What is research methodology?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and
analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers
design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research
instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design,
data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which
the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research
methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Why is research methodology important?

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 1

Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research, the explanations will be
of benefit to them

You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage .

A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly

define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives

It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling techesque, and
data collection and analysis methods A sound research methodology helps researchers
ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.

It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research

A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by

ensuring optimam usage of their time and resources

Types of research methodology

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data
required!

Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This
approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type
of research helps in testing the causal relanonships between variables, making predictions,
and generalizing results to wider populations.

Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of

people It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires
fiewer
participants but is still more time consoming because the time spent per participant is quite
large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being
investigated is not clearly defined.

Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and

qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to
validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are
complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using
the other method

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a

representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences
about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these
inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology probability
and nonprobability

Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form
of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. The different types of probability sampling are

Simple random every single member is chosen randomly

Systematic- sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting
point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular
intervals. This zype of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time
consuming

Stratified researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don't overlap but
represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a
sample can be drawn from each group separately.

Chester the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age,
sex, location, etc.

Nonprobability sampling

This involves feedhack based on a researcher's sample selection capabilities and not on a
fixed selection process. The different types of nonprobability sampling methods are
Convenience selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to
geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc, Purporne participants are
selected at the researcher's discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and
the understanding of the target audience.
Snowball already selected participants use their social networks to infer the researcher to
other pozurial participants

while designing the Midy, the researchers decide how many poople with which
characteristics to inchade as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most
likely to provide insights mto the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research
methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Hoth qualitative
and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research5

One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent's subjective

opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event

Document study/literature review/record keeping. Researchers" review of already existing

written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy
documents, etc.

Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10
people and a moderator, to understand the participants' opinion on a given topic

Qualitative observation: Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch,
taste, and hearing)

Quantitative research

Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling

Interviews. Commonly telephonic or done in-person

Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In

this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a
structured setting

Document review. Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for

supporting the research

Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending
on the requirement and sample size
What are data analysis methods?

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need
to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods7 also differ
between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are
developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The
methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped
into two categories descriptive and inferential

Descripove analysia is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to
present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of
descriptive analysis methods are:

Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)

Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)

Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)

Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the
analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the
relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis
methods are:

Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables

Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.

Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.

Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.

Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an
experiment
The mane analysis. To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to
address an issue

How to choose a research methodology

Here are sortie important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology

Research objectives, ans, and questions these would help structure the research design

Review existing literaturs to slentily any gaps in knowledge

Check the statistical requirements if data-driven or statistical results are needed then
quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on
people's opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable

Sample size-sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a
large sample, less effort and time-intensive methods are appropriate

Constraints-constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate

Methodology

How to write a research methodology

A research methodology should include the following components 1,9

Research design should be selected based on the research question and the data required
Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational,
descriptive, and exploratory

Research method-his can be quantitanve, qualitative, or mixed-method.Reason for selecting

a specific methodology explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your
research problem.

Research instruments-explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to
the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should
be mentioned for selecting the particular matnment.

Sampling this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied
Data collection-involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as
surveys, interviews, et

Data analysis-describe the data analysis methods you will use once you've collected the
data Research limitations-mention any limitations you foreste while conducting your
research.

Ethical considerations-research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include

obtaining cenient from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts
Primary Data: Definition

Dive into the essentials of primary data with our comprehensive guide, exploring its
definition, differentiation from secondary data, practical examples, and collection methods.
Understand its advantages, navigate potential disadvantages, and grasp ethical
considerations to optimize your research approach effectively.

Introduction

Understanding the type of data being analyzed contributes to drawing accurate conclusions
in qualitative research. Collecting primary data directly from the source offers unique
insights that can benefit researchers in various fields.

This article provides a thorough guide on primary data, illustrating its definition, how it
stands apart from secondary data, pertinent examples, and the common methods employed
in the primary data collection process. Additionally, we will explore the advantages and
disadvantages associated with primary data acquisition.

Primary data is collected directly from the source to address your research inquiry.

What is meant by primary data?

Primary data refers to information that is collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific
research purpose. Unlike secondary data, which is already available and has been collected
for some other objective, primary data is raw and unprocessed, offering fresh insights
directly related to the research question at hand. This type of data is gathered through
various methods such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and observations, allowing
researchers to obtain tailored and precise information.

The mam characteristic of primary data Is its relevancy to the specific study. Since it is
collected with the research objectives and questions in mind, it directly addresses the issues
or hypotheses under investigation. This direct connection enhances the validity and
accuracy of the research findings, as the data is not diluted or missing important
information relevant to the research question

Moreover, primary data provides the most current information available, making it
especially valuable in fast-changing fields or situations where timely data is beneficial to the
research. By analyzing primary data, researchers can draw unique conclusions and develop
original insights that contribute significantly to their field of study.
What are examples of primary data?

Primary data collection is a cornerstone of research in the social sciences, providing

firsthand insights that help researchers understand complex human behaviors and societal
structures. This direct approach to data gathering allows researchers to uncover rich,
context-specific information.

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The following subsections highlight examples of primary data across various sock disciplines,
showcasing the versatility and depth of these research methods.

Economic behaviors in market research

Market research within economics often relies on primary data to understand consumer
preferences, spending habits, and decision-making processes. For instance, a study may
collect primary data through surveys or interviews to gauge consumer reactions to a new
product or service.

This information can reveal economic behaviors, such as price sensitivity and brand loyalty,
offering valuable insights for businesses and policymakers.

Voting patterns in political science

In political science, researchers collect primary data to analyze voting patterns and political
engagement. Through exit polls and surveys conducted during elections, researchers can
obtain firsthand accounts of voter preferences and motivations.

This data is important in understanding the dynamics of electoral politics, voter turnout, and
the influence of campaign strategies on public opinion.

Cultural practices in anthropology

Anthropologists gather primary data to explore cultural practices and beliefs, often through
ethnographic studies. By immersing themselves in a community, researchers can directly
observe rituals, social interactions, and traditions.

For example, a study might focus on marriage ceremonies, food customs, or religious
practices within a particular culture, providing in-depth insights into the community's way of
life.
Social interactions in sociology

Sociologists utilize primary data to investigate the intricacies of social interactions and
societal structures, Observational studies, for instance, can reveal how individuals behave in
group settings, how social norms are enforced, and how social hierarchies influence
behavior.

By analyzing these interactions within settings like schools, workplaces, or public spaces,
sociologists can uncover patterns and dynamics that shape social life.

Secondary Data

Secondary Data: Definition

Secondary data refers to data that is collected by someone other than the primary user. [1]
Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information
collected by government departments, organizational records and data that was originally
collected for other research purposes.[2] Primary day contrast, are collected by the
investigator conducting the research.

Introduction

Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and,
particularly in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases
that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition,
analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is
impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or
developments. However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research,
as data may be outdated or inaccurate.[1]

Sources of secondary data

Secondary data can be obtained from many sources:

Censuses and government departments like housing, social security, electoral

statistics, tax records

Internet searches and libraries

GPS and remote sensing

Km progress reports clarification needed]

Journals, newspapers and magazine.

Administrative data and census

Government departments and agencies routinely collect information when registering

people or carrying out transactions, or for record keeping- usually when delivering a service.
This information is called administrative data. [3]

It can include:

* Personal information such as names, dates of birth, addresses

Information about schools and educational achievements Information about bealth

Information about criminal convictions or prison sentences

Tax records, such as income A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and
recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring
and official count of a particular population. It is a type of administrative data, but it is
collected for the purpose of research at specific intervals. Most administrative data is
collected continuously and for the purpose of delivering a service to the people.

What Is Sampling?

Sampling is a process in statistical analysis in which researchers take a predetermined

number of observations from a larger population. It allows researchers to conduct studies
about a large group by using a small portion of the population. The sampling method
depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple random
sampling or systematic sampling Sampling is commonly used in statistics, psychology
research, and the financial industry. It plays a crucial role in the financial sector, particularly
in auditing and risk management. Financial auditors, for instance, rely on audit sampling to
evaluate a portion of transactions or records rather than the entire population, which may
be too time- consuming or costly to examine fully 1

Key Takeaways

Sampling allows researchers to use a small group from a larger population to make
observations and determinations. Types of sampling include random sampling, block
sampling, judgment sampling, and systematic sampling. Researchers should be aware of
sampling errors, which may be the result of random sampling or bias

Companies use sampling as a marketing tool to identify the needs and wants of their target
market.
Certified public accountants use sampling during audits to determine the accuracy and
completeness of account balances Sampling Investopedia/Crea Taylor

How Sampling Works

It can be difficult for researchers to conduct accurate studies on large populations. In some
cases, studying every individual in the group can be impossible. That's why they often
choose a small portion to represent the entire group. This is called a sample. Samples allow
researchers to use the characteristics of the small group to estimate the larger population.

The chosen sample should be a fair representation of the entire population, When taking a
sample from a larger population, it's

Random Sampling

With random sampling, every item within a population has an equal probability of being
chosen. It is the furthest removed from any potential bias because no hurman judgement is
involved in selecting the sample.

For example, a random sample may include choosing the names of 25 employees from a hat
in a company of 250 employees. The population is all-250 employees, and the sample is
random because each employee has an equal chance of being chosen.

Judgment Sampling

Auditor judgment may be used to select the sample from the full population. An auditor
may only be concerned about transactions of a material nature. For example, assume the
auditor sets the threshold for materiality for accounts payable transactions at $10,000. If
the client provides a complete list of 15 transactions over $10,000, the auditor may just
choose to review all transactions due to the small population size.

The auditor may alternatively Identify all general ledger accounts with a variance greater
than 10% from the prior period. In this case, the auditor is limiting the population from
which the sample selection is being derived. Unfortunately, human judgment used in
sampling always comes with the potential for bias, whether explicit or implicit.

Block Sampling

Block sampling uses a consecutive series of items within the population as the sample. For
example, a list of all sales transactions in an accounting period could be sorted in various
ways, including by date or dollar amount.
An auditor may request that the company's accountant provide the list in one format or the
other to select a sample from a specific segment of the list. This method requires very little
modification on the auditor's part, but it's likely that a block of transactions won't be
representative of the full population.

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling begins at a random starting point within the population and uses a
fixed, periodic interval to select items for a sample. The sampling interval is calculated as the
population size divided by the sample size. Despite the sample population being selected in
advance, systematic sampling is still considered random if the periodic interval is
determined beforehand and the starting point is random.

Assume that an auditor reviews the internal controls related to a company's cash account
and wants to test the company policy that stipulates that checks exceeding $10,000 must be
signed by two people The population consists of every company check exceeding $10,000
during the fiscal year, which, in this example, was 300. The auditor uses probability statistics
and determines that the sample size should be 20% of the population or 60 checks. The
sampling interval is 5, or 300 checks 60 sample checks,

Therefore, the auditor selects every fifth check for testing. Assuming no errors are found in
the sampling test work, the statistical analysis gives the auditor a 95% confidence rate that
the check procedure was performed correctly. The auditor tests the sample of 60 checks
and finds no errors, concluding that the internal control over cash is working properly

Example of Sampling

Market Sampling

Businesses aim to sell thou products and/or services to target markets.Before presenting
products to the market, companies generally identify the needs and wants of their target
audience. To do so, they may employ sampling of the target market population to gain a
better understanding of those needs to later create a product and/or service that meets
those oceds. In this case, gathering the opinions of the sample helps to identify the needs of
the whole
Andit Sampling

During a financial audit, a certified public accountant (CPA) may use sampling to determine
the accuracy and completeness of account balances in their client's financial statements.
This is called andir sampling 3 Audit sampling is necessary when the population (the account
transaction information) is large.

What Is Sampling Error?

Sampling error occurs when the sample collected for review doesn't represent the entire
population being studied. This jeopantzes the accuracy and validity of the study. For
instance, sampling ensor occurs if researchers include professors in the sample when
they're trying to determine how students foef about the university experience. Sampling
error may be random or the result of some type of bias

What Is Cluster Sampling?

Cluster sampling is a form of probability sampling. When researchers conduct cluster

sampling, they divide the population into smaller groups. They then select individuals
randomly from these groups to form their samples and conduct their studies. This kind of
sampling is used when both the overall population and sample size is too large to handle.

What's the Difference Between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling?

Probability sampling gives researchers the chance to come to stronger conclusions about
the entire population that is being studied. It involves the use of random sampling, which
means that all of the participants in the group are equally likely to get a chance to be chosen
as a representative sample of the entire population. The result is often unbiased.

Non-probability sampling, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect

information. This type of sampling is generally biased as it involves the non-random
selection of participants for the sample.

The Bottom Line

Statisticians often resort to sampling in order to conduct research when they're dealing with
large populations. Sampling is a technique that involves taking a small number of
participants from a much bigger group. This is often found when data needs to be collected
about the population, including statistical analysis, population surveys, and economic
studies.