GENERAL EDUCATION - 8 ETHICS

UNIT I: BASIC CONCEPTS

Overview:
This unit gives you an idea about the Differences between Moral and Non-Moral Standards, Moral Dilemmas,
the four branches of ethics, the moral agent together with the universal values. It will also help you to analyze
the Six Stages of Moral development by Lawrence Kohlberg.
Learning Objectives:_____________ _________________________________________________
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. determine what the difference between Moral and Non-moral standards;
2. analyze what is moral dilemma and it’s three levels;
3. evaluate the six stages of Moral Development;
4. differentiate the four branches of Ethics; and 5. list down the strength and weaknesses of Filipino
Moral Character.

Setting Up:__________________________________________________________________________

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the given question base on your existing knowledge about the lesson.
1. Recall a personal experience in dealing with problems and analyze how they are rooted in Filipino qualities. In
hindsight, recommend how you could have done things differently.

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Lesson Proper Differences Between Moral and Non-Moral Standards

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that deals with the questions and
standards of what is right and what is wrong. It discusses the different systems of moral values and
principles that determine what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. It also involves ideals,
moral obligations and prohibitions that people have to observe, follow and respect. Ethics came from
the Latin word ethos which means character or moral nature. When you say character or moral
nature, the character or moral nature of a person is greatly affected by his or her personal principles
and experiences by the belief and value system of his or her surroundings.
Non-Moral Standards refer to the rules that affect the choice of a person but are not linked to
moral or ethical considerations, similar with ethics people use value judgment in dealing with these
aspects. Consequently, they can also affect the way a person develops her moral principles and
guidelines but they do not necessarily have moral implications. These are the list of Non-Moral
Standards, aesthetics, rules in games, laws, personal experiences and principles, etiquette, recipe or
formula, religion and lastly traditions or norms,
Moral Standards refer to the rules or set of guidelines that affect the choices of a person and
his or her belief system and decision-making process in problems and situations that beg the question
of what is morally right and wrong. The characteristics of Moral Standards are the following, concern
with the welfare of beings, reliance on reasoning and not on authority, overriding or hegemonic,
impartial, fair and just and lastly special emotions and vocabulary.
Now let us see and discuss the Characteristics of Moral Standards, number one is concern with
the welfare of beings, in moral standards it deals with matters that can seriously injure or benefit the
welfare of beings such as in war, child abuse, rape, fraud, murder, and theft while in Nonmoral
standards it talks about what is wrong but their concerns do not necessarily affect one’s life or well-
being, number two is reliance on reasoning and not on authority in Moral standards it is rely on
reasoning and not on authoritative individuals to support and justify their cause while in Non-Moral
perspective it is in the context of law and religion they do not need to be based on a valid and sound
reasoning, number three is Overriding or Hegemonic the take precedence over other standards and
considerations like non- moral standards and self-interest, number four is impartial, fair and just it
simply means that there is no exemption to the moral standards, if A is morally right for a certain
person P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P, and lastly number five is special
emotions and vocabulary moral standards are associated with special emotions such as guilt, remorse,
and shame and vocabulary such as right, good, wrong, evil, moral, amoral and immoral.

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Assessing Learning:
Activity 1

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Read the following statements carefully. Identify what is being described in the statement and write
your answers on the space provided before the number.
1. These are moral dilemmas that are experienced and resolved on the individual level.
2. It speaks of code or system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong behavior.
3. Type of dilemmas involved situations in which a difficult choice has to be made between two
courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle.
4. The branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or wrong of human conduct.
5. These tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation.
6. These are rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.
7. Only they can possess or practice values such as love, honor, social relationships, forgiveness,
compassion, and altruism.
8. These refer to cases involving network or institutions and operative theoretical paradigms.
9. These refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations.
10. This cannot be said to be moral for it has no freedom or choice but to work according to what is
commanded based on its built-in program.
11. Ethics is considered as a normative study of human actions for it is concerned with norms of
human conduct.
12. Rules generate a stable system that provides justice, in which even the richest and most
powerful have limitations on what they can do.
13. Non-normal standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take precedence
over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal ones.
14. Morality requires and allows choice, which means the right to choose even differently from our
fellows.
15. Most philosophers hold that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it
possible for them to be moral.
16. Dealing with human actions and reasons for action, ethics is also concerned with character.
17. The word ‘ethics’ is derived from Latin ethos, which means ‘character’, or, in plural, ‘manners’.
18. Moral dilemmas arise even in professional work.
19. Copyright and patents help protect people’s intellectual property.
20. Basic examples of moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games,
and various house rules.

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Activity 2

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the given question base on your existing knowledge about the lesson.
1. Pick four from the following topics and identify four arguments, two for in favor and two for opposing. In two
paragraphs, write down your own opinion about the chosen topic.

1. universal health care

2. free education
3. lowering of the age for juvenile law
4. animal rights
5. the Facebook dilemma

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Lesson Proper:

Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a situation that begs an agent to choose between two alternatives with
equal weight wherein both alternatives are either good or both are evil, but the agent cannot do both
or all actions. In this situation, no matter what the agent chooses you will be left with a moral failure
but not choosing anything impose greater harm or loss for the agent. For example, Brian is on a crew
ship when a fire broke and the ship must be abandoned. The lifeboats are carrying more people than
they were designed to carry. The lifeboat he’s in is sitting dangerously low in the water and can
potentially sink if added with more weight.
There are still other people swimming around them begging to be saved. They are asking him
to throw the rope so that they can go up the lifeboat; however, the boat will sink if more people will
come abroad. Now, should Brian throw the rope to the people or keep the rope so that lifeboat will not
sink. In this dilemma here are some of the conflicts that plagued Brian throughout the decision-
making process, number one is if he will help who are swimming their boat will sink and all of them
die, number two is if he did not throw the rope then those who are in the water will die and lastly
number three is if he can sacrifice himself and help one person but he is not willing to sacrifice himself
either.
The following are the basic concepts of Moral Dilemma; personal advocates, society, culture
religion, family and friends and lastly are education and experiences. Now let us proceed to the three
levels of moral dilemma, first you have Individual Dilemma, second you have Organizational Dilemma
and third is Structural Dilemma.
The first level of Moral dilemma starts with the personal and individual interaction of people
with situations in their daily lives. In this level, conflict arrives when a person is asked to choose
between two important values for him or her for example, choosing between one’s duties to his or her
family one’s love for another person. The second level is Organizational Dilemma unlike individual
dilemma this dilemma is encountered by institutions, business, or organizations in their
decisionmaking process, at this level the dilemmas that the organizations’ experiences usually affect
more than one person and they can be part of the internal group or part of an external stakeholder.
For example, Zee has been in a coma for 8 months she only lives through support machines and
she never showed any sign of improvement and he never responded to any stimulus given to her. In
four other hospitals, there are four patients who are in need of healthy organs such as kidney, heart,
lungs and liver. They are in a critical stage and in need of transplants immediately. Patient XTZ is a
match for all the patients but removing his organs will cause him death. However, without his organs,
the four patients will all die. Now, is it okay to kill someone to benefit more people? How do you
choose who to save and who to sacrifice? In the given example aside from the family members,
doctors, hospital, sometimes even judges usually help family members decide for the unconscious
patients who cannot observe their autonomy over’s one body and life. However, decision over this
kind of cases bring up more ethical questions like the following; When do you consider someone to be
dead or still alive? When do families and the institution stop waiting for a comatose patient to wake
up? Who has the authority to decide over the life of someone who is in the comatose stage? If the call
of duty of the doctor is to save lives, will a recommendation from the institution conflict with the
principle? It is ethical to kill one person to benefit the many? How do we choose who to save and who
to sacrifice? The last level of dilemmas deals with structural dilemmas that affect a network of
institutions and operative theoretical paradigms like

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universal care, juvenile laws, and immigration. Unlike organizational dilemmas, this type of dilemma
can affect a community and even a society at large.
Hence, these are also the most complicated dilemmas that people face. For example, the issue
of undocumented immigration has been widely discussed in different countries especially since
President Donald Trump of America, openly criticized it and created measures to stop it and even sent
back some immigration to their home countries. However, even if a lot of American citizens have same
sentiments as he does, a growing number of oppositions claim that it is inhumane to send back
immigration from their homes especially those who moved to America out of circumstances like
extreme poverty, persecution and war, at the same time many immigrants have families, wives,
husbands, and children who will be left once they leave the country. What do you think about this
problem?

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Assessing Learning:
Activity 3
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the following questions concisely.

1. Differentiate the three levels of Moral Dilemma. Site an example.

INDIVIDUAL DILEMMA

ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA

STRUCTURAL DILEMMA

2. Think of personal dilemma that you’ve encountered before and write down the details.

3. What is moral dilemma? Cite an example.

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Activity 4
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Read the following statements carefully. Identify what is being described in the statement and write
your answers on the space provided before the number.
1. These are moral dilemmas that are experienced and resolved on the individual level.

2. It speaks of code or system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong behavior.

3. Type of dilemmas involved situations in which a difficult choice has to be made between two
courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle.

4. The branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or wrong of human conduct.

5. These tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation.

6. These are rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.

7. Only they can possess or practice values such as love, honor, social relationships, forgiveness,
compassion, and altruism.

8. These refer to cases involving network or institutions and operative theoretical paradigms.

9. These refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations.

10. This cannot be said to be moral for it has no freedom or choice but to work according to what is
commanded based on its built-in program.

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Lesson Proper:

Freedom as a Foundation for Moral Acts

People face different moral dilemmas and issues in your everyday lives. When you listen to the
news, you hear about unending debates about topics like abortion, freedom of expression, and war.
Then you start asking who is right and who is wrong. If you are experiencing this kind of dilemma you
might be one of two things; you have the freedom to engage in a discussion about an issue, but like
most people, you resort to a subjective and oftentimes biased understanding of an issue.
There are four parts of Ethics, Descriptive Ethics, Normative Ethics, Meta Ethics and Applied
Ethics. First up you have Descriptive Ethics it is the thing that individuals really accept to be correct or
wrong and it thinks about various moral standards utilized in over a wide span of time. Next is
Normative Ethics it is the thing that individuals should do, a prescriptive morals and it talks about
how individuals can settle on what is ethically right you have three segments of Normative morals this
are Virtue Ethics which is centers around one's character and kindness, second parts are Deontology
it is obligation morals or all out objective and good absolutism and in conclusion is, Consequentialism
it is centers around the outcomes of an activity. Meta Ethics it doubts the significance of goodness,
morals and profound quality including how individuals can realize what is valid or bogus and
ultimately is, Applied Ethics it is the utilization of moral hypotheses in various open and private issues
like medication, business and so on.
Thomas Beauchamp and James Childress had Four Principles in terms of Normative Ethics;
these are Respect to Autonomy, Beneficence, Non-maleficence and Justice. First you have Respect to
Autonomy it means the acknowledgement that every person has the right to make choices to hold
views and to act based on one’s value and beliefs as long as the person is conscious and has proper
understanding of the matter on hand. Second is Beneficence it is the promotion of doing as much
goodness as possible refers to the acts of kindness, compassion and generosity. Third is Non-
maleficence it is the avoidance of any unjustifiable and unnecessary harm and lastly is Justice which
means the distribution of resources equally and fairly.

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Assessment Learning:
Activity 5

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Read the following statements carefully. Identify what is being described in the statement and write
your answers on the space provided before the number.

1. What people actually believes to be right or wrong.

2. It discusses how people can decide on what is morally correct.
3. It questions the meaning of goodness, ethics and morality including how people can know what
is true or false.
4. It is the application of ethical theories in different public and private matters.
5. It focuses on one’s character and benevolence
6. It focuses on the consequences of an action.
7. It is the acknowledgement that every person has the right to make choices and to hold views.
8. It refers to the acts of kindness, compassion and generosity.
9. It is the avoidance of any unjustifiable and unnecessary harm.
10. It is the distribution of resources equally and fairly.
11. It is the capacity to see the interconnectedness of things and the logic behind the processes
involved.
12. It is the principle of detaching oneself from any form of bias and prejudice in order to come up
with an objective.
13. It is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions and standards of what is right and
what is wrong.
14. It determines what is acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.
15. It is the absence of necessity, coercion or constraint in choice or action.

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Activity 6

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Elaborate the Thomas Beauchamp and James Childress “The Four Principles”, site an example.

THE FOUR PRINCIPLES DEFINITION EXAMPLE

1.Respect for Autonomy

2.Beneficence

3.Non-maleficence

4.Justice

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Activity 7
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Differentiate the Four Branches of Ethics and site an example.

1. Descriptive Ethics

2. Normative Ethics

3. Meta Ethics

4. Applied Ethics

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Lesson Proper

The Moral Agent

Culture is the shared and learned patterns of behaviors, interactions, symbolisms, and values of a
group of people that manifest in your religion, food, clothing, language, marriage, social habits, music,
arts and customs. It reflects the identity of a particular group of people. There are many cultures in
the world and they can be different from each other.
These differences in cultural patterns create a widely diverse belief and value systems across the
world which makes it harder to develop an absolute moral guideline for anyone. A principle can be
seen critical in the survival of the people in one culture while it can also be seen negatively and
unacceptable by another culture. Hence, the rise of the concept of cultural relativism.
Cultural Relativism is the disposition that sees a general public's way of life inside the setting of the
general public's issues and openings. It expresses that there are nothing of the sort as general realities
in light of the fact that various perspectives and esteeming. Coming up next are the case regarding
Cultural relativism, first is various social orders have distinctive good codes, there is no target
standard that can be utilized to pass judgment on one cultural code superior to another, the ethical
code of our own general public has no extraordinary status, it is only one among many, there is no
well-known fact in morals that is there is no ethical certainties that hold for all individuals
consistently, the ethical code of a general public, figures out what is directly inside that society, that is
if the method of a general public says that a specific activity is correct, at that point that activity is
directly in any event inside that society, and ultimately is it is simple pomposity for you to attempt to
pass judgment on the lead of different people groups. We ought to receive a disposition of resistance
toward the acts of other cultures. For instance, The Callatian accepted that it was the privilege to eat
their dead while the Greeks consider the thought shocking and wrong. Presently which good code is
correct and which isn't right? Which is the ethical method of rewarding the dead? Would it be a good
idea for us to acknowledge the reason this is only a matter of sentiment?
There are Advantages and Dangers in Cultural Relativism, cultural relativism teaches everyone to be
more open-minded and respectful of other cultures. It calls out of discrimination against race,
nationality, and culture and opens more opportunities for everyone. However, the danger with this
arises when we are called to a position to judge a practice that is repressive and sometimes even
harmful towards a group of people. People are more reluctant to interfere in the customs of other
people. For example, in Middle East women are regarded as second class to men. Laws governing
them are stricter and they have less rights and privileges compared to men. Now, it is part of their
culture to be overly repressive with women that there are even apps allowing husband and father to
monitor their wives and daughter’s actions and where about.
Cultural reformation like what happened during the time of the crusades when Western
cultures destroyed native cultures under the name of religion and politics are considered wrong
because it is wrong to see one culture as inferior to another, hence, promoting cultural preservation at
the same time. Cultural relativism always uses the context of the culture as a premise. An action is
considered right if its right under the context of the person’s culture even if it is wrong in another’s
culture.
Cultural relativism pushes people to look beyond their own cultures and be less xenocentric
and ethnocentric as
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they can see the similarities and differences of the culture. As James Rachel (2004) said, this points out

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that it is a mistake to overestimate the amount of differences between cultures, not every moral rule
can vary from society to society. However, it makes it harder to define exactly a culture because
cultures can overlap with each other and have similarities. Although it is possible to find a unique
practice but cultural relativism makes identification of cultures more fluid than before.
In summary, adopting the attitude of cultural relativism teaches a person how to be tolerant
and respectful of different cultures. It teaches a person to be more understanding and to always look
for the context of the moral code or principle being held. However, cultural relativism is not immune
to criticisms. It is difficult to use as an argument in ethics because it’s premises root from the matter of
opinion of a culture. Thus, it is purely dependent on the cultural standards that the problem or issue
belongs to.
According to the article, The Filipino Moral Character has strengths and weaknesses just like
any other culture. It also emphasized the need to preserve some aspects of the Filipino culture but at
the same time highlights the parts that need improvement. The following are the Strengths of Filipino
Moral Character pakikipag-kapwa tao, family orientation, joy and humor, flexibility, adaptability, and
creativity, hard work and industry, faith and religiosity, ability to survive. The following are the
weaknesses of the Filipino Moral Character extreme personalism, extreme familycenteredness, lack of
discipline, passivity and lack of initiative, colonial mentality kanya-kanya syndrome.

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Assessment Learning:
Activity 8
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Read the following statements carefully. Identify what is being described in the statement and write
your answers on the space provided before the number.
1. It is shared and learned patterned of behaviors, interactions and values of a group of people.
2. It is the attitude that views a society’s culture within the context of the society’s problems and
opportunities.
3. Filipino people regard others with dignity and respect.
4. Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for family.
5. Filipinos have fun and cheerful approach to the ups and downs of life.
6. It is the tendency that every Filipino has to be superficial and even somewhat flighty.
7. It is the acknowledgement that every person has the right to make choices and to hold views.
8. Filipinos lacks of patriotism and active awareness.
9. This manifest in the tendency to give personal interpretations to actions.
10. Filipinos will take two or three jobs in order to feed their families.

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Activity 9

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: State the Filipino Moral Character Strengths and Weaknesses.

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

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Activity 10

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the questions concisely.

1. Elaborate Cultural Relativism Advantages and Dangers by siting more examples.
a. Cultural Relativism Advantages

b. Cultural Relativism Dangers

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Lesson Proper:
The Moral Agent

In order to understand how you can develop virtue as a habit, you need to understand these
three topics; Universal Values, Moral Character, and Moral Development.
Universal Values you often hear about character building but do you really understand the
meaning of it? How can you say that a trait is virtuous? And most importantly, how can we really make
sure that as you develop your character you are also developing your moral compass? Character
building often talks about universal values. Universal values are values that have the same worth or
level of importance across cultures and ethical principles. In principle, these universal values are
conducts that every rational person wants to follow. The following are the common universal values;
Integrity, Peace, Freedom, Human Dignity, Social Progress, Equal rights, Responsibility, Compassion,
Loyalty, Innovativeness, and Intuitiveness. Have you ever wondered why you have to apply these
common universal values in our lives? Imagine a world without a concept of respect for human life.
What kind of world do you have? How do you feel about it? Would you like to live in this kind of
world? Now imagine a world where people respect and love each other. What can you observe in this
world? Imagine being in a relationship with a partner who always lies to you, how do you feel about
this kind of relationship? Would you prefer it if both of you are honest with each other? Do you think
you can be honest all the time?
The thought experiments showed us how an application of a particular value system can affect
the sense of security of the people involved. A world without respect for human life can result in a
chaotic environment where people are always afraid of their own lives or possessions. On the other
hand, a relationship that is not based on honesty does not really differentiate it from a relationship
with a stranger where we cannot fully trust the person. So why do you need to have universal values?
In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle wrote that virtue is both intellectual and moral for it requires time
and experience to be developed and can only come as a result of habit. The excellence of character is
defining by the combination of qualities that make an individual the sort of ethically admirable person
(Howiak. 2005). In the article “A Short List of Universal Values”, Richard Kinnier, Jerry Kernes and
Therese Dautheribes (2000) said that the call for a list of universal values is becoming more urgent
because of the future of human survival may depend on it.
According to Kinnier, 2000, a standard of agreed-upon rules might serve to recover worldwide
communication and cooperation. “Ringer contended that without some all-inclusive principles you are
left with no real way to denounce savagery, physical torment, mutilation, spouse beating, kid misuse,
subjection, murder or annihilation, on the off chance that they are a piece of ongoing practice and
social customs of a gathering.” (Kinnier et al,2000). In a lecture by UN secretary- General Kofi-Annan
(2003) in Germany he said why do you need to have universal values? Now you can conclude that
universal values are important for the survival of human species because it pushes people to protect
themselves by protecting and not inflicting harm to other people. Respect, care, and compassion for
other people to create a more peaceful and cooperative environment. On the other hand, greed,
gluttony, anger, and selfishness push people to create disagreement and conflict among people.
Moral Character, look back at your childhood which parts and elements of your lives do you
think to have the most impact on your current belief system and moral character? The relationship of
a person’s individual acts and moral character is circular which means that one affects the other. Your
individual acts

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become your habits which molds your moral character. Meanwhile, your moral character is manifested
in your decisions, attitudes and acts.
Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg developed the Six Stages of Moral Development that
hopes to understand how moral reasoning changes as a person grows old and matures. The following
are the Six Stages of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg;
Level 1: is Pre-Conventional Morality under this level is the
Stage 1 which is Obedience and Punishment Orientation and
Stage 2 is Individualism and Exchange,
Level 2: Conventional Morality and under this level is the
Stage 3 which is Good Interpersonal Relationship and
Stage 4 which is Maintaining the Social Order.
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality and under this level is the
Stage 5 Social Contract and Individual Rights and
Stage 6 the Universal Principles.
Level 1 Pre-Conventional Morality age 9 years old and below in this level the primary focus of
an individual is the self, people don’t have a personal code of Morality yet, they follow the standards
and rules that adults teach to them, the Moral codes are mostly dependent on the avoidance of
punishment. Stage 1 of this level is Obedience and Punishment Orientation in this stage right and
wrong is determined by punishment and authority, the physical and mental consequences of action
indicate the goodness or badness of behavior, and Moral rightness is equivalent to obedience. Stage 2
is Individualism and Exchange start to learn about individuality and satisfaction of one’s desire, moral
rightness is equivalent to the idea of giving and take, the principle of equality and resolution of
conflicts. Level 2 Conventional Morality under adolescence to middle age, people start to internalize
the moral standards of the groups they belong to and reasoning is usually based on the norms of their
groups. Stage 3 is Good Interpersonal Relationship the right and wrong is determined by the approval
of others and conformity to norms, good behavior is determined by praise, peer pressure is also
prominent at this stage and deviance and indifference are treated as sins and Moral rightness is
equivalent to “conformity and acceptance”. Stage 4 Maintaining the Social Order a person becomes
more aware of laws and societal norms and wants to be a good citizen.
The last level is Level 3 Post-Conventional Morality under adults and not everyone reaches this
level, individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. Stage 5 Social Contract and Individual Rights you understand that even if
norms and laws exist they might not be always morally right, you learn how to use logic, abstract
thinking, and moral principles to determine what is right and wrong. Stage 6 the Universal Principles
you develop your own ethical guidelines and the willingness to defend it even if it means going against
the majority of the people, you believe that a person is not mean but an end and a very few numbers
of people have reached this level.

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Activity 11
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the following questions concisely.

1. Plot the stages of your life according to the six stages of moral development of Lawrence Kohlberg’.
Include personal illustrations and identify where you are now in your moral development

2. Summarize the Three (3) levels of Moral Development including the six (6) stages of Lawrence Kohlberg’s
Moral Development.

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UNIT II: THE ACT

Overview
This unit expounds on the definition of moral dilemmas and distinguishes the different responses
between the reason and feelings. This unit also discusses the analysis of your feelings in moral personal
practices.
Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. remember immediate responses to moral dilemmas;
2. distinguish between the responses based on reason and those based on feelings;
3. seize and analyze their feelings in personal moral experiences; and
4. compare reasonable and emotional reactions.

Setting Up

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Read the text below and answer the following questions.

“MANILA, Philippines – the free legal assistance group (Flag) said on Thursday, April 4, that
initial drug war documents showed a lack of effort to investigate the killings committed under mantle
of Oplan Tokhang. “Investigation leaves much to be desired. While all cases indicate that investigations
are ongoing, it appears that not much effort has been places into identifying and arresting the assailants,
based on the length of time devoted to investigating the case, “said FLAG’s Ted Te in a news conference
on Thursday with Flag Chairman and opposition senatorial Candidate Chel Diokno.”
(Lian Buan, 2019)

1. How well do you feel after reading the news clip? Do you feel upset, angry, sad or indifferent?
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Lesson Proper

Feelings and moral decision-making

Do you believe that it is completely wrong to follow our emotions or feelings in response to
moral dilemmas? What are the hazards of letting our feelings cloud our decisions? What about the
dangers of following merely logical reasoning without affecting our feelings?
So, why do we have feelings? “Human creatures are the most selfconscious animals” which
allow them to develop “basic emotional responses” and generate more rational methods to help them
survive. This is the difference between humans and animals. (Simons, I., 2009) In accordance with the
Philosophy Professor Jordi Valverdu, The Role of our Emotions is for survival and innate social
responsibilities. In accordance with Dr. Simons and Professor Valverdu, the role of our emotions is
primarily for the survival of the species. This helps us and be on the most level of the food chain for
hundreds of years. Let’s look at some examples below.
Back in the days when our ancestors live in the desert without the protective gear that we are
experiencing right now, their primary tool for their survival in their bodies “fight or flight” mode. In
this mode, their bodies prepare tense, their muscles tighten, their lips dry and their consciousness
became alert. This response is triggered by “fear” which people feel when they sense potential threat
or a hazard. Our ancestors benefited a lot from using their emotions and feelings in surviving from
Sangers. For instance, our bodies automatically shift to a fight mode when we feel afraid which is then
triggered by a sense of danger around us. Hence, feel is not always a bad thing for humans.
Charles Darwin was one of the people to research into human feelings or emotional responses.
According to him, aside from survival, we also use our feelings to communicate with one another. In
the preceding example, fear is a helpful tool to keep us from getting hurt in the past. Now, how about
our other emotions?
According to Charles Darwin, there are three principles to consider in understanding the
emotions as a response to an experience. These are the principle of functional habits, the principle of
antagonistic-thesis, and the principle of involvement of the enthused nervous system. The Principle of
Functional Habits states that emotional responses are useful expressive habits based on experience.
They are functional. Examples of this are the lifting of eyebrows when stunned, the gnarling of teeth
when furious, and sneer when enrage. While the Principle of Antagonistic-Thesis entails that the
purpose of these emotional responses is for communication clarity. It is the opposite of serviceable
habits. The gaping mouth shows wonder or lack of understanding and the shrugging of shoulders
indicates passive expressions are examples of this principle. Lastly, the Principle of Involvement of the
Enthused Nervous System which says that the nervous system needs to discharge excess energy. The
amusement is a quasiconvulsive motion that explodes an overflow of nervous energy that was
induced by either physical/psychological tension.
Charles Darwin has an interesting understanding of humans which he explained through his 3
principles such as: Principle of Functional Habits, Principle of Antagonistic-Thesis, and Principle of
Involvement of the Enthused Nervous System. We might agree nor do not agree with Darwin but his
explanation is fascinating due to its focus on the biological state of the human bodies when expressing
different emotions.

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Darwin’s 3 Principles – Difficulties

So, can we rely solely on our emotions when making decisions? The answer is regrettably NO. By
now, we have already comprehended the positive impact of feelings and emotional responses for our
survival. Much today, having some emotions is good as they give us motivation and curiosity.
However, excess of these feelings can cloud our minds from being able to decide properly, particularly
if you are under extreme happiness, sadness, or fear. An example of this is that the rage’s irritability
makes us feel discontented. These feelings also hinder us from hearing other’s opinions and thoughts.
Anger can also lead to rush decisions. Excessive confidence can make us lazy in evaluating our
opinions. Extreme grief can stop living our lives to the most complete and appreciating what we have
in life. Unnecessary optimism can make us less cautious with the hazards associated with our
decisions. Obsessions or irrational fears cause people to experience extreme fear about a situation,
living creature, place, or an object that even without reason.
Requirements of morality

The reason is the capacity to see the interconnectedness of things and the logic behind the
processes involved. With reason, one looks for the causes and effects of actions and provides supports
for a hypothesis.
Impartiality is the principle of detaching oneself from any form of bias and prejudice in order
to come up with an objective criterion that is free from unfair and unequal treatment of one type of
person to another.

So, should we completely refrain from listening to our feelings? The answer is NO. We should
learn how to balance our feelings and rational mind. Our feelings let us get in touch with our
humanity. It helps us in empathizing with other people and thinking about how a certain action would
most probably affect them. On the other hand, reason and impartiality make us see things clearer as it
pushes us to be objective and detach ourselves from our selfish desires.

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Assessing Learning

Activity 12

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Read the given articles by following the links (URL). You may download them directly by
clicking the links.

1. When is Impartiality is Morally Appropriate by Brad Hooker

a. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289934847_Wh
en_Is_Impartiality_Morally_Appropriate

2. Impartiality: Its Nature and Application by Ellen Marie Maccarone

a. http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0006632/maccarone_e.pdf

After reading the articles, let us find out how well you comprehend the lesson. State the most
important facts you derived from those materials and list down at least 10 Definition of Terms.

Impartiality is Morally Appropriate by Brad Hooker

Impartiality: Its Nature and Application by Ellen Marie Maccarone

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Activity 13
Name: _____________________________
Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the following questions.

1. Give any situation concerning Reasoning, elaborate your answer?

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_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Give any situation concerning Impartiality, elaborate your answer?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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3. The difference between Impartiality and Reasoning?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________________

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 GENERAL EDUCATION - 8 ETHICS

UNIT III. VIRTUE ETHICS

Overview

This unit provides you a vibrant understanding of virtue ethics and the highlights of the
biography of the proponents. The criticism of virtue ethics is also provided in this unit as well as the
ways on how to manifest these virtue ethics in your life.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. articulate what virtue ethics is; 2. critique virtue ethics; and
3. make use of virtue ethics.

Setting Up

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Rate your level of happiness in each given situation from 1-10. The highest happiness rate
is 10 and 1 is the lowest. Write your answer in the column before the given situation.

You have bought a new IPhone 11 Pro Max.

You have bought a new house and a lot.

You are drinking alcohol with friends.

You have bought a new car.

You have just won a competition.

You are having a party with your family.

You have a new boyfriend/girlfriend.

You are having a party with your friends.

You have bought new clothes.

You have graduated from college.

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Lesson Proper

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics is a moral structure wherein hypotheses underline the purpose and significance
of one's character and virtue so as to evaluate the integrity of their actions. It focuses on the
improvement of an individual's general righteous character or greatness. (Kraut, R, 2018) According
to Aristotle, a virtuous individual is the one who is routinely checking his conduct and correcting them
accurately. For the Greeks, virtue is equal to greatness.

Aristotle or Artistoteles lived in Greece sometime in 384 and 322 BCE. He contemplated
reasoning under Plato in the Academy and built The Lyceum, his own school. He is considered as
perhaps the best philosopher in old Philosophy.

In Aristotle's theory of ethics, he centered on discussing excellence and character or “what

makes a human life good or worth living” working in his book and moral hypothesis which he called
Nicomachaean Ethics which he named after his child Nicomachus. Telos is a Greek expression that
signifies "last reason". It additionally implies reason, objective, end or genuine last capacity of an
object. (Hurthouse, 1999)

According to Aristotle everything that a man has a capacity or action, the great and the well is
thought to live in the capacity.

From the word telos come the principle of teleology which is the ethical theory that considers
reason to be the "end" and one's obligation and good commitment depend on what is the acceptable
or attractive result. Teleology is additionally known to be a consequentialist theory. Aristotle was not
the person who created teleology but rather his form is the most acclaimed record of this ethical
theory.

For instance, Millen needs to purchase another cellphone regardless of whether her cellphone
is as yet working. Do you think her choice to purchase another cellphone is right if we will utilize the
standards of teleology?

Telos: The function Argument

Aristotle accepted that all things have purposes, objectives, or ends which must be
accomplished to its benefit. He considered this contention the capacity argument. Aristotle likewise
underlines the need to realize one's actual function to have the option to accomplish goodness or
greatness. He called this intellectual virtue.

Telos: The Golden Mean

Aristotle states in Nicomachean Ethics that virtue is a mean. It is a condition of clarification and
apprehension from pain and pleasure. An excellent character is the one that is continually and

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effectively cleaning up the soul from closing out or slaving from pain and pleasure.

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Photo taken from Frontlearners.com

Here are the similar perspectives on men's constant propensities and their classes under the
rule of golden mean.

Deficiency Virtue Deficiency

Prudence Temperance Self-indulgence
Spineless Good Temper Irascibility
Self-depression Honesty Boastfulness
Boorishness Wittiness Buffoonery
Surliness Friendliness Obsequiousness
Cowardice Courage Rashness/Recklessness
Stinginess/Miserliness Generosity/Magnificence Extravagance
Sloth Ambition Greed
Humility Modesty Loquacity/Pride
Moroseness Good humor Absurdity

How about we check this guide to comprehend the ramifications of following Aristotle's the
golden mean. In the area of satisfying others, we consider agreeableness to be an ethical
demonstration yet its lacking rendition, being quarrelsome, and its outrageous adaptation,
ingratiation are both seen as grievous by individuals. It is hard to manage factious individuals while
you'll never become more acquainted with the genuine individual behind charmed man. (Sachs, 2002)

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Assessing Learning

Activity 14
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions. Read the following statements carefully. Identify what is being described in the statement
and write your answers on the space provided before the number.

1.This refers to an excellence of moral or intellectual character.

2. The theory that is central to Plato’s philosophy.

3. This has been regarded as the Ethics of Aristotle since the beginning of the Christian
Era.

4. According to Aquinas, these virtues are concerned directly with God and provide us
with true knowledge and desire of God and of His will.

5. The philosopher who believes that all actions are directed towards ends and that
happiness is the final end.

6. For Aristotle, this is a state of character manifested in choice and action, resting in the
golden mean, resolved by the prescription that a wise person would determine.

7. Aristotle regards this as that kind of moral knowledge which

guides us to what is appropriate in conjunction with moral
value.

8. This is the mean between gluttony (excess) and extreme frugality (deficiency).

9. In this dialogue written by Plato, Socrates indicates that pleasure and pain fail to
provide an objective standard for determining moral from immoral since they do not
exist apart from one another, while good and evil do.

10. Aristotle considers this as the summun-bonum – the greatest good of all human life.

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Activity 15
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Enumerate the following items given inside the box below.

1-3 Basic Moral Virtues (Aristotle)

4-5 Two kinds of virtues (Aristotle)

Activity 16
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Answer or explain the following items below.

1. Explain the Greek word or belief “telos”.

2. Explain the quotation of Aristotle, “For all things that have a function or activity, the good and the well
is thought to reside in the function”.

3. Explain The Golden Mean.

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Lesson Proper

Virtue ethics St. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas was born in Roccasecca, Italy between 1224 and 1226. At the point when he
kicked the bucket, he was consecrated as the benefactor holy person of educators, hence as a rule
being designated "The Universal Teacher." His two notable works of art are Summa Theologiae and
Summa Contra Gentiles. The two works of Aquinas on his comprehension of the Latin philosophy.

In spite of Aquinas in Christianity, he didn't prevent from attempting to reconcile religion and
science. He immovably accepts that confidence and reason can live one next to the other and not
restricted to one another. Hence, his laborers primarily spin in getting Christianity and the regular law
under the focal points of reason and oppose obdurate getting faith. (Chenu,
2019)

There four types of law that oversee the universe as indicated by Aquinas. These are Eternal
Law, Divine Law, Human Law, and Natural Law. Eternal law is indistinguishable from the brain of God.
It is everlasting however confused by the human brain. Divine law is the law that originated from the
disclosure of God to people written in the Old and New Testaments. Human Law is the law that is
formulated by a human explanation as indicated by geological, social, and historical conditions.
Natural law is the law that administers everything in nature and the establishment of pragmatic
thinking human law. In any case, in this exercise, we will just concentrate on natural law.

Virtue Ethics: Natural Law

Let’s focus our lesson on natural law. Aquinas' moral theory rotates in the possibility of the
"Natural Law.” For him, the natural law isn't particular from divine fortune however in fact pieces of it
since it causes us to see how God really made the universe and ordered it. According to him what is
good is to be done and evil is to be avoided.

All in all, what is the meaning of natural law? For Aquinas, natural law is our natural
comprehension and tendency to do certain things normally, for example, safeguarding or ensuring
one's life, teaching our kids, keeping our opportunity, working for the benefit of all of the community,
looking for God, and avoiding obliviousness. In this way, we should apply these standards in a
judicious way with a steady impression of our desire to prosper as people and that piece of nature is
that we likewise have carnal impulses that we should screen.
Along these lines, how might we become virtuous according to St. Thomas Aquinas? Human nature is
normally disposed of being a rational, free, social, and physical being. We should consistently seek
after what is beneficial for us. On the off chance that something will stop us from prospering as
individuals, it isn't right to look for it. To realize what is acceptable and terrible for us, we should
consistently think about our essential needs and comprehend the natural law.

Natural law likewise has three moral principles which are essential to know to comprehend the

fundamental
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principles of Aquinas’ virtue ethics. Aquinas contended that there are three general qualities that
manage our ethical information where each and every individual who has accomplished primary
education can comprehend.
He said that these qualities are pertinent consistently at all times, places, and circumstances. They are
principles that can be learned through the reflection of one's very own encounters by analyzing them
with human explanation, aside from faith.

Natural Law: Three Universal Values

Here are the three universal moral principles as indicated by

Aquinas. First is, all-inclusive standards are consistent with each individual who has arrived at the
time of reason as a general rule. It's the guideline of personality and non-logical inconsistency. The
model for the main good standard is you should consistently do great and keep away from evil. Second
is, all- inclusive rules that with certain reflections can be reached from the main standards. Its model
is, we ought to reimburse the beneficial things done to us. On account of our parents, we can't
reimburse their penances really; consequently, we should regard and love them consistently. In
conclusion, widespread rules that are not handily seen by individuals so a savvy educator must
assistance clarify it. Furthermore, the best model for this is we ought to be beneficent to those out of
luck.

Presently we should move to another point given by Thomas Aquinas in his moral hypothesis. In this
inquiry, he was asking how we can achieve happiness in which he addressed that we can accomplish
joy once we have recognized and achieved our ultimate objective from different methods. He accepted
that we generally set different ultimate objectives throughout everyday life except we additionally
have an extreme end which is bliss, itself.

A definitive ultimate objective is a finish all things considered and won't be utilized as a way to some
further closures. For instance, secondary school students concentrate hard to get passing marks at
school. Having passing marks is critical to get ready for school. Once in school, studies mean to secure
as much information as possible to get passing marks and graduate on schedule. A decent scholastic
foundation will at that point influence in getting a decent line of work. A great job implies steady and
good pay. Riches carry a feeling of monetary opportunity to an individual to do exercises that will
satisfy the person in question.

In the example, we can see that there is part of objectives referenced yet every one of these
objectives were as yet not the finish of the activity, rather, they were then used to help accomplish
another objective until one arrived at the last and extreme ultimate objective which is to be happy.

All in all, is it conceivable to have numerous goals? The appropriate response is no. For Aquinas, there
is just extreme ultimate objective which is happiness in light of the fact that a definitive ultimate
objective is something we look for the wellbeing of its own and is altogether fulfilling the entirety of
one's wants.

In his work, Summa Theologiae, Thomas Aquinas characterized righteousness as a

"propensity" that causes an individual to play out his capacity, activity, or development appropriately.
He introduced numerous sorts of

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ethics in his book that characterize human goodness; notwithstanding, he recognized four explicit

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temperances that arranges us to carry on with ethically great lives. He called this the Cardinal Virtues.
These are prudence, temperance, courage, and justice.

The first virtue under Cardinal Virtues is prudence. Reasonability is the righteousness of scholarly
fitness or capacity to do certain things mentally and sanely. For instance, Aria needs to go to the sleep
gathering of her cousin yet she has a test the following day. She begins to figure out how she will have
the option to go to the sleeping party but then breeze through her test the following day. She thought
of cheating yet it isn't right. She likewise thought of reading for not many hours and heading off to the
sleeping party with her books and notes. She picked the subsequent choice and arranged her
timetable in like manner.

The second virtue is temperance. Restraint is the temperance of refining our methods of
making the most of our real wants. It guides us to follow a control like balance, accommodation,
quietude, forbearance, and celibacy. For instance, swearing off drinking liquor, eating exorbitantly,
engaging in sexual relations, and living extravagantly is temperate for Aquinas. Being modest, tame,
and mercy are additionally viewed as ethical on the grounds that these show control of one's
passionate responses.

Courage is the virtue of limiting feelings of trepidation while figuring out how to bear
preposterous hunger for wild activities. Fearlessness realizes when to battle and when to fly. In the
event that you have fearlessness, you likewise have continuance, certainty, heavenliness, persistence,
and diligence. For instance, facing a challenge to go after that position you are sitting tight for quite a
long time is a type of mental fortitude yet skydiving without legitimate hardware for the adrenaline
surge is a type of foolishness.

The last cardinal excellence is, justice that different from the three, is centered on going people
to productive members of society. Equity is the ethicalness that administers our connection with
others and the state. This righteousness administers our relationship with others not at all like
different excellences referenced. The reason for this prudence is to cause individuals to turn out to be
productive members of society. The two kinds of equity are commutative and distributive.
Commutative is justice between common individual residents. While distributive is equity as the
aggregate activities of the individuals from the state.

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Assessing Learning

Activity 17
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Differentiate the Four Types of Laws of St. Thomas Aquinas and give examples.

Eternal Law

Divine Law

Human Law

Natural Law

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Activity 18
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Watch the given video by following the links (URL). You may download them
directly by clicking the links.

•Natural Law Theory: Crash Course Philosophy

a)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo

After watching the video, let us find out how well you comprehend the lesson.
State the most important facts you derived from the materials.

NATURAL LAW THEORY: CRASH COURSE PHILOSOPHY

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 GENERAL EDUCATION - 8 ETHICS

Activity 19

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the following questions concisely.

1. How can we achieve happiness?

2. How can we become virtuous?

3. Basedon your previous exercise on Same-sex marriage, write at least 150 words of
comparative report of Aristotelian‟s Nicomachean Ethics and St, Thomas Natural
Law. Answer whether Aristotle and Aquinas allow same-sex marriage? Explain why
will they promote or against the idea.

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Lesson Proper

Kant and Rights Theorists: Goodwill and Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant is a German Philosopher (1724-1804) whose way of thinking on the goodwill
and categorical imperative is established in utilizing an individual's capacity to reason. We have four
learning results to accomplish before the finish of the theme, Kant, and Rights Theorists. We will
accomplish these learning results through talks and class exercises. We will use contextual analyses,
book articles, and different references for this point. We will have a test and a case examination as an
appraisal.

Kant's way of thinking addresses the inquiries: what would i be able to know? The heavenly
confidence which isolates what we can experience versus what we can't comprehend; we can just
know about things we can understand; what would it be a good idea for me to do? Which intends to
act sanely in agreement to an all-inclusive good law; what may I trust? That spirits are godlike, there is
God and that world is planned as per standards of equity.

Kant accepts that the feeling of profound quality of people doesn't really originate from an
incomparable power of God. So as to decide directly from wrong, we need to utilize reason. As
indicated by him, profound quality and religion ought to be isolated on the grounds that people have
various religions, that we will have various answers and reasons for our ethical quality.

Maxim

A maxim serves as a premise or rule on how and why we act. It is like an unwritten guideline
book which humans attribute to. For instance, on the off chance that we need cash, we buckle down.

These are two sorts of saying. First is the abstract or the theoretical goal. This typically benefits
an individual. Second is the target or the absolute objective. This depends on the reason.

Duty and Goodwill

How carry out proverbs identify with obligation and generosity? Duty is an objective maxim
“irrespective of all objects desire.” This obligation of man is to follow the unmitigated goal (target
adage). The inability to do so implies that one is silly, represents his/her own pleasure, and abuses
reason.
Kant likewise contends that the inspirations of people for their activities go past joy, and that
we practice reason above impulse. According to Sjöstedt-H, (2007) the capacity of the reason isn't
delight or bliss, however, to create a will that is acceptable in itself.
Cooperative attitude is in this manner about after obligations without respect for joy or wants.
It is "showed in representing the purpose of obligation" (Sjöstedt-H, 2007). For instance, you
experience an old who is encountering trouble going across the road where you are in. Regardless of
whether you are in a surge, you step in to assist (of obligation, and not for joy).

Imperatives

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What are the goals? A basic is an order. Models are the signages like keep off the grass or don't
hinder the driveway. There are two sorts of objectives: hypothetical and categorical.

Hypothetical imperatives are restrictive orders dependent on your applicable want. Models; In
case you have to float through the test, you have to inspect (If you would prefer not to pass, at that
point the order isn't pertinent to you). In the event that you need to join the class, at that point join!
(In case you're not enthused about joining, by then don't join).

The categorical imperative is an all-inclusive moral guideline that is unqualified, objective, and
soundly essential. For instance, the guidance, "While conforming, offer an approach to people with
handicaps." Even in the event that you need to advance beyond the line to spare time, you may decide
not to do as such. Let us talk about the clear cut basic in the following slides.

Categorical Imperative

Kant discussed The Categorical Imperative (CI) which acknowledges that there is a unique
standard of moral quality. This is an instance of deontological moral speculation (deon is Greek for
obligation), which says that how we judge our exercises as either right or wrong isn't dependent upon
the outcomes, anyway on whether our exercises fulfill our commitment. CI chooses our commitment.

In order to separate the even-minded clarification, Kant agrees that normal administrators (a
man using insightfulness and reason) are required to insist to instrumental guidelines. Thus, the non-
instrumental rule of CI is fundamental to a sound being which "must be viewed as self-sufficient, or
free, in the feeling of being the creator of the law that ties it."

To further understand CI, let us look at some of its formulations.

Formula 1: The Universality principle. According to Kant, a man must act just as indicated by the
adage which you can simultaneously will that it should turn into an all-inclusive law without logical
inconsistency.
Example: While at checkout in the grocery store, you noticed that the bagger accidentally
placed items in your bag even if you have not purchased them. Is it morally okay for you to do
this?

Analysis: If you approve of the maxim (in the example, your maxim is taking something you
have not paid for or simply stealing), then you are universalizing it, meaning everyone should always
do the maxim (stealing) you approve of.

Formula 2: The formula of Humanity: According to Kant, “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in
your own person or in that of the other, always as an end, and never as a mere means.”

Example: Lina runs to Ana’s house. Lina’s husband arrives a few minutes later, looking for his
wife. Ana lied and told him Lina wasn’t inside. Lina, however, decided to slip through the back door
and unfortunately bumped through her husband on her way out. Upon the encounter, the man
assaulted his wife.
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Analysis: Ana is considered responsible for Lina’s assault because her lie has caused it. If Ana
told the truth, the responsibility of the assault would fall on the husband. Ana violated the moral law
about lying, but she did it with the intent of protecting Lina.

Morality and the Categorical Imperative

How does morality relate to the Categorical Imperative? CI emphasizes basic respect for the
humanity of others. According to Kant, “moral law is a truth of reason, and hence that all rational
creatures are bound by the same moral law” (Jankowiak, n.d.). CI serves as the basis and justification
of morality because morality governs us, and we cannot excuse ourselves from it. Thus, violating CI
results in immoral actions.

Other philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Aquinas also believe in the importance of
having standards of rationality as a basis for morality. Hobbes point out, however, that “these
standards were either instrumental principles of rationality for satisfying one’s desires.” Locke and
Aquinas, on the other hand, argue that these standards are “external rational principles that are
discoverable by reason” Johnson and Cureton, 2019.

The Moral Worth of Persons

Given the CI, what makes someone a good person? According to Kant, the moral worth is
evaluated through people, and not actions (a person is morally worth vs lacks moral worth).

Motivation – what caused you to do the action determines whether you are good or bad. You
are morally worthy if your actions are motivated by morality. You lack moral worthiness if your
actions are motivated by emotion or desire.

Let us look at this example from Sjöstedt-H (2007), “Imagine that I win the lottery and I’m
wondering what to do with the money. I search for what might be the most amusing to do with it:
purchase a yacht, travel in top of the line far and wide, get that knee activity, and so forth. I conclude
that what might be extremely fun is to give the cash to a good cause and to appreciate that exceptional
inclination you get from satisfying individuals, so I part with all my lottery cash.”

Based on Kant’s assumptions, the person in the example is not morally worthy because the
motivation was selfish and was based on what was the “most fun.” The moral worth of the deed could
have been achieved had it been done out of a sense of duty, regardless of the person found it “fun” or
not.

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Assessing Learning

Activity 19
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Differentiate the Four Types of Laws of St. Thomas Aquinas and give examples.

Eternal Law

Divine Law

Human Law

Natural Law

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Activity 20
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Watch the given video by following the links (URL). You may download them directly by
clicking the links.

• Natural Law Theory: Crash Course Philosophy

a) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo

After watching the video, let us find out how well you comprehend the lesson. State the most
important facts you derived from the materials.

NATURAL LAW THEORY: CRASH COURSE PHILOSOPHY

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Activity 21

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the following questions concisely.

1. How can we achieve happiness?

2. How can we become virtuous?

3. Based on your previous exercise on Same-sex marriage, write at least 150 words of comparative
report of Aristotelian‟s Nicomachean Ethics and St, Thomas Natural Law. Answer whether Aristotle
and Aquinas allow same-sex marriage? Explain why will they promote or against the idea.

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Lesson Proper

Kant and Rights Theorists: Different Kinds of Rights

Understanding the relationship between legal rights and moral rights is key to comprehending
rights theories. We have four learning outcomes to achieve by the end of the topic, Kant, and Right
Theories. We will achieve these learning outcomes through lectures and class activities. We will be
utilizing case studies, books, articles, and other references for this topic. We will be having a quiz and
a case analysis as an assessment.

What are Rights?

In the first place, let us characterize rights. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016)
characterize rights as Rights are privileges (not) to play out specific activities, or not to be in sure
states, or qualifications that other (not) play out specific activities or not be in sure states.

Nickel (1992) characterized human rights as "fundamental good ensure that individuals in all
nations and societies supposedly have basically on the grounds that they are individuals. Calling these
ensures "rights" recommends that they join to people who can conjure them, that they are of high
need, and that consistency with them is required as opposed to optional. Human rights are oftentimes
held to be all-inclusive as in all individuals have and ought to appreciate them and to be autonomous
as in they exist and are accessible as measures of defense and analysis whether they are perceived
and executed by the lawful framework or authorities of the nation." (Nickel, 1992:561-2)

Human rights permit each person to have a decent life. It guarantees that the positive and
negative essentials to accomplish these are accessible and available. A few affirmations show and
foundations that secure human rights are: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), European
Convention on Human Rights (1954), International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (1966),
International Bill of Rights, and open specialists or the legislature that the individual is exposed to.

Be that as it may, human rights don't give us an exhaustive record of profound quality. (Human
rights don't forbid lying which is ethically offbase). "What human rights do principally plan to
recognize is the reason for deciding the shape, substance, and extent of basic, open good standards."
(Fagan, n.d.)

The central idea of rights is normal to law and profound quality. In this manner, human rights
are sure of good certifications. Which carries us to the accompanying inquiries: Are lawful rights
moral? Are good rights lawful?

Moral Rights

What are moral rights? Moral rights are rights that are granted to any human simply because
they are human. Everyone has unalienable access to moral rights. The existence and validity of a
moral right do not depend on the law. Moral rights represent the natural law. Moral rights are
grounded in moral reasons.
Moral rights are not enforceable by law.

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Example: The Right to privacy. On the off chance that I reserve an option to protect, at that
point you (and others) are committed not to attack my security. A situational example is when you
paid the hospital bill for a colleague without her consent so that he may be released from the premises
and so that he can come back to work. If your colleague does not pay you back, you cannot go to court
since you voluntarily offered help. As mentioned, moral rights are not enforceable by law.

Legal Rights

What are the legal rights? Legal rights are granted to people under a legal system (authority,
government). Legal rights are mandated by the laws of the country the individual is subjected to. Legal
rights represent positive law. Legal rights derive from the laws of society. They can be found in legal
codes. Legal rights are enforceable by law which recognizes and protects it.

Example: Right to education. In the Philippines, children have the legal right to education.
Situational example. Using our previous example, if your colleague specifically asked you for help
through a loan so that he may settle his hospital bill, if he does not pay you back, then you can go to
court.

Rights Theories

Let us discuss some rights theories that encompass moral and legal rights, such as Legal
Positivism, the Interest Theory, Natural Law, the Human Rights Doctrine, and the Will Theory.

First is legal positivism. Legal positivists argue that only rights that exist are legal rights that
exist in the legal system. Jeremy Bentham, a legal philosopher believes that human rights do not exist
before it was codified. Under legal positivism moral rights – they are moral claims that can only be
espoused within the law.

The Human Rights Doctrine. Relies on the philosophical claim that moral order exists and
applies to everyone, everywhere, anytime, or the moral universalism. Moral beliefs and concepts are
objective, valid, and universal. Human rights cannot be reduced to or exclusively identified with legal
rights and vice versa. It is both moral and legal right. The existence of human rights.

The Interest Theory by Bentham (1748-1832). If an individual has the right to something (A),
then someone else (B) has the duty to provide to A. Violation happens if the duty bearer (B) fails to
fulfill his/her duty to A. Also called the “benefit theory” which believes that the foundation of moral
rights is everyone’s basic duty to respect the interest of others (life, liberty). Anyone can have (legal or
moral) interest-based rights given that the interests of that person have “sufficient reasons” to hold
someone else accountable for the fulfillment of these interests.

The Will theory by Herbert L.A. Hart (1907-1992). Developed by Hart, a British legal scholar
who supports Kant’s argument on that freedom is the most basic right. An individual’s (A’s) right to
something means that the individual has control over the free will of another (B), in regard to the A’s
right, otherwise
they can do as they please. Violation happens if the other person (B) acts in the opposite of the

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individual’s will in regard to the objective of your own right. Also known as the “choice theory,” this
believes that anyone can claim or waive their own rights.

The last theory on our list is a natural law. Believes that humans have the right to the law
simply because they do. Timeless and immutable, universal, and inalienable. The natural rights are:
Right to life, Property, and Liberty. Given these violations of these rights means that you violate
someone’s very existence or humanity. If we recognize the existence of natural law then no individual
can violate another’s freedom, property, and endanger the other’s life. Law aims to be just and serve
its individual subjects. It is a collection of the individual natural rights.

The Law

As indicated by Frederic Bastiat, "The law has gone farther than this; it has acted contrary to its
own motivation. The law has been utilized to demolish its own target: It has been applied to
obliterating the equity that it should keep up; to restricting and decimating rights which it’s genuine
reason for existing was to regard. The law has put the aggregate power at the removal of the corrupt
who wish without hazard, to misuse the individual, freedom, and property of others. It has changed
over loot into a right, so as to secure loot. What's more, it has changed over legitimate safeguard into
wrongdoing so as to rebuff legal resistance."

What makes a decent law? A decent law is key for the presence of a free and well-working
society. It secures the life, property, and freedom of each human. Law punishes murder (infringement
of right to life). Law punishes robbery (infringement of right to property). Law punishes compulsion
(disregards right to opportunity and freedom). Ensures the frail against the oppression of the solid
and forestalls conceding benefits to uncommon gatherings to the detriment of others.

Let us consider this statement by Frederic Bastiat, "When law and ethical quality negate one
another, the resident has the brutal option of either losing his ethical sense or losing his regard for the
law."

What is a terrible law? Law can likewise be exploited by the individuals who need to live to the
detriment of others, in this manner bringing treachery. In a perfect world, what is legitimate ought to
be good. In any case, a few laws induce the jobs of casualty and recipient. For instance, enterprises are
regularly controlled through licenses and allow. The individuals who are progressively steady get
simpler access to these yet little league organizations may experience issues sticking to these.

Law is power. It is an instrument of equity that holds together the general public. It can permit
people to grow, however, it can likewise bring shamefulness.

Let us currently answer the inquiries toward the beginning of this module. Are lawful rights
moral? What is lawful might be adverse to the ethical privileges of others Are good rights legitimate?
Moral rights are regularly classified as legitimate rights, however not constantly.

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Assessing Learning

Activity 22
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Differentiate the Four Types of Laws of St. Thomas Aquinas and give examples.

Eternal Law

Divine Law

Human Law

Natural Law

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Activity 23

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:
Directions: Watch the given video by following the links (URL). You may download them directly by
clicking the links.

1. Natural Law Theory: Crash Course Philosophy a)https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=r_UfYY7aWKo

After watching the video, let us find out how well you comprehend the lesson. State the most
important facts you derived from the materials.

NATURAL LAW THEORY: CRASH COURSE PHILOSOPHY

50
 GENERAL EDUCATION - 8 ETHICS

Activity 27
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Answer the following questions concisely.

1. How can we achieve happiness?

2. How can we become virtuous?

3. Based on your previous exercise on Same-sex marriage, write at least 150 words of comparative
report of Aristotelian‟s Nicomachean Ethics and St, Thomas Natural Law. Answer whether Aristotle
and Aquinas allow same-sex marriage? Explain why will they promote or against the idea.

51
 GENERAL EDUCATION - 8 ETHICS

Lesson Proper_____________________________________________________________________

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism believes in the principle that happiness is an intrinsic value that every human
aspire for, therefore it drives our morality. We have three learning outcomes to achieve in this topic.
We will have a lecture, class activity, and case study. We will be utilizing case studies, books, articles,
and other references for this topic. We will be having an individual case analysis as an assessment.

Basic Principles

Basic Principles of Utilitarianism focuses more attention on the results or consequences rather
than the intent and behavior (a form of consequentialism). Main Principle: Do what produces the best
consequences. Utilitarianism believes that morality aims to make life better by increasing happiness
and reducing suffering. Good consequences equal good results. Happiness is equal to pleasure or the
absence of pain. Unhappiness is equal to pain or the absence of pleasure.

Origin

In 1789, Jeremy Bentham, a British Philosopher distributed "An Introduction to the Principles
of Morals and Legislation." Bentham perceived the ethical significance of rights, for example, the
opportunity of articulation, ladies' privileges, basic entitlements, separate, cancelation of bondage, the
death penalty, and flogging, decriminalization of gay acts, and so forth.
The principle was further developed in the 18th century by Bentham and John Stuart Mill to attempt a
moral theory that would be good for everybody. The origin could be traced back to Epicurus who said
that on the off chance that thou shrivel fulfill a man, include not unto his wealth, yet detract from his
wants.

Nature of the Theory

Utilitarianism believes that happiness is a universally shared value and that every human’s
goal is to be happy, and this thrives our morality. It believes that happiness is a balance of pressure
over pain. In a way, it can be egalitarian because it accounts for each person’s happiness as equal to
anyone else’s. Everyone has equal morality and no individual is more special.

We will go through these three questions to further explain the nature of utilitarianism. What
is good and what is bad? Whose happiness should be maximized? And which type of consequence
should be considered?

What is good and what is bad? Jonathan Bentham adapted hedonism into the theory of
utilitarianism. Hedonism believes that happiness is the only thing that is good on its own and does not
need to produce further value. On the other hand, the lack of it produces unhappiness which is also
bad in itself.

Whose
happiness should be maximized? Supporters of utilitarianism believe that an action is morally
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permissible if it produces more happiness or pleasure and less suffering than any other alternative
action.

Individual. Utilitarianism measures morality based on happiness. It is often referred to as

egoism which means pursuing something for one’s own good. Example: Suppose you are craving for
both cake and ice cream, and you can only get one. Since you need to select only one, you should
choose which among the two you crave the most, which will then bring you more happiness.

Group. The maximum value that a group can benefit from is determined by the total of the
interests (benefits and losses) of all its members. Example: Suppose you are buying dessert for a
gathering at work. Thirteen out of 20 prefer ice cream, while only 7 (including you) preferred cake.
Because you are considering the sum of the interests in your group, you will buy ice cream since it will
bring happiness to more people.

Everyone affected. Utilitarianism operates on the idea that when considering the benefit from
an action, one must look at it through an outsider’s perspective – without bias to own or favored
benefit to others.

Which type of consequence should be considered? First is the actual consequence. These are
actual results produced by the action. This serves as a determining factor of what is right and what is
wrong. A person can act morally right by considering the action that can maximize the expected utility
(a combination of good and bad effects).

Second is the foreseeable consequence. These are the perceived results that may be produced
by the action. This serves as a reference for a decision-making procedure. A person can only consider
the morally right action depending on what is currently available to him/her at the time of the action.
Elements
The elements of utilitarianism are the value theory and the theory of right action. Value theory means
that the only thing that is intrinsically valuable is happiness or the happiness of suffering. And the
theory of right action is the one that produces the most valuable or the most expected value.

Frameworks

The two frameworks of Utilitarianism are the Act Utilitarianism means choosing the action that
produces the greatest good for the greatest number; Evaluates individual action; Pain is pain
regardless of whose experiences it is. And Rule Utilitarianism connotes that we ought to act according
to moral rules which would produce more utility compared to other moral rules; Evaluates the moral
rules then evaluates individual actions if they followed the rule that would produce more utility;
Consider cues that will maximize utility for the majority of the time.

Critiques of the Theory

One. There are situations where we happen to be in. If there are instances where we can make
the situation better, we must, even if it means that we must make a little sacrifice. (If you sit and
watch something bad
happen and refuse to get involved, you are still guilty of the crime).

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Two. For the value theory, happiness should not be the only available thing in our life. Well-
being should also be considered valuable. G.E. Moore also accounts for friendship, knowledge, and the
experience of beauty as intrinsically valuable in one’s life, apart from happiness.

Three. For the theory of right action, since it takes into consideration the act that will cause
more happiness, the alternative is considered less valuable, what is less valuable is transitive. People
have a right not to have their interest sacrificed for the greater good.

Four. The prevention of suffering should be prioritized over the increase in happiness. Modern
utilitarianists addressed this and labeled it as “negative” utilitarianism.

Five. Utilitarianism focuses on the total amount of good

(pleasure/happiness) produced not on how it is distributed across people.

Six. The Diminishing Margin Utility of Wealth – the more resources we have, the less impact it
gives. For example, if a poor man receives 1000 pesos, it will make him very happy. If a rich
businessman, receives 1000 pesos it will have less impact on him.

Impacts of Utilitarianism

Impact on Law. The principles of utilitarianism became useful in terms of punishment for an
individual which aims to separate him from society or reform him. This accounts for the greater good
of most people if the criminal is put away.

Impact on Politics. Utilitarianism is useful in asserting the best action for a society based on the
utility of an individual and the authority of the government. It takes into consideration the importance
of assessment of consequences which requires evidence. Utilitarianism advocates for a system where
the interest of the larger society matches the government’s intent. It gives power to individuals to
judge the best consequence for him/herself.

Impact on Economics. In the theory of economic value, the cost of labor in production is paid
more attention compared to the commodity; Welfare economics; In terms of policies, early utilitarians
believe that the economy could prosper on its own. Modern utilitarians believe that government
intervention is important to ensure further good (that no abuses are committed).

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Assessing Learning

Activity 24
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Differentiate the Four Types of Laws of St. Thomas Aquinas and give examples.

Eternal Law

Divine Law

Human Law

Natural Law

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 GENERAL EDUCATION - 8 ETHICS

Activity 25

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Directions: Watch the given video by following the links (URL). You may download them directly by
clicking the links.

1. Natural Law Theory: Crash Course Philosophy

1.1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo

After watching the video, let us find out how well you comprehend the lesson. State the most
important facts you derived from the materials.

NATURAL LAW THEORY: CRASH COURSE PHILOSOPHY

56