens and sometimes
up to
a hundred mitochondria per cell to meet their energy needs. Mitochondria are unusual in that
they
contain their own DNA in the form of a prokaryote-like circular chromosome; have their own
ribosomes, which resemble prokaryotic ribosomes; and divide independently of the cell.
Cytoskeleton, a dynamic network of protein tubes, filaments, and fibers, crisscrosses the
cytoplasm,
anchoring the organelles in place and providing shape and structure to the cell. Many
components of
the cytoskeleton are assembled and disassembled by the cell as needed. During cell division,
for
example, a special structure called a spindle is built to move chromosomes around. After cell
division,
the spindle, no longer needed, is dismantled. Some components of the cytoskeleton serve as
microscopic tracks along which proteins and other molecules travel like miniature trains. Recent
research suggests that the cytoskeleton also may be a mechanical communication structure
that
converses with the nucleus to help organize events in the cell.
EUKARYOTIC PLANT CELLS
- Plant cells have all the components of animal cells and boast several added features, including
chloroplasts, a central vacuole, and a cell wall. Chloroplasts convert light energy—typically
from the Sun—into the sugar glucose, a form of chemical energy, in a process known as
photosynthesis.
- contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles. These include a nucleus
that
carries genetic material; mitochondria that generate energy; ribosomes that manufacture
32
proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures lipids used for making membranes
and storing energy; and a thin lipid membrane that surrounds the cell. Plant cells also contain
chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a single fluid-filled vacuole that stores
compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall that
protects the cell and maintains its shape.
Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, possess a circular chromosome and prokaryote-like ribosomes,
which
manufacture the proteins that the chloroplasts typically need.
Central vacuole of a mature plant cell typically takes up most of the room in the cell. The
vacuole, a
membranous bag, crowds the cytoplasm and organelles to the edges of the cell. The central
vacuole
stores water, salts, sugars, proteins, and other nutrients. In addition, it stores the blue, red, and
purple pigments that give certain flowers their colors. The central vacuole also contains plant
wastes
that taste bitter to certain insects, thus discouraging the insects from feasting on the plant.
Cell wall surrounds and protects the plasma membrane. Its pores enable materials to pass
freely into
and out of the cell. The strength of the wall also enables a cell to absorb water into the central
vacuole
and swell without bursting. The resulting pressure in the cells provides plants with rigidity and
support
for stems, leaves, and flowers. Without sufficient water pressure, the cells collapse and the plant
wilts.
SUMMARY OF COMAPRISONS BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYTIC CELLS
Cell Structure Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic
Nuclear MEmbrane absent Present
Membrane-bound organelles absent Present
Ribosomes Small Large
Chloroplasts absent Present
Mitochondria absent Present
Chromosomes Single circular Multiple double helix
33
ANIMAL CELLS VS PLANT CELLS
Plant cells contain cell walls, vacoules, and chloroplasts that animal cells don’t. On the other
hand, animal cells ahave centiroles and lysosomes that plant cells don’t.
Life Classification of Organisms
Levels of Classification
Domain - Kingdom - Phylum - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species
Family - group of genera with related characteristics. The family is below the order and above
the
genus in biological groupings. The names of families in modern classification are usually
derived from
a genus of the family, called the type genus. The family names of animals always end in idae, as
in
Equidae, the horse family; those of plants almost always end in aceae, as in Dipsacaceae, the
teasel
family.
Genus - category of classification of living things; specifically, a group of species closely related
in
structure and evolutionary origin. The position of a genus, in classification of the kingdoms of
living
forms, is below family or subfamily, and above species.
Species - is a group of closely related organisms that are able to interbreed and produce fertile
offspring
THE FIVE KINGDOMS
The Kingdom Prokarya or Bacteria are distinguished from the life forms in all other kingdoms in
that
they do not have a membrane bound nucleus containing the genetic material of the cell. They
are called
"prokaryotes". The genetic material is simply found in strands ("plasmids") within the cell's
cytoplasm.
Note that what was previously called blue green algae are now classified as cyanobacteria
because they
are prokaryotes.
The Kingdom Animalia is comprised of multi-celled organisms which develop from an embryo
resulting from the fertilization of an egg by a much smaller sperm. However, even among the
vertebrate
animals, there is an exception to sexual reproduction that makes the definition slightly less than
a
100% accurate. A species of lizard of the genus Cnemidophorus reproduces by
parthenogenesis—no
males or sperm required.
The Kingdom Plantae is composed of multi-celled organisms that grow from embryos that are
usually the result of sexual fusion of a male and female cell. Again there are exceptions
although
somewhere in every plant's past, there were sexual forbears.
34
The Kingdom Fungi is comprised of non-motile cells that have cell walls made of chitin (the
same
hard stuff that the outer bodies of insects are made of) and not cellulose. Therefore, some argue
that
fungi are more closely related to animals than plants. Fungi develop from spores without any
embryonic stage. They digest other living things outside their bodies by releasing enzymes and
then
absorbing the product.
Kingdom Protista is the catch-all kingdom for everything that does not fit into the other four. It is
comprised of many microscope organisms that are of great interest to this group (as well as
some
macroscopic organisms). These include protozoa (or protista under the more modern name)
and algae
but also such diverse organisms as slime molds and slime nets. Although we often think of this
group
from its microscopic members, it is also comprised of some large organisms such as giant kelps
that can
grow as much as 10 meters (over 30 feet).
Life in Organisms: Plants
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes—that is, their cells contain membrane-bound structures
called
organelles. Plants differ from other eukaryotes because their cells are enclosed by more or less
rigid cell
walls composed primarily of cellulose. The most important characteristic of plants is their ability
to
photosynthesize. During photosynthesis, plants make their own food by converting light energy
into
chemical energy—a process carried out in the green cellular organelles called chloroplasts.
Classification
Non- flowering or non seed forming plants – produces pores for propagation
Flowering or seed plants
a. Gymgiosperms – seeds are expose or naked, meaning they are not enclosed within fruits.
They do not produce fruits, instead they form cones.
b. Angiosperms – sees are found within fruits.
i. monocotyledons
ii. dicotyledons
Tissue Systems
There are many variants of the generalized plant cell and its parts. Similar kinds of cells are
organized into structural and functional units, or tissues, which make up the plant as a whole,
and new
cells (and tissues) are formed at growing points of actively dividing cells. These growing points,
called
meristems, are located either at the stem and root tips (apical meristems), where they are
responsible
for the primary growth of plants, or laterally in stems and roots (lateral meristems), where they
are
responsible for secondary plants growth. Three tissue systems are recognized in vascular
plants:
dermal, vascular, and ground (or fundamental).
35
DERMAL SYSTEM
The dermal system consists of the epidermis, or outermost layer, of the plants body. It forms
the skin of the plants, covering the leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, and seeds. Epidermal cells vary
greatly
in function and structure.
VASCULAR SYSTEM
The vascular tissue system consists of two kinds of conducting tissues: the xylem, responsible
for conduction of water and dissolved mineral nutrients, and the phloem, responsible for
conduction
of food. The xylem also stores food and helps support the plants.
Xylem
The xylem consists of two types of conducting cells: tracheids and vessels. Elongated cells, with
tapered ends and secondary walls, both types lack cytoplasm and are dead at maturity. The
walls
have pits—areas in which secondary thickening does not occur—through which water moves
from
cell to cell. Vessels usually are shorter and broader than tracheids, and in addition to pits they
have perforation—areas of the cell wall that lack both primary and secondary thickenings and
through which water and dissolved nutrients may freely pass.
Phloem
The phloem, or food-conducting tissue, consists of cells that are living at maturity. The principal
cells
of phloem, the sieve elements, are so called because of the clusters of pores in their walls
through
which the protoplasts of adjoining cells are connected. Two types of sieve elements occur: sieve
cells, with narrow pores in rather uniform clusters on the cell walls, and sieve-tube members,
with
larger pores on some walls of the cell than on others. Although the sieve elements contain
cytoplasm at maturity, the nucleus and other organelles are lacking. Associated with the sieve
elements are companion cells that do contain nuclei and that are responsible for manufacturing
and secreting substances into the sieve elements and removing waste products from them.
Plant Organs
The body of a vascular plants is organized into three general kinds of organs, stems, and
leaves.
These organs all contain the three kinds of tissue systems mentioned above, but they differ in
the way
the cells are specialized to carry out different functions.
ROOTS
The function of roots is to anchor the plants substrate and to absorb water and minerals. The
epidermis is just behind the growing tip of roots and is covered with root hairs, which are
outgrowths
of the epidermal cells. The root hairs increase the surface area of the roots and serve as the
surface
through which water and nutrients are absorbed.
36
STEMS
Are usually above ground, grow upward, and bear leaves, which are attached in a regular
pattern at nodes along the stem. The portions of the stem between nodes are called internodes.
Stems
increase in length through the activity of an apical meristem at the stem tip. This growing point
also
gives rise to new leaves, which surround and protect the stem tip, or apical bud, before they
expand.
Apical buds of deciduous trees, which lose their leaves during part of the year, are usually
protected
by modified leaves called bud scales.
LEAF
The primary photosynthetic organ of most plants. Leaves are usually flattened blades that
consist, internally, mostly of parenchyma tissue called the mesophyll, which is made up of
loosely
arranged cells with spaces between them. The spaces are filled with air, from which the cells
absorb
carbon dioxide and into which they expel oxygen. The mesophyll is bounded by the upper and
lower
surface of the leaf blade, which is covered by epidermal tissue. A vascular network runs through
the
mesophyll, providing the cell walls with water and removing the food products of photosynthesis
to
other parts of the plants.
Life in Organisms: Animals
Types of Animals
VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATE
Vertebrates
One phylum of animals, the chordates, has been more intensively studied than has any other,
because it comprises nearly all the world's largest and most familiar animals as well as humans.
This
phylum includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish together with a collection of
lesser-
known organisms, such as sea squirts and their relatives. The feature uniting these animals is
that at
some stage in their lives, all have a flexible supporting rod, called a notochord, running the
length of
their bodies. In the great majority of chordates, the notochord is replaced by a series of
interlocking
bones called vertebrae during early development. These bones form the backbone, and they
give these
animals their name—the vertebrates.
Invertebrates
are far more numerous and diverse and include an immense variety of animals from sponges,
worms, and jellyfish to mollusks and insects. Compose the 98 percent of the animal kingdom.
The only
feature these diverse creatures share in common is the lack of a backbone.
37
COLD-BLOODED AND WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS
Cold blooded or ectoderm
- an animal whose temperature is dictated by its surroundings. Reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
- Although they do not maintain a constant warm temperature, some of these animals do
manage to raise their body temperature far above that of their surroundings. They do this by
behavioral means, such as basking in direct sunshine when the surrounding air is cool.
Warm blooded or endoderm
- an animal that keeps its body at a constant warm temperature by generating internal heat.
- these animals generate heat through their metabolic processes, and they retain it by having
insulating layers of fat, fur, or feathers. Because their bodies are always warm, they can remain
active in some of the coldest conditions on earth.
Plant-eaters, or herbivores, often do not have to search far to find things to eat, and in some
cases—
for example wood-boring insects—they are entirely surrounded by their food. The disadvantage
of a
plant-based diet is that it can be difficult to digest and is often low in nutrients.
Carnivores live on flesh from other animals that is often nutrient-rich and easy to digest but
difficult to
obtain. Finding and capturing this kind of food calls for keen senses. But even though a hunter
has
acute vision or a highly developed sense of smell, a large proportion of a hunter's victims
manage to
escape. If this happens too often, a predator quickly starves.
Omnivore, an animal that eats both animal flesh and vegetable matter. The term omnivore
indicates
similarities in the behavior and physiology of many unrelated animals; for example, many small
birds
and mammals are omnivorous.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction, animals produce offspring without needing a partner. Asexual
reproduction is
most common in simple animals such as flatworms and cnidarians.
Sexual reproduction, involves two parents. The parents produce sperm and egg cells
(gametes), which
are brought together to form a fertilized cell (zygote) with a new and unique combination of
genes. In
this genetic lottery, offspring inherit unique combinations of characteristics that increase the
likelihood that at least some individuals in the population can survive changes in the
environment. In
most cases, each partner is either male or female, but in some animals—such as earthworms,
slugs,
and snails–each one is a hermaphrodite, an animal that has both male and female organs.
Hermaphrodites usually fertilize each other, with both partners producing young.
Internal fertilization takes place inside the female's body. The male typically has a penis or other
structure that delivers sperm into the female's reproductive tract. All mammals, reptiles, and
birds as
well as some invertebrates, including snails, worms, and insects, use internal fertilization.
38
Organ Systems of the Body
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
The human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones bound together by tough and relatively
inelastic connective tissues called ligaments. The different parts of the body vary greatly in their
degree of movement. Thus, the arm at the shoulder is freely movable, whereas the knee joint is
definitely limited to a hingelike action. The movements of individual vertebrae are extremely
limited;
the bones composing the skull are immovable. Movements of the bones of the skeleton are
effected
by contractions of the skeletal muscles, to which the bones are attached by tendons. These
muscular
contractions are controlled by the nervous system.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system has two divisions: the somatic, which allows voluntary control over skeletal
muscle, and the autonomic, which is involuntary and controls cardiac and smooth muscle and
glands.
The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic.
Many,
but not all, of the muscles and glands that distribute nerve impulses to the larger interior organs
possess a double nerve supply; in such cases the two divisions may exert opposing effects.
Thus, the
sympathetic system increases heartbeat, and the parasympathetic system decreases heartbeat.
The
two nervous systems are not always antagonistic, however.
Human Brain
The human brain has three major structural components: the large dome-shaped cerebrum
(top), the
smaller somewhat spherical cerebellum (lower right), and the brainstem (center). Prominent in
the
brainstem are the medulla oblongata (the egg-shaped enlargement at center) and the thalamus
(between
the medulla and the cerebrum). The cerebrum is responsible for intelligence and reasoning. The
cerebellum
helps to maintain balance and posture. The medulla is involved in maintaining involuntary
functions such as
respiration, and the thalamus acts as a relay center for electrical impulses traveling to and from
the cerebral
cortex. Lack of blood flow to any part of the brain results in a stroke, permanent damage that
interferes with
the functions of the affected part of the brain.
39
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Human Circulatory System The human circulatory system is composed of the muscular heart
and an
intricate network of elastic blood vessels known as arteries, veins, and capillaries. These
structures
work together to circulate blood throughout the body, in the process delivering life-preserving
oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells while also removing waste products.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
The body defends itself against foreign proteins and infectious microorganisms by means of a
complex dual system that depends on recognizing a portion of the surface pattern of the
invader.
The two parts of the system are termed cellular immunity, in which lymphocytes are the effective
agent, and humoral immunity, based on the action of antibody molecules.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration is carried on by the expansion and contraction of the lungs; the process and the
rate at which it proceeds are controlled by a nervous center in the brain.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproduction is accomplished by the union of male sperm and the female ovum. In coitus, the
male organ ejaculates more than 250 million sperm into the vagina, from which some make their
way
to the uterus. Ovulation, the release of an egg into the uterus, occurs approximately every 28
days;
during the same period the uterus is prepared for the implantation of a fertilized ovum by the
action of
estrogens. If a male cell fails to unite with a female cell, other hormones cause the uterine wall
to
slough off during menstruation. From puberty to menopause, the process of ovulation, and
preparation, and menstruation is repeated monthly except for periods of pregnancy. The
duration of
pregnancy is about 280 days. After childbirth, prolactin, a hormone secreted by the pituitary,
activates the production of milk.
40
Female Reproductive System
The bones of the human female pelvis form a bowl-shaped cavity that supports the weight of a
developing fetus and encloses the organs of the female reproductive tract. Two ovaries, the
female
gonads, produce mature eggs. Leading away from the ovaries are the fallopian tubes, or
oviducts,
the site of fertilization. The uterus, a muscular organ with an expandable neck called the cervix,
houses the developing fetus, which leaves the woman's body through the vagina, or birth canal.
Male Reproductive System The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have
sexual intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The gonads, called
testicles,
produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal
vesicles, a
pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with
sperm
to produce semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland,
which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis
ejaculates semen.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
In addition to the integrative action of the nervous system, control of various body functions is
exerted by the endocrine glands. An important part of this system, the pituitary, lies at the base
of the
brain. This master gland secretes a variety of hormones, including the following: (1) a hormone
that
stimulates the thyroid gland and controls its secretion of thyroxine, which dictates the rate at
which
all cells utilize oxygen; (2) a hormone that controls the secretion in the adrenal gland of
hormones
that influence the metabolism of carbohydrates, sodium, and potassium and control the rate at
which substances are exchanged between blood and tissue fluid;
(3) substances that control the secretion in the ovaries of estrogen and progesterone and the
creation in the testicles of testosterone; (4) the somatotropic, or growth, hormone, which
controls
41
the rate of development of the skeleton and large interior organs through its effect on the
metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates; and an insulin inhibitor—a lack of insulin causes
diabetes
mellitus.
Pituitary Gland
Called the master gland, the pituitary secretes hormones that control the activity of other
endocrine glands and regulate various biological processes. Its secretions include growth
hormone
(which stimulates cellular activity in bone, cartilage, and other structural tissue); thyroid
stimulating hormone (which causes the thyroid to release metabolism-regulating hormones);
antidiuretic hormone (which causes the kidney to excrete less water in the urine); and prolactin
(which stimulates milk production and breast development in females). The pituitary gland is
influenced both neurally and hormonally by the hypothalamus.
DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEMS
Human Digestive System The human digestive system consists of a series of organs and
structures that help break down food and absorb nutrients for use throughout the body. Food
enters
the digestive system through the mouth and passes through the esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and rectum. Other organs, such as the liver, further aid in the
breakdown of
food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigestible materials from the body.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Structure of the Skin
The skin consists of an outer, protective layer (epidermis) and an inner, living layer (dermis). The
top layer of the epidermis is composed of dead cells containing keratin, the horny scleroprotein
that also makes up hair and nails.
The skin is an organ of double-layered tissue stretched over the surface of the body and
protecting it from drying or losing fluid, from harmful external substances, and from extremes of
temperature. The inner layer, called the dermis, contains sweat glands, blood vessels, nerve
endings
(sense receptors), and the bases of hair and nails. The outer layer, the epidermis, is only a few
cells
thick; it contains pigments, pores, and ducts, and its surface is made of dead cells that it sheds
from
the body. (Hair and nails are adaptations arising from the dead cells.) The sweat glands excrete
waste
and cool the body through evaporation of fluid droplets; the blood vessels of the dermis
supplement
temperature regulation by contracting to preserve body heat and expanding to dissipate it.
Separate
kinds of receptors convey pressure, temperature, and pain. Fat cells in the dermis insulate the
body,
and oil glands lubricate the epidermis.
42
Cell Division and Reproduction
Mitosis
Cell division produces two daughter cells in each succession that are roughly identical copies of
the parental cell before it starts to enlarge or grow. This kind of cell division constitutes what is
exactly
called mitosis. Mitosis is made up of four main stages:
1. Prophase- each chromosome gradually condenses and thickens, and becomes more
visible even under an ordinary light microscope; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus
gradually dissociate and spindle fibers radiating from two opposite poles are formed.
2. Metaphase- each chromosome moves toward an imaginary line, called the equatorial
plate, that divides the cell into two; the chromosomes are perpendicular to the long axes
of the spindle fibers.
3. Anaphase- the kinetochore that joins two sister chromatids together splits and each
chromatid or single stranded chromosome moves toward opposite poles.
4. Telophase- the single stranded chromosomes relax into the extended state upon
reaching the poles; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-form in each pole.
Cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, usually occurs at the latter part of this stage.
43
Meiosis
Meiosis takes place in special cells that produce what we call the sex cells. During meiosis, two
cell divisions occur to produce four daughter cells from the original parent cell. Each resulting
cell has
half the chromosomal DNA of the parent cell. A half set of chromosomes in an organism is
known as the
haploid number. In the first cell division of meiosis the chromosomes of a gamete cell duplicate
and join
in pairs. The paired chromosomes align at the equator of the cell, and then separate and move
to
opposite poles in the cell. The cell then splits to form two daughter cells. As meiosis proceeds,
the two
daughter cells undergo another cell division to form four cells, each of which bears half of the
number
of chromosomes found in the other cells of the organism.
Cell and the Environment
Tonicity – measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient (measured by the water potential
of two
solutions) of two solutions separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
44
Osmosis - spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a partially permeable
membrane into
a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute
concentrations
on the two sides.
Transport of Substances
45
Heredity
- process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes, the basic
units of heredity. Heredity also refers to the inherited characteristics of an individual, including
traits
such as height, eye color, and blood type.
Some of Mendel’s Basic Concepts
GENETICS is the study of how heredity works and, in particular, of genes.
GENE is a section of a long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule, and it carries information for
the
construction of a protein or part of a protein. Through the diversity of proteins they code for,
genes
influence or determine such traits as eye color, the ability of a bacterium to eat a certain sugar,
or the
number of peas in a pod. A virus has as few as a dozen genes. A simple roundworm has 5000
to 8000
genes, while a corn plant has 60,000. The construction of a human requires an estimated
50,000 genes.
ALLELES – variant form of a gene.
GENOTYPE – The genetic composition of a cell or individual. Genotypes can be any of the
following
examples:
AA – homozygous dominant (made of two dominant alleles)
Aa – a hetrozygous dominant (made of one dominant an one recessive)
aa – homozygous recessive (made up of two recessive alleles)
PHENOTYPE – the expression or manifestation of the genotype (can be morphological,
physiological or
biochemical, sexual, behavioral)
AA- will exhibit a dominant trait
Aa - will also exhibit a dominant trait
aa – will exhibit the recessive trait
LAW OF INDEPENDENT SEGREGATION states that members of a gene 9pair) separate
independently
of the separation of the other gene pairsduring meiosis or gamete formation
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT states that diferent gene pairs assort to recombine
with each
other independently of the assortment of the other gene pairs during meiosis or gamete
formation.
Females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y chromosome. The Y
chromosome
is about one-third the size of the X chromosome. A sperm, the reproductive cell produced by the
male,
can carry either one X or one Y chromosome. An egg, the reproductive cell produced by the
female, can
carry only the X chromosome. When a sperm with an X chromosome unites with an egg, the
result is a
child with two X chromosomes—a female. When a sperm with a Y chromosome unites with an
egg,
46
however, the result is a child with one X and one Y chromosome—a male. Thus, the father
determines
the gender of the child.
CODOMINANCE- when the two alleles in a gene pair appear together in the individual that is
heterozygous for the trait
Dominant-Recessive Inheritance
The dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance, a relatively simple pattern, involves paired
alleles that
influence one trait. In this pattern, one of the two alleles contains information for a certain
characteristic—the lavender color of sweet pea flowers, for example—while the second allele
directs
the production of an alternate characteristic—the white flower color. In sweet peas, if these two
alleles
occur together, the allele for lavender flowers is expressed, and the flowers are lavender. The
allele for
lavender is therefore called the dominant allele. The allele for white is known as the recessive
allele.
Lavender flowers also occur when two alleles for lavender color are paired. Only when two
alleles for
the recessive characteristic are paired do white flowers appear. This genetic rule applies
regardless of
the organism or the trait. In the dominant recessive pattern, the recessive trait shows up only
when two
recessive alleles are paired.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Water Cycle - ground water, percolation, run-off, transpiration, precipitation, evaporation, water
vapour.
Carbon Cycle - atmospheric CO2, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, combustion, death and
decomposition, fossil fuels, erosion from marine deposits.
47
Nitrogen Cycle - nitrogen fixation, nitrogen fixing bacteria, assimilation, ammonification,
nitrification,
nitrifying bacteria, denitrification, denitrifying bacteria, atmospheric N2, ammonia, nitrates,
nitrites.
Phosphorous Cycle
Sulfur Cycle
48
Ecology
The study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological environment.
The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen,
carbon
dioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere. The biological environment includes organisms
of
the same kind as well as other plants and animals.
Food Chain
A succession of organisms in an ecological community that constitutes a continuation of food
energy from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed
upon
by a higher member.
Food Web
A set of interconnected food chains by which energy and materials circulate within an
ecosystem (see
Ecology). The food web is divided into two broad categories: the grazing web, which typically
begins with
green plants, algae, or photosynthesizing plankton, and the detrital web, which begins with
organic
debris. These webs are made up of individual food chains. In a grazing web, materials typically
pass from
plants to plant eaters (herbivores) to flesh eaters (carnivores). In a detrital web, materials pass
from plant
and animal matter to bacteria and fungi (decomposers), then to detrital feeders (detritivores),
and then to
their predators (carnivores).
49
Ecosystem
Organisms living in a particular environment, such as a forest or a coral reef, and the physical
parts
of the environment that affect them. A community of interacting living and nonliving things.
Producers,
consumers, decomposers, and abiotic matter form an integrated, functioning whole driven by
the Sun’s
energy.
Symbiosis
(Greek symbioun, “to live together”), in biology, term for the interdependence of different
species, which are sometimes called symbionts. There are three main types of symbiosis,
based upon
the specific relationship between the species involved: mutualism, parasitism, and
commensalism.
MUTUALISM
Symbiosis that results in mutual benefit to the interdependent organisms. An example of
mutualism is the coexistence of certain species of algae and fungi that together compose
lichens.
Their close association enables them to live in extreme environments, nourished only by light,
air, and
minerals. Living separately, the alga and fungus would not survive in such conditions. Another
example is the relationship between most mycorrhizae and certain plants. Mycorrhizae are
fungal
growths on the roots of such plants as heaths, orchids, and many conifers. The fungi penetrate
the
roots of the plants and make soil nutriments such as nitrogen available to the plants, receiving
carbohydrates in return.
PARASITISM
Also known as antagonistic symbiosis, one organism receives no benefits and is often injured
while supplying nutrients or shelter for the other organism (see Parasite). Parasites include
viruses
and bacteria that cause many diseases; certain protozoans that can infect plants and animals;
tapeworms and flukes that infest the intestinal tracks and internal organs of animals; and
external
parasites such as lice and ticks. There are also parasitic plants like mistletoe that draw their
nourishment from the branches of other plants.
COMMENSALISM
Is an association between two different kinds of nonparasitic animals, called commensals, that
is
harmless to both and in which one of the organism benefits. Many commensals are free to
separate.
Other commensals function together so completely that they cannot separate. They are not
considered parasitic, however, because they do not harm each other.
COMPETITION
When a shared resource is in short supply, organisms compete, and those that are more
successful
survive.
Within some plant and animal populations, all individuals may share the resources in such a
way that
none obtains sufficient quantities to survive as adults or to reproduce. Among other plant and
animal
populations, dominant individuals claim access to the scarce resources and others are
excluded.
Individual plants tend to claim and hold onto a site until they lose vigor or die. These prevent
other
individuals from surviving by controlling light, moisture, and nutrients in their immediate areas.
PREDATION
One of the fundamental interactions is predation, or the consumption of one living organism,
plant
or animal, by another. While it serves to move energy and nutrients through the ecosystem,
predation
may also regulate population and promote natural selection by weeding the unfit from a
population.
50
Thus, a rabbit is a predator on grass, just as the fox is a predator on the rabbit. Predation on
plants
involves defoliation by grazers and the consumption of seeds and fruits. The abundance of plant
predators, or herbivores, directly influences the growth and survival of the carnivores. Thus,
predator-
prey interactions at one feeding level influence the predator-prey relations at the next feeding
level. In
some communities, predators may so reduce populations of prey species that a number of
competing
species can coexist in the same area because none is abundant enough to control the resource.
When
predators are reduced or removed, however, the dominant species tend to crowd out other
competitors, thereby reducing species diversity.
COEVOLUTION
The joint evolution of two unrelated species that have a close ecological relationship—that is,
the
evolution of one species depends in part on the evolution of the other. Coevolution is also
involved in
predator-prey relations. Over time, as predators evolve more efficient ways of capturing or
consuming prey,
the prey evolves ways to escape predation. Plants have acquired such defensive mechanisms
as thorns,
spines, hard seed-coats, and poisonous or ill-tasting sap that deter would-be consumers. Some
herbivores
are able to breach these defenses and attack the plant. Certain insects, such as the monarch
butterfly, can
incorporate poisonous substances found in food plants into their own tissues and use them as a
defense
against predators
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COLLEGE ENTRANCE
TEST REVIEW
SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY POINTERS
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the physical science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of
substances and also the transformations that these substances undergo. Because the study of
chemistry
encompasses the entire material universe, it is central to the understanding of other sciences.
Several
branches of Chemistry are the following:
a. Organic chemistry – mostly concerned with the study of chemicals containing the element
carbon
b. Inorganic chemistry – the study of all elements of compounds other than organic compounds
c. Analytical Chemistry – the study of qualitative and quantitative analysis of elements
and compounds.
d. Physical Chemistry – the study of reaction rates, mechanisms, bonding and structure
Matter
Matter in science, is a general term applied to anything that has the property of occupying
space and the attributes of gravity and inertia.
STATES OF MATTER
Plasma is the collection of charged gaseous particles containing nearly equal numbers of
negative
and positive ions, is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.
Solid is characterized by resistance to any change in shape, caused by a strong attraction
between the molecules of which it is composed.
Liquids have sufficient molecular attraction to resist forces tending to change their volume.
Gas molecules are widely dispersed and move freely, offers no resistance to change of shape
and
little resistance to change of volume.
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CHANGES IN MATTER
Physical Change is characterized by a change in the phase or state of a substance. Some
physical
properties of the substance are altered, but its chemical composition remains unchanged. Ex.
phase change
Chemical change is characterized by a change in composition of its molecules changes. The
properties of the original substance are lost, and new substances with new properties are
produced. An example of a chemical change is the production of rust (iron oxide) when oxygen
in
the air reacts with iron.
Phase Changes
Elements and Compounds
An Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary
means. Ninety elements are known to occur in nature, and 22 more have been made artificially.
Out of
this limited number of elements, all the millions of known substances are made.
Compounds are substance in which two or more elements joined by chemical bonds. A
compound
can be created or broken down by means of a reaction but not by mechanical or physical
techniques.
Atoms and Molecules
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that has the properties of the element; a molecule is
the
smallest unit of a compound or the form of an element in which atoms bind together that has the
properties of the compound or element.
53
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
Nucleus - is very small compared with the rest of the atom and contains most of the atomic
mass (or
weight). The nucleus is about 10-12 cm (3.94 x 10-13 in) in diameter. The size ratio of the atom
to the
nucleus is 10,000 to 1.
Electrons - is about 10-8 cm (3.94 x 10-9 in). It carries a negative electric charge with an
assigned
value of -1. The atom is determined by the size of this electron cloud.
Proton - carries a positive electric charge with an assigned value of +1. The mass of a proton is
1836
times the mass of an electron.
Neutron - has nearly the same mass as the proton, but the neutron has no electric charge.
Mass Number - The total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Atomic number- equals to the number of proton in an electron
Isotopes - atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different numbers
of
neutrons. The term isotope (from the Greek word meaning "same place") defines atoms that
have the
same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. That is, they are atoms of the same
element that have different masses. (Ex. 7H1, 7H1, H71, H1)
Atomic Weight - the average weight (more correctly, the mass) of an atom of an element, taking
into
account the masses of all its isotopes and the percentage of their occurrence in nature.
MODELS OF THE ATOM
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of the atom's electrons with respect to
its
nucleus.
An electron may occupy a certain energy level (n). An orbital is generally visualized as a cloud
with a
specified size and shape determined, in general, by the energy level of the electron. Valence
electrons are
electrons found in the highest energy level of the electron cloud.
54
Given the electronic configuration, one can determine its position in the periodic table. The
energy level
corresponds to the period of the periodic table (1-7) while the number of valence electrons
corresponds to
the group number of that element. Example, the electron configuration of Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 4s2
3d10 4p , the orbital number is while the valence number is 1. Therefore, Sodium is in group I
period .
Chemical Bonds, Formulas, and Equation
Elements that do not have a noble-gas configuration (a stable configuration) try to attain such a
configuration by entering into chemical reactions. Stable molecules are formed when atoms
combine so
as to have outer shells holding eight electrons.
Ionic Bonds
In the ionic model, electrons are transferred from one atom to another to achieve noble gas
configuration. An ionic bond is formed. The atom giving up the electrons become positively
charge
(cation), while the atom accepting the electrons becomes negatively charged (Anion). Ionic
bonds are
formed when elements in Group IA to IIA (except hydrogen) combines with elements in group
VIA to
VIIA of the periodic table. Ionic solids form crystals. Cations and anions in crystals are arranged
in a
repeated fixed manner (crystal structure).
Covalent bonds
When sharing of available outer elements of the atoms occur, a covalent bond is formed.
There is no electron transfer in covalent bonding. There can be multiple covalent bonds
between
two atoms. There can be a double bond or a triple bond.
Chemical Reactions
The reaction is the heart of the study of chemistry. All chemical reactions involve the breakage
and reformation of chemical bonds of molecules to form different substances. Chemical
reactions can
be expressed through equations that resemble mathematical equations. The reactants (the
substances
that are combined to react with one another) appear on the left side of the equation, and the
products (substances produced by the reaction) are written on the right side of the equation.
The
55
reactants and products are typically connected by an arrow or various types of double arrows.
The
single arrow shows that a reaction only proceeds in the direction indicated, while the double
arrow
indicates that a reaction can proceed in either direction (that products are also reacting with
each
other to reform reactants).
Example:
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A. Composition Reaction (synthesis or combination reaction) is a type of chemical reaction
where a
more complex substance is broken down into two or more simpler substances.
General Form: A+ X AX
e.g. 2H2 + O2 2H2O
B. Decomposition Reaction is a type of chemical reaction where a more complex substance is
broken down into two or more simpler substances.
e.g. CaCO3 CO2
There are five classes if decomposition, namely:
1. Decomposition of a metallic carbonate
2. Decomposition of a metallic hydroxide
3. Decomposition of a metallic chlorate
4. Decomposition of some acids
5. Decomposition of metallic oxides
C. Single Replacement Reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a less reactive
element is displaced from a compound by a more reactive element.
General Form: + B
There are four classes of replacement reactions. They are as given below:
1. Replacement of a less active metal from a compound by a more active metal.
2. Replacement of a less active nonmetal from a compound by more active non-metal.
3. Replacement of hydrogen from water by metals
4. Replacement of hydrogen from an acid by a more reactive metal.
D. Double Displacement reaction is a type of reaction wherein cations of two compounds switch
anions to form new products.
General Form : AX + BY BX
e. 2O
56
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
A chemical reaction either absorbs or releases energy. The energy released is in the form of
heat energy. An exothermic reaction is defined as a chemical reaction that releases energy.
Most often,
the energy released is in the form of heat or light. When a bomb explodes, a tremendous
amount of
light and heat energy is released. This is an example of an exothermic reaction. On the other
hand,
there are chemical reactions that absorb energy as they take place. This reaction is
endothermic.
Photosynthesis requires light from the sun to proceed the reaction. Thus, it is an example of
endothermic reaction.
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
In 1799, Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions (also called the law of constant
composition). The law states that compounds contain elements in certain fixed proportions and
in no
other combinations, regardless of the method of preparation. Thus, chalk, or calcium carbonate,
CaCOO, is always 40% calcium, 12% carbon, and 48% oxygen, by weight.
In 1803, John Dalton articulated the law of multiple proportions. This law states that if two
elements combine to form more than one compound, then the ratio of the weights of the second
element (which combines with a fixed weight of the first element) will be small whole numbers.
For
example, carbon and oxygen can form two compounds, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
In
carbon monoxide 12 g of carbon combine with 16 g of oxygen, and in carbon dioxide, the same
weight
of carbon combines with 32 g of oxygen. Thus, the oxygen weight ratio that combines with 12 g
of
carbon is (32/16), or 2.
The law of combining weights, also proposed by Dalton, states that in every compound, the
proportion by weight of each element in the compound may be expressed by the atomic weight
or a
multiple of the atomic weight of each element. The law of combining weights can be seen to
follow
directly from the atomic theory. In the case of water, HMO, each molecule of water is composed
of
two atoms of hydrogen (atomic weight 1) and one atom of oxygen (atomic weight 16). Thus, all
molecules of water consist of 2 parts of hydrogen and 16 parts of oxygen by weight. All other
compounds can be analyzed similarly.
Balancing Equations
A chemical equation is considered balance if there are exactly the same number of atoms for
each element on both sides of the equation.
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with quantitative relationships between
the reactants and products of a chemical reaction.
In the reaction
2H2 + O2 2O
two moles of hydrogen is needed to react with one mole of oxygen to yield two moles of water.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
57
25moles H20
10 moles H20 =
2 moles CH4H10
5moles CH4H10
a. Mole to Mole
Combustion of butane produces carbon dioxide and water. How many moles of water will be
produced if 5 moles of butane is used in the reaction?
Step1: Write the balanced chemical equation.
Step2: The balanced chemical reaction shows that for every 2 moles of butane, 10 moles of
water will be produced. Using the relationship, multiply the number of moles of butane to the
stoichiometric ratio.
0.25 moles Na2O x 61.98g/mol Na2O = 15.50 g Na2O
Convert the answer in step 3 into required unit (mass) using the relationship
Step 4:
m=n
0.25 moles Na2O
1mole Na2O
1mol Na2CO3
0.25 moles Na2CO3 x
carbonate, 1mole of sodium oxide will be produced. Using this relationship, multiply 0.25
moles of sodium carbonate to the stoichiometric ratio.
The balanced chemical equation shows that for every 1mole of sodium
Step 3:
Step2: Determine the molecular weight of Na2O and analyze the problem.
Na2O = 22.99(2) + 16 = 61.98 g/mol
CO2
Write the balanced equation.
Step 1:
b. Mole to Mass
If 0.25 moles of sodium carbonate is heated, what mass of sodium oxide will be
produced?
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
2g/mol H2 32 g/mol O2 18 g/mol H2O
4 grams 32 grams 36 grams
This means that 4 grams of hydrogen is needed to react completely with 32 grams of oxygen to
produce
36 grams of water.
APPLICATION
58
c. Mass to Mass
How many grams of hydrogen gas are needed to produce 85.2 grams of ammonia, given the
following
unbalanced chemical reaction:
N2 + H2 ---> NH3
Solution:
1) Balance the chemical equation:
N2 + 3H2 ---> 2NH3
2) Convert the given grams to moles:
85.2 g / 17.0307 g/mol = 5.00273 mol
3) Construct two molar ratios and set them equal to each other:
The two substances in our ratios are these:
H2
––––
NH3
The two ratios set equal to each other are:
3x
––– = –––––––
2 5.00273
x = 7.504095 mol of H2
4) Convert the calculated moles to grams:
(7.504095 mol) (2.016 g/mol) = 15.8 g (to three sig figs)
59
Step 5: Convert mole to mass:
0.0001333molbutane x 58.12 g butane
1mole butane
= 0.0077 g butane
2molsof butane
10mols of water
0.000666 mol of water x
Step4: From the balanced chemical equation, we have the following relationships:
2molesofbutane will produce 10 moles of water
0.012g water
18.02g/mol water
0.000666 mol water
Moles water
Step 3: Convert given mass of water to moles
= 1.008(2)+16
=18.02g/mol
0.012g
Given:
MW
d. Mass to mole
Lighting a candle produces 0.13 g of water. What is the mass of butane used?
(Butane is the fuel used in most lighters)
Step 1: Balance the chemical reaction. Remember that the complete combustion
reaction of a hydrocarbon will yield carbon dioxide and water.
Gases
Kinetic molecular Theory
Postulate 1: gases are made up of very tiny particles, called molecules. There are big empty
spaces between the molecules of gases. The sizes of the molecules are very small compared to
the
distance between them, thus making them compressible. This also explains why gases have
low
density.
Postulate 2: gaseous molecules are in constant random motion. These particles are moving in
straight lines at different speeds and direction. Since they are moving constantly, gases can
easily
occupy a large container. Thus, gases have no definite shape and volume and exhibits
expandability.
The random motion of the gaseous molecules explains the diffusibility and effusibility of gases.
Diffusibility is the ability of a gas to scatter in space, while effusibility is the ability of a gas to
escape
through a small opening.
Postulate 3: The intermolecular forces of attraction between gaseous particles (molecules or
atoms) are very weak. This attractive force between molecules was discovered by Johannes
Diderik
van der Waals and is called the Van der Waals force.
60
= 685.7mL
P2V2
P1
(650 m Hg) (700 mL)
750 mm Hg
APPLICATION:
What is the volume of a gas at 750 mmHg if it exerted pressure of 650mmHg at 700 mL?
Assumethat temperature is held constant.)
Given:
V1 = ? V2= 700 mL
P1 = 750 mmHg P2= 650mmHg
P1V1 = P2V2
V1 =
Postulate 4: The collision of gas particles with each other or with the walls of its container is
perfectly elastic. Thus, no energy is lost upon collision. This means that the gas particles
continue to
move even if they collide with each other or with the container walls.
Postulate 5: The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature. As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the gas particles
also
increases and vice versa.
The Gas Laws
1. BOYLE’S LAW
Robert Boyle was the first scientist to measure the relationship between pressure and
volume of gases (with temperature held constant).Boyle’s Law states that the volume of a
certain amount of dry gas held at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the
pressure exerted by the gas. This statement is expressed mathematically as
2. CHARLE’S LAW
Alexandre Charles performed experiments on the relationship between the volume and
temperature of gases. Charles’ Law states that the volume of a certain amount of dry gas
at constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. This statement
is represented as
V1/ T1 = V2/ T2
61
APPLICATION: The volume of a gas at 27 C is 400 mL. What will be the volume of that gas at
47 C, if the pressure is held constant?
Given:
V1 400 mL V2
T1 27 C + 273 T2 47 C + 273
300 K 320
(Note that temperature in Celsius should be converted into Kelvin scale)
Solution:
V1/ T1 = V2/ T2
V2 V1T2
T1
(400mL) (320K)
300 K
426.67 mL
3. COMBINED GAS LAWS
Given a fixed amount of gas at two different conditions of pressure, temperature and
volume, we derive the following relationship:
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
4. AVOGADRO’S LAW
Amadeo Avogadro interpreted Gay-Lussac’s findings on gas reactions at constant
temperature and pressure. Avogadro’s Law states that at a given temperature and
pressure, the same volume of any two gases contain equal number of molecules. The
molar volume of any gas at STP ( Standard temperature and Pressure) is 22.4 L.
5. IDEAL GAS LAW
Boyle’s Law, Charle’s Law and Avogadro’s Law can be combined such that the variables
V,P,T and n are all equated to a single constant, R (the universal gas constant or ideal gas
constant). The combined equation becomes:
PV = 1
nRT or PV = nRT
where R = 0.0821 atm-L/molK
62
6. GRAHAM’S LAW
Thomas Graham discovered the relationship between the ability of a gas to pass through
a small opening and its molecular weight. He found out that the rate of effusion of any
gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Thus, the heavier
the gas molecule is, the slower the effusion of that gas.
7. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
According to John Dalton, the pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is the
sum of the partial pressures that each gas in the mixture exerts individually.
Mathemetically, this law is expressed as:
Pt = P1 + P2+ P3…. + Pn
Acids and Bases
Properties of Acids and Bases
Acid Base
Sour taste Bitter taste
Irritating smell (for most acids) Slippery or soapy touch
Turns blue litmus paper to red Turns red litmus paper to blue
pH<7, pOH > 7 pH >7 , pH < 7
Neutralizes a base Neutralizes an acid
Good conductor of electricity (Strong acid
only)
Good conductor of electricity (Strong base
only)
Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons- contain only hydrogen and carbon in their molecules. It can be classified as
alkanes, alkenes,
alkynes, and Aromatics.
1. ALKANES - hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds in their molecules.
2. ALKENES - there is at least one carbon-to carbon double bond.
3. ALKYNES - hydrocarbon where there is at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
4. Aromatics/Arenes
Aromatic compounds are organic compounds having cyclical hydrocarbon rings where all the
atoms
are sp2 hybridized.
Substituted hydrocarbons
a. Alcohol – with OH functional group (R – OH)
b. Ethers- hydrocarbon chains attached to an oxygen atom (R-O-O-R)
c. aldehydes and ketones – have carbonyl group (C=O)
d. Halogenated hydrocarbons – hydrocarbons where one or more hydrogen is replaced
by a halogen.
e. Amines- if you replace a hydrogen atom from an ammonia molecule with a hydrocarbon
63
f. Amides – carboxyl group (C=O) comes between the hydrocarbon chain and the nitrogen
of an amine
Biological Chemistry
Biological chemistry deals with the chemical substances that make up living things such as
their tissues, body fluids, and others.
Biological Substances
1. Carbohydrates – include the different types of sugar, starch (like those from rice, bread, sweet
potato) and the like. They are primary sources of energy in plant bodies. They are classified
according to the number of simple sugar units or “saccharides” into the following:
a. Monosaccharides – made of one simple sugar unit (ex. Fructose, ribose, glucose)
b. Disaccharides – made up of two simple sugar units (ex. Maltose, sucrose)
c. Polysaccharides- made of more than two simple sugar units. (ex. Glycogen, cellulose)
2. Proteins – Substances classified as proteins vary in shapes, sizes and functions, but
there are similarities in their chemical structures. They are all poly peptides (polymers
of amino acids)
Amino acids are chemically carboxylic acids with an amino group. There are about 20
common amino acids found in the body, each has a different side chain. The most common
secondary structures are the alpha-helix, the beta-pleated sheet and the triple helix.
3. Nucleic Acids – a polymeric chain of nucleotides (polynucleotides). Each nucleotide
component
is made up of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen base. The base can be a purine
(adenine or guanine) or a pyrimidine (cytosine, thymine or uracil) derivative. The sugar found is
either ribose or deoxyribose. It s the sugar that determines whether the nucleic acid you have
is a DNA or RNA. If the sugar used is ribose, you get an RNA. If the sugar used is deoxyribose,
you get a DNA.
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA structure is a double – helix. The complementary base pairs in the DNA structure are
: Adenine and Thymine , Guanine and Cytosine.
b. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
In RNA, uracil is used in place of thymine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA in the cell nuclei to the
ribosomes present in the cytosol (where it is used as a template for protein synthesis.)
64
Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) provides the site for protein synthesis.
4. Lipids – fatty acids and their esters. Fatty acids are chemically carboxylic acids. If you eat too
much, the food you overeat will be stored as lipids in adipose tissues. Two types of lipids are:
the simple lipids and compound lipids.
There are three classification of Lipids:
a. Simple Lipids – wax esters, sterol esters, fats and oil, triacylglycerol
b. Complex – phospholipids, glycolipids
c. Derived – Fatty acids, sterols, diglycerides, monoglycerides
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COLLEGE ENTRANCE
TEST REVIEW
SCIENCE
PHYSICS
PHYSICS
- major science, dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces
they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. Sometimes in
modern physics a more sophisticated approach is taken that incorporates elements of
the three areas listed above; it relates to the laws of symmetry and conservation,
such as those pertaining to energy, momentum, charge, and parity.
Scalar – a measure with magnitude but no direction.
(e.g., distance, mass, speed)
Vectors – a measure with both magnitude and direction.
(e.g., force, acceleration, velocity)
MECHANICS
Mechanics, branch of physics concerning the motions of objects and their response to forces.
Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful definition of such quantities as
displacement
(distance moved), time, velocity, acceleration, mass, and force.
KINETICS
Kinetics is the description of motion without regard to what causes the motion. Velocity (the time
rate
of change of position) is defined as the distance traveled divided by the time interval. Velocity
may be
measured in such units as kilometers per hour, miles per hour, or meters per second.
Acceleration is
defined as the time rate of change of velocity: the change of velocity divided by the time interval
during
the change. Acceleration may be measured in such units as meters per second per second or
feet per
second per second.
Several special types of motion are easily described. First, velocity may be constant. In the
simplest case, the velocity might be zero; position would not change during the time
interval. With constant velocity, the average velocity is equal to the velocity at any particular
66
time. If time, t, is measured with a clock starting at t = 0, then the distance, d, traveled at
constant velocity, v, is equal to the product of velocity and time.
d = vt
In the second special type of motion, acceleration is constant. Because the velocity is
changing, instantaneous velocity, or the velocity at a given instant, must be defined. For
constant acceleration, a, starting with zero velocity ( v = 0) at t = 0, the instantaneous
velocity at time, t, is
v = at
The distance traveled during this time is
d at2
Circular motion is another simple type of motion. If an object has constant speed but an
acceleration always at right angles to its velocity, it will travel in a circle. The required
acceleration is directed toward the center of the circle and is called centripetal acceleration.
For an object traveling at speed, v, in a circle of radius, r, the centripetal acceleration is
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s first law of motion states that if the vector sum of the forces acting on an object is
zero, then the object will remain at rest or remain moving at constant velocity. If the force
exerted on an object is zero, the object does not necessarily have zero velocity. Without any
forces acting on it, including friction, an object in motion will continue to travel at constant
velocity.
Newton’s second law relates net force and acceleration. A net force on an object will accelerate
it—that is, change its velocity. The acceleration will be proportional to the magnitude of the force
and in the same direction as the force. The proportionality constant is the mass, m, of the
object.
F = ma
Friction acts like a force applied in the direction opposite to an object’s velocity. For dry sliding
friction, where no lubrication is present, the friction force is almost independent of velocity.
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Also, the friction force does not depend on the apparent area of contact between an object
and the surface upon which it slides.
Newton’s third law of motion states that an object experiences a force because it is interacting
with
some other object. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 must be of the same magnitude
but in the
opposite direction as the force that object 2 exerts on object 1.
Newton’s third law also requires the conservation of momentum, or the product of mass and
velocity.
ENERGY
The quantity called energy ties together all branches of physics. In the field of mechanics,
energy must be provided to do work; work is defined as the product of force and the distance
an object moves in the direction of the force. When a force is exerted on an object but the
force does not cause the object to move, no work is done. Energy and work are both
measured in the same units—ergs, joules, or foot- pounds, for example.
ELECTRICITY
Electricity, one of the basic forms of energy. Electricity is associated with electric charge, a
property of certain elementary particles such as electrons and protons, two of the basic
particles that make up the atoms of all ordinary matter. Electric charges can be stationary, as
in static electricity, or moving, as in an electric current.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electricity consists of charges carried by electrons, protons, and other particles. Electric
charge comes in two forms: positive and negative.
Static electricity can be produced by rubbing together two objects made of different materials.
Electrons
move from the surface of one object to the surface of the other if the second material holds onto
its
electrons more strongly than the first does. The object that gains electrons becomes negatively
charged, since it now has more electrons than protons. The object that gives up electrons
becomes
positively charged.
Coulomb’s Law
Objects with opposite charges attract each other, and objects with similar charges repel each
other. Coulomb’s law, formulated by French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb during
the late 18th century, quantifies the strength of the attraction or repulsion. This law states
that the force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the product of their
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The greater
the charges on the objects, the larger the force between them; the greater the distance
between the objects, the lesser the force between them. The unit of electric charge, also
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named after Coulomb, is equal to the combined charges of 6.24 × 1018 protons (or
electrons).
Electric current - is a movement of charge. When two objects with different charges touch
and redistribute their charges, an electric current flows from one object to the other until
the charge is distributed according to the capacitances of the objects. If two objects are
connected by a material that lets charge flow easily, such as a copper wire, then an electric
current flows from one object to the other through the wire. Electric current can be
demonstrated by connecting a small light bulb to an electric battery by two copper wires.
When the connections are properly made, current flows through the wires and the bulb,
causing the bulb to glow. Electric current is measured in units called amperes (amp). If 1
coulomb of charge flows past each point of a wire every second, the wire is carrying a
current of 1 amp.
Conductors are materials that allow an electric current to flow through them easily. Most
metals are good conductors.
Insulators Substances that do not allow electric current to flow through them are. Rubber,
glass, and air are common insulators. Electricians wear rubber gloves so that electric current
will not pass from electrical equipment to their bodies.
Ohm’s Law
The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is given by Ohm’s law. This law
states that the amount of current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across the conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
Ohm’s law can be expressed as an equation, V = IR, where V is the difference in volts
between two locations (called the potential difference), I is the amount of current in amperes
that is flowing between these two points, and R is the resistance in ohms of the conductor
between the two locations of interest.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is an arrangement of electric current sources and conducting paths through
which a current can continuously flow. There are two basic ways in which the parts of a
circuit are arranged. One arrangement is called a series circuit, and the other is called a
parallel circuit.
Series Circuits
If various objects are arranged to form a single conducting path between the terminals of a
source of electric current, the objects are said to be connected in series. The electron current
first passes from the negative terminal of the source into the first object, then flows through
the other objects one after another, and finally returns to the positive terminal of the source.
The current is the same throughout the circuit. In the example of the light bulb, the wires,
bulb, switch, and fuse are connected in series.
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Parallel Circuits
If various objects are connected to form separate paths between the terminals of a source
of electric current, they are said to be connected in parallel. Each separate path is called a
branch of the circuit. Current from the source splits up and enters the various branches.
After flowing through the separate branches, the current merges again before reentering
the current source.
MAGNETISM
Magnetism, an aspect of electromagnetism, one of the fundamental forces of nature.
Magnetic forces are produced by the motion of charged particles such as electrons,
indicating the close relationship between electricity and magnetism. The unifying frame for
these two forces is called electromagnetic theory (see Electromagnetic Radiation). The most
familiar evidence of magnetism is the attractive or repulsive force observed to act between
magnetic materials such as iron. More subtle effects of magnetism, however, are found in
all matter. In recent times these effects have provided important clues to the atomic
structure of matter.
LIGHT
Light, form of energy visible to the human eye that is radiated by moving charged particles.
Light from the Sun provides the energy needed for plant growth. Plants convert the energy in
sunlight into storable chemical form through a process called photosynthesis.
BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one kind of material into another.
Because light travels at a different speed in different materials, it must change speeds at the
boundary between two materials.
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Reflection
Reflection also occurs when light hits the boundary between two materials. Some of the light
hitting the boundary will be reflected into the first material. If light strikes the boundary at an
angle, the light is reflected at the same angle, similar to the way balls bounce when they hit
the floor.
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are not smoothly distributed over
distances greater than the length of a light wave, but are bunched up into lumps of
molecules or particles. The sky is bright because molecules and particles in the air scatter
sunlight.
The Speed of Light
Scientists have defined the speed of light in a vacuum to be exactly 299,792,458 meters per
second (about 186,000 miles per second).
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AND AMPLITUDE
The wavelength of a monochromatic wave is the distance between two consecutive wave
peaks.
Wavelengths of visible light can be measured in meters or in nanometers (nm), which are
one-billionth
of a meter (or about 0.4 ten-millionths of an inch). Frequency corresponds to the number of
wavelengths that pass by a certain point in space in a given amount of time. This value is
usually
measured in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz).
SOUND
Sound, physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing. In humans, hearing takes
place
whenever vibrations of frequencies from 15 hertz to about 20,000 hertz reach the inner ear. The
hertz
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(Hz) is a unit of frequency equaling one vibration or cycle per second. Such vibrations reach the
inner
ear when they are transmitted through air.
How does sound travel?
Sound travels as waves of energy, but, unlike light, the waves transmit energy by changing the
motion of
particles. Let’s say you clap your hands together. The molecules of air between your hands are
squished out,
those particles hit the particles outside your hands and push them outward, and those particles
hit the
particles next to them, and so on until the particles next to your eardrums get hit. You can think
of it like a
tiny air explosion that travels outward around the thing that made the sound.
There are two types of waves: Longitudinal waves and Transverse waves:
Electricity and Magnetism
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUNDS
Frequency
We perceive frequency as “higher” or “lower” sounds. The frequency of a sound is the number
of cycles,
or oscillations, a sound wave completes in a given time.
Intensity
Sound intensities are measured in decibels (dB). For example, the intensity at the threshold of
hearing
is 0 dB, the intensity of whispering is typically about 10 dB, and the intensity of rustling leaves
reaches
almost 20 dB.
Quality
Quality is the characteristic of sound that allows the ear to distinguish between tones created by
different instruments, even when the sound waves are identical in amplitude and frequency.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large atomic nucleus into smaller nuclei.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is when two small, light nuclei join together to make one heavy nucleus. Fusion
reactions
occur in stars where two hydrogen nuclei fuse together under high temperatures and pressure
to form a
nucleus of a helium isotope.