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Overview of metal casting

process, applications,
advantages

Sand casting process

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Producing a “good” casting requires a design effort to:

1. Create a gating system (pouring basin, sprue, runner) to
bring molten metal into the mold cavity free from
entrapped slag, sand or gases.
• The most important function is to convey the liquid material
to the mold cavity.
• Other functions: to control shrinkage, the speed of the liquid,
turbulence, and trapping of impurities (sand, slag and
gases).
• It is usually
attached to the
thickest part of the
casting to assist in
controlling
shrinkage.

Producing a “good” casting requires a design effort to:

2. Provide a riser which feeds liquid metal into the casting
cavity as the liquid is cooling and solidifying (all liquid
metals will shrink as they cool and most liquid metals will
shrink as they solidify).
• The riser may have to provide up to 5 - 7% by volume for
the casting as it solidifies.

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Producing a “good” casting requires a design effort to:

3. Control heat flow out of the casting so that the last liquid
to solidify is in the riser.
4. Control the rate of heat flow so as to control the nature of
the solidified product.

Casting- a multidisciplinary approach

After cast
Shape, size, Pattern Gating and riser
processing
tolerance, production design (fluid and
(inspection,
dimensional for molds heat transfer-
machining &
change during and core CAE), selection of
finishing),
processing. (CAD). casting
cost.
processes.

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Classification of casting processes

1. Expendable mould casting: Green sand

casting, dry sand casting, cement moulding,
CO2 sodium silicate moulding, Investment
casting, etc.
2. Permanent mould casting: Ingot casting,
continuous casting, strip casting, die casting,
centrifugal casting, squeeze casting, thixo-
forming etc.

Classification of casting processes

Based on materials to be processed

1. Ferrous (Iron and steel castings)
2. Non-ferrous (copper based alloys, aluminum
based alloys, magnesium alloys and other alloys )

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Advantages and disadvantages of casting processes

Intricate shape (Molten material can flow into very small
sections)
Large varieties of metal (ferrous: iron, steel and non-ferrous:
Aluminium alloy, copper alloy, magnesium alloy, and other
alloys)
Large size component (few grams to tones)
Mass production
Poor accuracy (shrinkage and other casting defects)
Poor surface finish (depends on the roughness of cavities)
Mechanical properties (variation within the casting is not
good)
Environmental effect (high temperature environment, toxic
metal gases, handling of molten metal, etc.)
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Pattern design (types of

pattern, allowances, parting
line and pattern lay out)

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Pattern
• Pattern is a replica of the final product and is used for preparing
the mold cavity.
• It is slightly bigger than the final product to account for different
allowances.
• It should be designed in order to be easily removed without any
damage done to the prepared mold.
• It should be also be perfectly dimensioned and very durable for
the intended use.
Pattern materials:
• Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps due to absorption of moisture
• Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
• Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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Types of pattern
One-piece patterns / Solid pattern / Loose
pattern
 It is the simplest and the least expensive pattern.
 It is used only when a limited number of castings are
required.
 Molding with a loose pattern requires more manual
operations and a much higher degree of molder’s skill than
molding with other pattern types.

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Types of pattern
Split patterns

 Patterns are split into 2 parts along the parting line with the upper half
forming cavity in the cope and the lower half in the drag.
 It is used for molding of more complex shapes in moderate quantity.
 In this case, care must be taken to ensure alignment of the mold
cavities at the parting line

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Types of pattern
Match plate patterns
 Patterns are obtained by attaching 2 halves of the split pattern on
opposite sides of the match plate.
 After preparing the cope and drag cavities, the match plate is removed to
get the complete pattern.
 Several patterns can be mounted on the match plate (good for small
castings)

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Types of pattern
Cope and drag patterns
 These patterns are essentially split patterns with 2 halves of the patterns
mounted separately on 2 match plates.
 The cope and drag molds can be prepared separately and assembled to
form the complete mold.
 Mostly preferred for heavy castings (used in large production runs and in
molding machines).

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Types of pattern
Loose piece pattern
 It is used when pattern is difficult to withdraw from the mould.
 Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the part of
pattern.
 The main pattern is removed first leaving the loose piece portion of the
pattern in the mould and then the loose piece is withdrawal separately.

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Types of pattern
Sweep pattern

 They are used for forming

large circular mould of
symmetric kind by revolving a
sweep attached to a spindle.
 A sweep is a template of wood
or metal and is attached to the
spindle at one edge and the
other edge has a contour
depending upon the desired
shape of the mould.
 The pivot end is attached to a
stake of metal in the center of
the mould.

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Types of pattern
Skeleton pattern
 It is not economical to make a
solid pattern when only a small
number of large and heavy
castings are to be made.
 It is a ribbed construction of
wood which forms an outline of
the pattern to be made.

 This frame work is filled

with loam sand and
rammed.
 The surplus sand is
removed by strickle
board.

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Pattern allowances:
Pattern allowances considering the position of the critical surface and sharp
corners/abrupt change in thickness

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Shrinkage or contraction allowance

 Most metals undergo noticeable volumetric contraction when
cooled.
 Shrinkage of liquid as it cools from the solidification
temperature
 Solidification shrinkage as the liquid turns into solid
Pure metal
T
 Solid metal contraction as the solidified metal cools to lroom
temperature.
 Liquid and solidification shrinkage Alloy
is taken care of by riser in the Ts
feeder design.
 Solid shrinkage is taken care of by
the shrinkage allowance by
providing excess dimensions to
the pattern.

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Shrinkage or contraction allowance

 A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its
freezing point (same as melting point)

greater the superheat

the more time there is
for the liquid material
to flow into intricate
details

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Shrinkage or contraction allowance

 There is no longer a thermal arrest, instead there is a freezing
range.
 The freezing range corresponds directly to the liquidus and
solidus found on the phase diagram for the specific alloy

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Problem on shrinkage allowance.

 The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden
pattern. Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the
dimension of the pattern. All dimensions are in inches.
Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance
(inch/ft)
Grey Cast Up to 2 feet 0.125
Iron 2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083
Cast Steel Up to 2 feet 0.251
2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155
Aluminum Up to 4 feet 0.155
4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125
Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173
Over 4 feet 0.155

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The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet
(as per Table 1)
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch » 0.2 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch » 0.15 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch » 0. 09 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch » 0. 07 inch
The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown below:

Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance

(inch/ft)
Grey Cast Up to 2 feet 0.125
Iron 2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083
Cast Steel Up to 2 feet 0.251
2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155
Aluminum Up to 4 feet 0.155
4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125
Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173
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Over 4 feet 0.155

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• Can gray CI be cast without shrinkage

allowance on pattern
• or should the pattern be made smaller
while making gray CI castings?

Typical volumetric shrinkage

values for metals during
solidification

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Typical linear shrinkage values for

metals due to solid thermal
contraction
• Aluminum alloys 1.3%
• Magnesium 2.1%
• Magnesium alloy 1.6%
• Brass, yellow 1.3%–1.6%
• Tin 2.1%
• Nickel 2.1%
• Zinc 2.6%
• Cast iron, white 2.1%
• Cast iron, gray 0.8%–1.3%
• Steel, chrome 2.1%
• Steel, carbon 1.6%–2.1%
Groover, Fundamentals Modern
Manufacturing

The expansion observed is during solidification. Not during cooling down of

solid. Hence shrinkage allowance on pattern is required.

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Shrinkage
allowance
on pattern
to take
care of
solid
shrinkage

Machining / finishing allowance

 Machining allowance for thickness of metallic layer to be
removed from the casting to get desired surface finish,
dimensional accuracy and intricate shape.
 The amount of machining allowance is also affected by
 size and shape of the casting;
 casting orientation;
 the metal
 Degree of accuracy
 finish required.

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Machining / finishing allowance

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Distortion or camber allowance

 The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses.
 These internal stresses are caused on account of unequal cooling
of different section of the casting.
 It depends on types of metal, shape, thickness.

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Rapping allowance or Shake allowance

 When pattern is withdrawn from the mould, it distorts the sides
and shape of the cavity.
 To avoid this, the pattern is shaked to create a small void or gap
between the mould and pattern surface for easy removal.
 This increases the size of cavity  The size of the pattern is
slightly smaller than castings.
 Shake allowance is considered as negative allowance
 There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance.
 It is to be applied only to
those dimensions that are
parallel to the parting
plane

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Pattern allowances:
Pattern allowances considering the position of the critical surface and sharp
corners/abrupt change in thickness

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Green sand moulding and

sand testing (AFSGFN,
strength, permeability etc)

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Molding sand
 Base sand (silica, zircon or chromite sand)
 Binder (clay, cereal, coal dust, portland cement, organic oil, resin
etc)
 Moisture (water)
 Properties:
o Refractoriness
o Green strength o Plasticity / flowability
o Dry strength o Produce good surface finish
o Hot strength o Reusable
o Permeability o Thermal
o Thermal stability conductivity/Remove heat

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Composition % Silica Olivine Chromite Ziron

SiO2 98.82 41.2 1.34 33.5
MgO 0.031 49.4 8.75 -
Cr2O3 - - 45.8 -
ZrO2 - - - 65
Al2O3 0.049 1.8 21.34 1
Fe2O3 0.019 7.1 19.50 0.03
CaO 0.0016 0.2 0.94 -
TiO2 0.012 - 0.03 0.19
Melting Point F(C) 3110(1710) 3400(1875) 3800(2093) 4600(2538)
Bulk Density 95-97 96-103 156-165 152-183
Slightly
Temp Reaction (pH) Acidic Basic Basic/Neutral
Acidic
Shape Varied Angular Angular Rounded
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Strength test

Universal sand strength

Green compressive
strength=5.0 to 22 psi
Green shear strength=1.5 to
7.0 psi
Dry compressive strength= 20
to 250 psi

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Strength test

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Permeability
• Permeability is determined by allowing 2000cc of air through a
standard specimen.
• The time taken to by the 2000 cc air to pass through and the back
pressure generated is measured.

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Sand testing
Grain size and shape
Bigger grain results
worse surface finish

Bigger grain ensures

better permeability

Irregular grain produces

stronger mold

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AFS grain fineness number

6
1. Take 50 gm of dried sand on the topmost sieve. 12
The whole assembly is placed on the sieve shaker 20
30
and is agitate for 15 minutes.
40
2. Weigh the amount of sand remaining on each 50
70
sieve and record in terms of % of original 50gm 100
sample. 140
200
3. Multiply the results for each sieve by a multiplying 270
factor. PAN

4. The multiplication products are summed and then

divided by sum of grain % obtained.

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Sieve No Aperture( Multiplier (A) Weight Weight retained C=A×B

mm) retained (gm) in % (B)
6 3.327 3 - - 0
12 1.651 5 - - 0
20 0.833 10 - - 0
30 0.589 20 2.0 4.0 80
40 0.414 30 4.7 9.4 282
50 0.295 40 7.3 14.6 584
70 0.208 50 14.8 29.6 1480
100 0.147 70 16.2 32.4 2268
140 0.104 100 3.4 6.8 680
200 0.074 140 1.1 2.2 308
270 0.053 200 0.2 0.4 80
Pan - 300 0.1 0.2 54
Total - - 49.8 99.6 5814

AFS Grain Fineness number=(∑C)/(∑B)= 5814/99.6=58.3≈58 43

Sieve Aperture Multiplier (A) Sand A-Weight Sand-B 60%A and

No (mm) retained (gm) Weight 40%B
retained (gm)
6 3.327 3 0 0 0
12 1.651 5 0 0 0
20 0.833 10 0.065 0 0.04
30 0.589 20 0.335 0.015 0.205
40 0.414 30 1.175 0.03 0.715
50 0.295 40 8.01 0.74 5.10
70 0.208 50 22.91 6.65 16.405
100 0.147 70 16.64 21.635 18.64
140 0.104 100 0.615 13.83 5.90
200 0.074 140 0.05 5.45 2.21
270 0.053 200 0.005 0.94 0.38
Pan - 300 0.195 0.71 0.4
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sand distribution
% weight retained 40
30
20
10
0
6 12 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200 270 Pan
Sieve number

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46

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Finer grain

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48

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Lifting properties of pattern:

Sand sticking to pattern while lifting from the mold are caused by
• Inadequate draft, faulty draw mechanism,
• Improper ramming and poor sand mixes which changes number of
adhesive bonds.

weight
pattern

sand

Clay content

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Parting line
 Parting line divides the part surface into separate regions each produced
by different mould segments.
 Parting line coincides with projected boundary of the casting when
viewed along the draw direction
 The internal angle at the parting line is less than 180 degree.
 Flash appears along the parting line.

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Core, Core print, Chaplet and

chill, and core design

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Core: (fabricate holes, internal cavities, undercuts)

Compressor casing

Core consists of body and core prints

Core

Core should have

• High hot strength,
• Refractoriness,
• Permeability, and
• Collapsible.

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The core print design:

1. The print must balance the body weight so that

core does not fall during mold assembly
2. The print must not crush the mold with the bouncy
force of the metal.
3. The print should allow the internal gas to escape
from the mold.
4. The print should not hinder the heat transfer from
the core to the mould.
5. The print should minimize the shift and deflection
of the core with use of chaplets if necessary

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Numerical problem 1

Q. Brass chaplets are used to support sand core inside a sand

mould cavity. The projected core print area is 13 cm2 for each
end of the cylindrical sand core which support at both ends.
The design of the chaplets and the manner in which they are
placed in the mold cavity surface allows each caplet to sustain
a force of 45 N. If the volume of the core = 7.5X103 cm3, and
the metal poured is brass, determine the minimum number of
caplets that should be placed (a) beneath the core, and (b)
above the core. (Density of sand core and brass are 1.6 and
8.67 gm/cm3 respectively, and the green sand strength is
6.9X103 N/m2

Numerical problem 1

• Unsupported load on top chaplets=Core

buoyancy-Core print support
• Unsupported load on bottom chaplets=
Weight of core-Core print support
• Number of chaplets= Unsupported
load/Force sustainable by chaplet
• Core print support = Projected core print
area X Green sand strength

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Different types of core prints

59

Types of
Chaplets

60

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Types of Chaplets

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Teeming of metal melt out of ladle

2 2
V1 P V P
h1   1  h2  2  2
2 g g 2 g g

h2=0, h1=h, p1=p2=p=atm pr

V1 is neglected compared to
V2

V2  2 gh

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Q. A ladle with a circular cross-section (diameter 2.0 m)

contains 70X103 kg molten steel. The steel is teemed through
a circular hole in the bottom of ladle. The diameter of the hole
is 3.0 cm. Calculate the time required to empty the ladle.
Density of steel is 7.8X103 kg/m3
Soln:

A    .(0.015) 2 
V1  V2  2   V2    2.25  10 4 V 2
  .(1.0)
2
 A1  
V1 can be neglected compared to V2 in Bernoulli’s equation

A 
V2  2 gh   1 .V1
 A2 

dh
V1  
dt
 A1   dh 
 .    2 gh
 A2   dt 

 A1 h   dh  t
.     dt
 2 gh  

 A2  h0   0

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t
A1


 2 h0  h 


A2  2g 

m
h0   2.86m
A1

To empty the ladle, h=0

Ans=3391 sec=56.5 min

Flow of Molten Metals in moulds

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Flow of molten metal in moulds

• Fluidity may be defined as an empirical measure of the

distance a liquid metal can flow in a specific channel
before being stopped by solidification.
• Metallurgists define it as the ability of the liquid metal or
alloy to flow freely and thus to feed a mould cavity and
produce the desired contour before freezing occurs.
• The fluidity of molten metal is very important because we
may melt the metal, we may treat the metal, but after all
it is going to occupy the cavity and it has to fill the entire
cavity, it has to fill the entire thin sections of the mould
cavity

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Fluidity
• If the molten metal does not possess enough fluidity then the
molten metal cannot fill the entire cavity.
• May be it may partly fill the cavity, but it may not fill the thin
sections or the complex sections that is why the fluidity of the
molten metal has highest importance.
• Pure metals act with good fluidity.
• There are two important factors which affect the fluidity
1. Factors related to Melt
2. Factors related to casting parameters

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Fluidity/Castability
• Terms castability used to describe flow behaviour,
the term fluidity is most widely recognized.
• Defined as that quality of the liquid metal which
enables it to flow through mould passages and to
fill all the interstices of the mould, providing sharp
outlines and faithful reproduction of design details.
• Inadequate fluidity may be a factor in short run
castings or in poor definition of surface features.
• Fluidity is not a single physical property in the
same sense as density/viscosity, but a complex
characteristic related to behaviour under specific
conditions within a foundry mould. 69

70

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71

Fluidity Test
• In this test where the molten metal is made to flow along a
channel at room temperature.
• The distance of metal flow before it solidifies and stops is a
measure of its fluidity.
• Obviously this length is a function of the thermal properties of
the metal and the mold, as well as the design of the channel.

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Fluidity Test

USING A SPIRAL MOULD.

FLUIDITY INDEX IS THE

LENGTH OF THE
SOLIDIFIED METAL IN THE
SPIRAL PASSAGE.

GREATER THE LENGTH,

GREATER THE FLUIDITY
INDEX.

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Viscosity
• A measure of the capacity of a liquid to transmit a
dynamic stress in shear.
• Defined as the force required to move a surface of
unit area at unit velocity past an equivalent parallel
surface at unit distance.
• When liquid is flowing in an enclosed passage, its
viscosity will determine the extent to which the drag
imposed by the passage wall is transmitted to the
bulk of the liquid.
• More directly related to capacity of a liquid to flow
under its own pressure is the kinematic viscosity, that
is the absolute viscosity divided by the density. 74

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Factors influencing fluidity

• Characteristics of alloy solidification

• Viscosity of liquid metal
• Heat content of metal
• Mold properties and Pouring condition

Variables influencing fluidity-Temperature

• The initial temperature of the metal is found to

be the predominant factor, several investigators
having shown the fluidity of a given alloy to be
directly related to the superheat.
• This would be expected from the fundamental
effect of solidification in controlling the duration
of flow, since the superheat determines the
quantity of heat to be dissipated before the onset
of solidification.

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Variables influencing fluidity-Temperature

Influence of superheat on fluidity: (a) pure metals (b) alloys 77

Variables influencing fluidity-Composition

• Valid comparisons of the fluidities of various alloys

can only be made at constant superheat
• High fluidity is commonly found to be associated
with pure metals and with alloys of eutectic
composition;
• Alloys forming solid solutions, especially those with
long freezing range, tend to show poor fluidity.
• Portevin and Bastien established an inverse
relationship between fluidity and solidification
range.
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Variables influencing fluidity-Composition

Relationship
between composition
and fluidity of lead–
tin alloys

79

Modes of solidification in flow channel

• In alloys in which constitutional undercooling

and other phenomena produce independent
crystallization in the main mass of liquid, flow is
arrested by the presence of free crystals in the
liquid at the tip of the advancing stream.
• These alternative modes of freezing are
illustrated in the following slides

80

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Modes of solidification in flow channel

81

Modes of solidification in flow channel

82

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Modes of solidification in flow channel

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Other factors in fluidity

• Sharp corners and fine details
• The importance of surface tension with respect to flow in
small passages was demonstrated by Hoar and Atterton,
who found a direct relationship between surface tension
and the pressure required to produce penetration of liquid
metals into surface voids in sand compacts.
• The presence of a restrictive oxide film may mean,
therefore, that the film rather than the mould will determine
the final outline of the casting in confined corners.
• Alloys carrying oxide films are particularly susceptible to
poor definition and to the formation of surface laps and
wrinkles.

84

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Mould factors in metal flow

• Although fluidity should be clearly isolated as a property
of the metal alone, the flow of metal under a given
pressure head is also strongly influenced by the nature
of the mould.
• Since metal flow is arrested through solidification, mould
conditions can affect flow duration either directly through
thermal properties or indirectly through flow velocity:
• If a restraining force reduces this velocity, increased time
for heat loss per unit length of passage wall causes the
final arrest to occur in a shorter distance.

85

Mould factors in metal flow-

Thermal properties
• The rate of cooling to the temperature at which flow
ceases is largely determined by the heat diffusivity D of
the molding material

86

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Mould factors in metal flow-

Thermal properties
• In certain cases the cooling rate may be further influenced
by absorption of the latent heat of vaporization of volatile
mould constituents.
• Rapid freezing thus results from the use of mould
refractories of high heat diffusivity, or, in the extreme case,
of metal chills or moulds.
• Cooling is also accelerated by evaporation of water from the
surface layers of greensand moulds: this effect is found to
retard metal flow in thin sections, hence the preference for
dry sand techniques for extremely thin castings.
• In investment casting the rate of heat removal is further
reduced by the use of a high mould preheat temperature.
87

Mould factors in metal flow-

Mould surface effects
• Flow down a mould channel is restrained by
frictional forces dependent on the roughness of
the mould surface.
• This roughness is related to grain size of
moulding material, which explains the need for
fine grained sands and for metal or glass flow
channels for fluidity testing.
• Fluidity as is found to be greatly increased by
mould coatings.

88

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Mould factors in metal flow-

Mould surface effects
• Mould coatings may be used simply to reduce
friction by providing a smooth surface;
• Increased flow can also been obtained by the use
of reactive coatings designed to influence wetting
characteristics at the metal–mould interface.
• Hexachloroethane, which generates active
chlorine, has been found to be especially effective
in increasing flow distance in aluminium alloys; it
is suggested that the restrictive oxide film is
reduced by chlorine.
89

Mould factors in metal flow- Air

pressure effects
• As metal enters the mould it must displace a rapidly
expanding mass of air from the mould cavity.
• This is accomplished through vents and open risers
and through the permeable structure of the
moulding material.
• If these channels are inadequate, back pressure of
air is liable to retard flow and produce an apparent
loss of fluidity.

90

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Summary: Flow of metal in a

mould
• Flow of metal in a given mould cavity is determined by both metal and mould
characteristics.
• The metal property of fluidity is a function of composition and superheat.
• Since composition is normally governed by the alloy specification and can only
be varied within narrow limits, casting temperature remains as the metal variable
most readily open to practical control in the foundry.
• Such control must, however, be exercised with many other factors in mind,
including feeding technique, metallurgical structure and the suppression of
defects such as hot tears and metal penetration.
• Since casting temperature can be readily selected and measured, the fluidity
test has not acquired universal status as a routine melt quality test for shop
control purposes.
• Mould conditions affecting flow are seen to be mainly inherent in the moulding
process and its associated materials.
• Successful mould filling thus depends primarily on the use of a gating technique
suited to the particular combination of alloy and moulding material.
91

Heat input required

 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten

temperature sufficient for casting
-Heat metal above the melting point
-Pour it into the mold cavity
 The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat of fusion to convert from solid to
liquid
3. Heat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring

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Heat input (2) heat of fusion to convert

the solid to the liquid
Heating Period Thermal Analysis

H  V {C s (Tm  T0 )  H f  Cl (T p  Tm )}

(1) heat for raising the temperature

to the melting point

(3) heat for raising the molten metal to

the metal at the desired temperature ready
to pour it into a cavity.

93

Heating required for casting

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Problem-1
One cubic meter of a certain eutectic alloy is
heated in a crucible from room temperature to
100oC above its melting point for casting. The
alloy’s density is 7.5 g/cm3, melting point is
800oC, specific heat is 0.33 J/g oC in the solid
state and 0.29 J/g oC in the liquid state; and
heat of fusion is 160 J/g. How much heat energy
must be added to accomplish the heating,
assuming no losses?

H ~ 3.3 x 109 J

95

Gating System: Introduction

 Mould is used for producing a casting. Molten
metal is conveyed into the mold cavity by
using Gating system.
 In casting process, gating system plays an
important role to produce a high quality
casting.
 A poorly designed gating system results in
casting defects.
 A gating system controls mould filling process.
 The main function of gating system is to lead
molten metal from ladle to the casting cavity
ensuring smooth, uniform and complete filling.

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Gating System: Introduction

 A good gating design should ensure proper distribution

of molten metal without excessive temperature loss,
turbulence, gas entrapping and slags.
 Very slow pouring, require longer filling time and
solidification will start even before filling of mould.
 This can be restricted by using super heated metal,
but in this case gas solubility will be a problem.
 Faster pouring can erode the mould cavity.
 So gating design is important and it depends on the
metal and molten metal composition. For example,
aluminium can get oxidized easily

97

Elements of Gating System

 The term gating system refers to all passageways
through which the molten metal passes to enter the
mould cavity.

 Pouring basin
 Sprue
 Runner
 Gates
 Risers

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Contd…

 Pouring Cup: It is the funnel-shaped opening,

made at the top of the mold. The main purpose of
the pouring basin is to direct the flow of molten
metal from ladle to the sprue.
 Sprue: It is a vertical passage connects the
pouring basin to the runner or ingate. It is
generally made tapered downward to avoid
aspiration of air. The cross section of the sprue may
be square, rectangular, or circular.
 Sprue well: It is located at the base of the sprue.
It arrests the free fall of molten metal through the
sprue and turns it by a right angle towards the
runner.

99

Contd…

 Runner: It is a long horizontal channel which

carries molten metal and distribute it to the
ingates. It will ensure proper supply of molten
metal to the cavity so that proper filling of the
cavity takes place.

 Gates: These are small channels connecting the

mould cavity and the runner.The gates used may
vary in number depends on size of the casting.

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Pouring Basin

 A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or crucible

operator to direct the flow of metal from crucible to sprue.
 Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow.
 Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.
 Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it enters
the sprue.
101

Design criteria for Pouring basin

 The pouring basin should be designed such
that the proper uniform flow system is rapidly
established.
 This can be achieved by-
 Use of strainer core
 Use of DAM to make steady flow
 Use of sprue plug
 It should be easy and convenient to fill
pouring basin.

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Design criteria for Pouring basin

103

Strainer cores

(a) Strainer cores

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Strainer cores

(a) Strainer cores

105

Pouring the Molten Metal

 For this step to be successful, metal must

flow into all regions of the mold, most
importantly the main cavity, before
solidifying
 Factors that determine success
 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence

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Superheat

 Temperature difference between the

temperature at pouring and the temperature at
which freezing begins (the melting point for a
pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an
alloy).

 It is the amount of heat that must be removed

from the molten metal between pouring and
when solidification commences

107

Pouring rate

 Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at

which the molten metal is poured into the
mold.

 If the rate is too slow, the metal will chill and

freeze before filling the cavity. If the pouring
rate is excessive, turbulence can become a
serious problem.

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Turbulence

 Characterized by erratic variations in the

magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
fluid.
 Flow is agitated and irregular rather than
smooth and streamlined, as in laminar flow.
 Tends to accelerate the formation of metal
oxides that can become entrapped during
solidification, thus degrading the quality of the
casting.
 Aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing
away of the mold surfaces due to impact of the
flowing molten metal
109

Pouring molten metal into mold cavity

•Bernoulli’s theorem: Total energy of unit weight of fluid
is constant. (Energy Balance)

P1 v12 P v2
h1    F1  h2  2  2  F 2
 2g  2g

where h head, cm, p = pressure

of the liquid, N/cm2 ρ=density,
g/cm3
v flow velocity, cm/s
g gravitational acceleration
constant,
981 cm/s2, and F head losses due
to friction, cm
Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate any
two locations in the liquid flow
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ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF POURING

 If friction losses are ignored and the system is assumed to

remain at atmospheric pressure throughout, then the
equation can be reduced to

v12 v2
h1   h2  2
2g 2g
 Let point 1 be defined at the top of the sprue and point 2
at its base.
 If point2 is used as the reference plane, then the head at
that point is zero (h2 =0) and h1 is the height (length) of
the sprue.
 When the metal is poured into the pouring cup and
overflows down the sprue, its initial velocity at the top is
zero (v1 =0).

111

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF POURING

v22
h1 
2g

v  2 gh

 where v the velocity of the liquid metal at the base of the

sprue, cm/s ;g = 981 cm/s2 ,and h the height of the sprue, cm

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Pouring molten metal into mold cavity

Mass balance
Continuity law states that the volume rate of flow remains constant
throughout the liquid. The volume flow rate is equal to the velocity
multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the flowing liquid

Mass in = mass out

Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
where Q volumetric flow rate, cm3/s ; v velocity as before; A cross
Sectional area of the liquid, cm2 ; and the subscripts refer to any two
points in the flow system

113

Metal flow rate and velocity

calculations
 Studies of gating system have been based upon two laws
of fluid dynamics.

Law of continuity Q = A1V1= A2V2

 Q = volume rate of flow, A = cross sectional area of flow
passage, V = linear velocity of flow

Bernoulli’s Equation
 Used to calculate flow velocities
 Assumptions: steady state, incompressible, inviscid Flow

 P1/ρg + V12/ 2g + h1= P2/ ρ g + V22/ 2g +h2

 h =height above the datum plane, P = pressure,
ρ = density, v = velocity

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Pour molten metal into mold cavity

Time to fully fill the mold cavity

V
MFT 
Q

where MFT mold filling time, in s; V volume of mold

cavity, cm3 ; and Q volume flow rate in cm3/s
•MFT is shorter than the actual time needed
to fill up the mold cavity. This is because the
analysis ignores friction losses and possible
constriction of flow in the gating system
115

Problem-2

A mould sprue is 20 cm long, and the cross-

sectional area at its base is 2.5 cm2. The sprue
feeds a horizontal runner leading into a mould
cavity whose volume is 1560 cm3.
Determine:
(a) velocity of the molten metal at the base of
the sprue,
(b) volume rate of flow, and
(c) time to fill the mould.
1.98 m/s, 4.95 x 10-4 m3/s, 3.15 s

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Solidification time
 Chvorinov’s rule

n
V 
TTS  Cm  
 A

TTS: Total solidification time, min

V: Volume of casting, cm3
A: Surface area of casting, cm2
n: exponent, usually taken as 2
Cm: mould constant, min/cm2
117

Contd…

 Casting with larger volume to surface area

ratio will solidify slowly.
 Used in riser design
 Riser must have higher volume to surface area
ratio than the casting

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Formulas
 Bernoulli’s theorem

 Mass continuity

 Sprue design

 Reynolds number

 Chvorinov’s Rule

119

MCQ-1

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MCQ-2

121

MCQ-3

122

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MCQ-4

123

MCQ-5

124

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MCQ-6

125

MCQ-7

126

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Shape of Sprue

 As the metal accelerates during its descent into

the sprue opening, the cross-sectional area of
the channel must be reduced; otherwise, as
the velocity of the flowing metal increases
toward the base of the sprue, air can be
aspirated into the liquid and conducted into the
mold cavity.
 To prevent this condition, the sprue is designed
with a taper, so that the volume flow rate AV is
the same at the top and bottom of the sprue.

127

Shape of Sprue

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Shape of Sprue

129

Shape of Sprue

130

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Design of Sprue
 As the liquid metal passes down the sprue it
loses its pressure head but gains velocity.
 To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar
Flow, from the Pouring Basin, the flow begins a
near vertical incline that is acted upon by
gravity and with an accelerative gravity force

131

Design of Sprue

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Design of the Choke

 The smallest area that occurs at the bottom of the sprue is
known as the Choke area.

 Volume of flow at choke in a given time = Ac × Vc × t = W / ρ

 Ac = W/(C × ρ ×t × (Vc = √ 2gh) )

W = Weight of poured metal, ρ = Density of liquid metal, C = Coefficient of

discharge = 0.8, t = pouring time
133

Contd…
 Mass flow rate = ρAV = constant
 Applying continuity equation between point 2
and 3 we get-

 Ideal shape of sprue is Parabola

 But in order to avoid manufacturing difficulty
we use tapered cylinder shape.

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Aspiration
 Aspiration effect: entering of gases from
baking of organic compounds present in the
mould into the molten metal stream.
 This will produce porous castings.
 Pressure anywhere in the liquid stream should
not become negative.

Free falling liquid,

Metal flow with aspiration
effect
A tapered sprue without
aspiration effect

135

Problem-3

 3) A downsprue of 180 mm length, has a

diameter of 20 mm at its top end. The liquid
metal in pouring cup is maintained up to 60
mm height, what should be the diameter of the
downsprue at its lower end to avoid aspiration?

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Design of Sprue Well

 Used catch and trap the first metal and to
absorb erosion of the sand due to kinetic
energy of molten metal.
 Sprue well area is two to three times the area
of the sprue exit.

137

Runner

 Runner : The runner takes the molten metal

from sprue to the Ingates of casting.
 This is the final stage where the molten metal
moves from the runner to the mold cavity.

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Design of Runner

 Typical cross section of your runner is a

square.
 The runners cross sectional area is generally 2
to 4 times the cross sectional area of the
choke.
 Abrupt changes in the direction of the runners
should be avoided. If the change in direction is
more than about 15 degrees, then the joint
needs to be filleted
 Runners should maintain a minimum distance
from the casting 4 to 5 times the thickness of
the gate or the ingate.
139

Contd…
 Runner extension is used to catch and trap the
slags and impurities in the first metal that are
likely to enter into the mould cavity

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Types of runners
 a) Straight runner
 b) Tapered runner
 c) Step gate (may also act as feeder)
 d) Uniform size runner( may cause uneven
distribution)
 e) Runner for even distribution of metal
(reduction in size of runner after each gate)

141

Types of runners

142

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Function of Gating System

 A good gating system should help easy and

complete filling of the mould cavity.
 It should fill the mould cavity with molten
metal with least amount of turbulance.
 It should prevent mould erosion.
 It should establish proper temperature gradient
in the casting.
 It should promote directional solidification.
 It should regulate the rate of flow of metal into
the mould cavity.

143

Defects occurring due to improper

design of gating system

 Oxidation of metal
 Cold shuts
 Mould erosion
 Shrinkages
 Porosity
 Misruns
 Penetration of liquid metal into mould
walls.

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Types of Gates

 Depending upon the position of ingate(s),

horizontal gating system.
 – Top Gating System
 – Bottom Gating System
 – Parting-line Gating System

145

Types of Gates

Variations in gating position. (a) Top gating,

(b) bottom gating, (c) side gating

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Types of TopGates

147

Types of TopGates

148

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Types of Parting Gates

149

Types of Bottom Gates

150

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Bottom Gating
 Bottom Gating System : Molten metal is poured from
top, but filled from bottom to top of in tall castings . This
minimizes oxidation and splashing while pouring.

151

Top Gating
 Top Gating System : This is
applied in places where the
hot metal is poured form the
top of the casting.
 It helps directional
solidification of the casting
from top to bottom. It suits
only flat castings to limit the
damage of the metal during
the initial filling.

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Rules for gates design

 Multiple ingates often are preferable for large

castings

 A fillet should be used where an ingate meets a

casting- produces less turbulence

 The minimum ingate length should be three to

five times the ingates width

 Curved ingates should be avoided as far as

possible.
153

Analysis of Vertical Gating

154

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Mould filling time

155

Contd…
 1. Bottom Gating System : Molten metal is poured from
top, but filled from bottom to top of in tall castings . This
minimizes oxidation and splashing while pouring.

tp 
2 Am
Ag 2 g
 ht  ht  hm 

156

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Contd…
 Top Gating System : This is
applied in places where the
hot metal is poured form the
top of the casting.
 It helps directional
solidification of the casting
from top to bottom. It suits
only flat castings to limit the
damage of the metal during
the initial filling.
Am hm
tp 
Ag 2 gh
157

Problem 3-4

3) A downsprue of 180 mm length, has a diameter

of 20 mm at its top end. The liquid metal in
pouring cup is maintained up to 60 mm height,
what should be the diameter of the downsprue at
its lower end to avoid aspiration?

4) A mold of dimension 60 cm × 30 cm × 14 cm
is to be filled by liquid metal using top pouring
method. The liquid metal height above the top
surface of the mold is 14 cm and the area of gate
is 6 cm2. find the time taken to fill the mold. And
also find time taken when mold is filled using
bottom gate.
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Problem 5

 Dimension of cavity 20 ×10 × 5 inch. Calculate

the pouring time for top and bottom gating
systems. The sprue height is 5 inch and area of
gate is 1 in. sq. Determine the pouring times.
Take hm =5 and ht =5 inch

 Top Gating System = sec

 Bottom gating system = sec

159

Problem 6

A steel company used a bottom

gating system for filling a mould
cavity of 20 cm X 20 cm X 50 cm as
shown in Figure. Design the
diameter of the ingate so that the
mould can be filled in 30 second.
(Note: Neglect the frictional loss
during the flow. Assume that the
Fig. Bottom gating system for
ingate cross section is circular, and filling the mould cavity of 50 cm
the area of cross section of ingate, height with uniform square cross
section of 20cmX20cm
runner and sprue bottom are same).

160

80