EXPERIMENT 1

AIM: To determine the resistivity (ρ) of a given wire by plotting a graph of current with the potential
difference.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
o A Battery Eliminator (0V – 8V) o Voltmeter (0V – 5V)
o Rheostat o Ammeter (0A – 1A)
o Plug-type key o Screw Gauge
o Wire cutter/trimmer o Connecting wires

PRINCIPLE:

In materials where Ohm’s Law is

applicable, the current through the wire is
proportional to the potential difference
across them. In such cases the ratio of
potential difference to the current is a
constant for a given temperature.

This ratio is called resistance.

𝑉 ∝ 𝐼; ⟹ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼

In such cases a graph of V Vs I will be a straight line, whose slope is equal to the resistance (𝑅).
The resistance is determined graphically by
plotting 𝑉 against 𝐼.
Δ𝑉 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
𝑅= =
Δ𝐼 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐷

The resistance depends on the material of the

wire and its geometry. If we consider a wire of
uniform cross-sectional radius (𝑟) and length (𝐿),
then its resistance is given by the expression:

𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 = ρ ( ) = ρ ( 2) V – I Graph
𝐴 π𝑟
Here ρ is the resistivity or specific resistance.

DATA TABLE:
Determination of wire radius
LC of the Screw Gauge: ______________________________ mm
Zero Error of the Screw Gauge: ______________________________ mm
 MSR p VSR = p ⨉ LC Diameter = MSR + VSR - LC
0.00 mm
0.00 mm
0.00 mm

Mean Diameter, 𝒅 = _____________________ mm

[B] Voltmeter – Ammeter Data
Range of the Voltmeter: _________ V Range of the Ammeter:___________ A
LC of the Voltmeter :__________V LC of the Ammeter :___________ A
V I
S.No
(Volt) (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6

CALCULATIONS:

PRECAUTIONS: Any two sources of errors

o Key must be plugged only while readings are taken; Unplug the key between two readings to
maintain a constant temperature.
o Make sure the Voltmeter and Ammeter are of proper range and connected to right polarity.

SOURCES OF ERRORS: Any two sources of errors

o Loose electrical connections.
o Variation in temperature results in varying resistance value.

RESULTS:
o The slope of the V-I Graph is:___________________ 𝑉. 𝐴−1

o The Resistance of the given wire is : ___________________Ω

 EXPERIMENT 2
AIM: To find the resistance of an unknown resistance using a Meter Bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• Meter Bridge • Battery Eliminator (DC Source)
• Galvanometer • Connecting wires
• Resistance Box • Plug type key
• Jockey

PRINCIPLE:

A Meter Bridge is the simplest implementation of a Wheatstone’s Bridge, in which the lower branch of
the bridge is replaced with a wire of uniform cross-section of length 100 cm. A variable resistor (a
resistance box) of resistance P and the unknown resistance Q form the upper branch of the bridge.
The resistance of a wire of uniform cross-section is proportional to the length of the wire.
In a Meter Bridge, the Jockey separates
the wire into two parts and the ratio of
the resistances of the two parts is equal
to the ratio of their lengths.

For a balanced bridge the ratio of the

resistance of the upper and lower
bridges must be equal. This condition
translates to
𝑃 𝑙
=
𝑄 100 − 𝑙
Where 𝑙 is the balancing length in cm.

The unknown resistor is then: Meter Bridge

100 − 𝑙
𝑄=( )𝑃
𝑙

DATA TABLE:
Least Count of the Meter Ruler: ___________ mm
100 − 𝑙
𝑃 𝑙 100 − 𝑙 𝑄=( )𝑃
S.No 𝑙
(Ω) (cm) (cm)
(Ω)
1

5
𝑄̅ = _________________ Ω
CALCULATIONS:
100−𝑙1
• 𝑄1 = ( )𝑃 =
𝑙1
100−𝑙2
• 𝑄2 = ( )𝑃 =
𝑙2
100−𝑙3
• 𝑄3 = ( )𝑃 =
𝑙3
100−𝑙4
• 𝑄4 = ( )𝑃 =
𝑙4
100−𝑙5
• 𝑄5 = ( )𝑃 =
𝑙5
𝑄1 +𝑄2 +𝑄3 +𝑄4 +𝑄5
• 𝑄̅ = =
5

PRECAUTIONS: Any two

o Ensure that the plugs in the resistance box are tight,
o NULL Point should be maintained between 30 cm and 70 cm.
o Unplug the key between successive readings to prevent the heating of the wire.

SOURCES OF ERRORS: Any tow

o The wire may not be uniform cross-section due to wear,
o The wire resistance may have changed due to increase in temperature.

RESULTS: The resistance of the unknown wire is: 𝑄 = ________________________ Ω

 EXPERIMENT 3
AIM: To verify the law of combination (Series/Parallel) of resistances using a Meter Bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• A Meter Bridge • Battery Eliminator
• Two coil resistors • Jockey
• A resistance Box • 2 Plug type keys
• A Galvanometer • Connecting Wires

PRINCIPLE:
Series Combination: In a series combination, the resistors are connected end-to-end.
In this type of combination, the current through the resistors is the same and the potential difference
across their ends is proportional to their resistances.
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 ; 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
The voltage division rule gives the voltage across the individual resistors:
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉1 = ( )𝑉 ; 𝑉2 = ( )𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑡𝑜𝑡
The combination acts as though its is a single resistor with an equivalent resistance: 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Series Combination Parallel Combination

Parallel Combination: In a parallel combination, the resistors are connected in such a way that one end
of all the resistors are connected and held at the same potential and the other ends of the resistors are
connected together and held at the same potential.
Therefore, the voltage across the resistors is the same and the total currents branches out in accordance
with the current branching rule.
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 ; 𝐼1 = ( )𝐼 ; 𝐼2 = ( )𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑡𝑜𝑡
1 1 −1
The combination acts as though it is a single resistor with a resistance of: 𝑅𝑝 = (𝑅 + 𝑅 )
1 2
DATA TABLE
Data for the first resistor (𝑅1 ):
100 − 𝑙
𝑃 𝑙 100 − 𝑙 𝑄=( )𝑃
S.No 𝑙
(Ω) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚)
(Ω)
1. 1.0 Ω

2 2.0 Ω

3. 3.0 Ω

𝑅_1 = ________________Ω

Data for the second resistor (𝑅2 ):

100 − 𝑙
𝑃 𝑙 100 − 𝑙 𝑄=( )𝑃
S.No 𝑙
(Ω) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚)
(Ω)
1. 4.0 Ω

2. 5.0 Ω

3. 6.0 Ω

𝑅_2 = ________________Ω

Data for the series combination of the resistors (𝑅1 and 𝑅2 ):

100 − 𝑙
𝑃 𝑙 100 − 𝑙 𝑄=( )𝑃
S.No 𝑙
(Ω) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚)
(Ω)
1. 6.0 Ω

2. 7.0 Ω

3. 8.0 Ω

𝑅_𝑠 = ________________Ω
Data for the parallel combination of the resistors (𝑅1 and 𝑅2 ):
100 − 𝑙
𝑃 𝑙 100 − 𝑙 𝑄=( )𝑃
S.No 𝑙
(Ω) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚)
(Ω)
1. 6.0 Ω

2. 7.0 Ω

3. 8.0 Ω

𝑅_𝑝 = ________________Ω

CALCULATION:
𝑄1 +𝑄2 +𝑄3
• 𝑅1 = 3
= _______________________ Ω

𝑄1 +𝑄2 +𝑄3
• 𝑅2 = = _______________________ Ω
3

𝑄1 +𝑄2 +𝑄3
• 𝑅𝑠𝑚 = = _______________________ Ω [ This is the measured value]
3

• 𝑅𝑠𝑝 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = _______________________ Ω [ This is the prediction]

• Percentage Difference:
𝑝
𝑅𝑠𝑚 −𝑅𝑠
( 𝑝
𝑅𝑠
) × 100% = ______________________ Ω

PRECAUTIONS: Any two

o Ensure that the plugs in the resistance box are tight,
o NULL Point should be maintained between 30 cm and 70 cm.
o Unplug the key between successive readings to prevent the heating of the wire.

SOURCES OF ERRORS: Any tow

o The wire may not be uniform cross-section due to wear,
o The wire resistance may have changed due to increase in temperature.

RESULTS:
Resistance of the first resistor: 𝑅1 = _________________________ Ω
Resistance of the second resistor: 𝑅2 = _________________________ Ω
Measured resistance of the combination, 𝑅𝑚 = _________________________ Ω
Predicted Resistance of the combination, 𝑅𝑝 = _________________________ Ω
 EXPERIMENT 4
AIM: To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an electromagnet.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• A Sonometer with ferrite/soft-iron wire • Slotted masses (500 g) + Hanger
• A Stepdown Transformer (6V – 8V) • Two sharp wedges
• An electromagnet • Physical Balance

PRINCIPLE: The frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string fixed at both ends is given
by the relation
T – is the string tension;
𝟏 𝑻
𝒇𝒔 = √ l – is the string length;
𝟐𝒍 𝛍 μ – is the mass per unit length of the string.

If the string were driven by an electromagnet that is connected to an AC circuit, it will vibrate with the
maximum amplitude, when the driven frequency (AC frequency) is exactly equal to the natural frequency
(fundamental frequency of the string).
Because the string vibrates twice for each cycle of the AC, the string frequency (𝑓𝑠 ) is related to the AC
frequency as 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝐴𝐶 /2.

1 𝑇
𝑓𝐴𝐶 = √
4𝑙 μ
1
𝑙2 = ( 2 )𝑇 Here 𝑙 is the resonating length.
16𝑓𝐴𝐶 μ

Sonometer Set Up Diagram here 𝒍𝟐 − 𝑻 Schematic Graph

DATA TABLE:
Least count of the ruler: __________________ mm
Mass per unit length of the wire, μ = _______________________ 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−1
𝑙 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑙 2 × 10−4
M T = Mg 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑙 2 /𝑇
S.No (𝑐𝑚) (𝑚2 )
(𝑘𝑔) (𝑁) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚) 𝑚2 . 𝑁 −1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

CALCULATIONS:
o Slope of the graph:
Δ𝑙 2 𝑙22 − 𝑙12
𝑚= = =
Δ𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

o Square of the frequency:

2
1
𝑓𝐴𝐶 = =
16 × μ × 𝑚

o Measured frequency of the AC:

2
𝑓𝐴𝐶 = √𝑓𝐴𝐶 =

PRECAUTIONS: Any two

o The electromagnet should be held to within a centimetre from the vibrating wire,
o Ensure the vibrating wire is hanging freely.
SOURCES OF ERRORS: Any two
o AC frequency may not be stable,
o The wedges may not be sharp.
RESULTS:
o The slope of the 𝑙 2 − 𝑇 graph is ______________________ 𝑚2 . 𝑁 −1

o The measured value of AC frequency is ________________ 𝐻𝑧