IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

Chapter 2: PHASE CHANGES OF MATTER

Specific objective: Describe the change of state of matter.

2.1. CHANGE OF STATE OF MATTER

2.1.1. States of matter
All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are in constant motion. A molecule is one or more different
atoms combined in specific ratios. Particles (atoms or molecules) movement determines the
state of matter. There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.
► Solid:
• Keeps its own volume and shape.
• Molecules are very cohesive.
• All except helium are solid at lowest possible temperature.
► Liquid:
• Keeps its volume, but takes shape of bottom of container.
• Molecules slightly less cohesive.
► Gas:
• Expands in volume and fills entire container.
• Molecules not cohesive

2.1.2. Phase changes

To change state, energy must be added or removed. Gaining or losing energy changes the
temperature of a substance.

► Melting
– Solid becomes liquid.
– Energy is added: Particles speed up and temperature rises
– Melting point: Temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.
1

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

► Evaporation: Process by which liquids change to a gas.

► Sublimation: Change in state from a solid directly into a gas
• Add heat.
• Atoms gain energy and escape into the air as a gas.
• Example: Dry Ice.
► Condensation: The change in state from a gas to a liquid. Cooling a gas makes particles to
lose energy.
► Deposition: Change in state from a gas directly to a solid.
• Substance cools.
• Atoms lose energy
• No liquid forms in the process.
• Example: Water vapor turns into ice crystals.
► Freezing: Liquid becomes solid.
• Loss of energy.
• Particles slow down and temperature cools.
• Freezing point: Temperature at which a substance changes into a solid. Example Water at 0ºC
or 32F.

2.1.3. Molecules Interactions

Molecules can interact either by cohesion or by adhesion.
► Cohesion is the attractive force between LIKE molecules. Solids and liquids have stronger
cohesion than gases.
► Adhesion is the attractive force between UNLIKE molecules. Glues and liquids that wet
solids have strong adhesion.

2.1.4. Molecules motions

•The 3 kinds of motion a molecule can have are vibration, rotation and translation.
► Vibration:
• Atoms alternate closer together and further apart.
• It occurs in all Phases.
• The only motion possible in solids.
► Rotation:
• Atoms keep their spacing and rotate around common center.
• Occurs in LIQUIDS and GASES (but not in SOLIDS).
2

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

► Translation:
• Atoms keep their spacing and move together in the same direction.
• Occurs in LIQUIDS (short distance) and GASES (larger distance).
• Each molecule has its own kinetic energy (KE) within a wide range of values.
• An average KE for all the molecules can be calculated.

2.2. KINETIC THEORY OF HEAT FOR IDEAL GASES

Let us agree to call whatever we are studying the "system". The state of a system is specified
by giving its pressure, volume, temperature, etc. These are called "thermodynamic variables".
The relation between these variables is called the "equation of state". This equation relates P,
V, T. So, for example:

In physics, equations of state attempt to describe the relationship between temperature,

pressure, and volume for a given substance or mixture of substances. The ideal gas law is one
of the simplest equations of state.
Although reasonably accurate for gases at low pressures and high temperatures, it becomes
increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures.
The equation of state is divided into:
- The ideal gas equation of state.
- The real gas equation of state

2.2.1 The equation of state of an ideal gas

It is usually written in form:

PV = nRT or PV = NkT
This is known as equation of state of an ideal gas (or general gas law equation).
n = number of moles of the gas
R=8.314 J / (mol·K) is the ideal gas constant
P= Pressure in Pa (1Pa = N/m2 = 10-5 bar 9.869x10-6 atm)
V= Volume (m3)
T= temperature in Kelvin (K)
N= number of molecules
k = Boltzmann's constant (1.38·10-23 J·K-1)
3

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

2.2.2. Ideal gas laws

► Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law states that ‘The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is
inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if both the temperature and amount of gas
remain unchanged’. In mathematical terms this law is given as:

P ∝ 1/V or that PV= K

where P= Pressure of the gas; V=Volume of the gas; K= constant. It means that both pressure
and volume of a given mass of gas are inversely proportional to each other at a constant
temperature. Furthermore, it also expresses that product of pressure and volume for any gas is
a constant and thus can be used to study the comparison of the gas under different conditions
as:
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Where both the products are for the same gas but under different pressures and volumes.
► Charles’ Law
Charles’ law states that ‘When the pressure of a sample of air is held constant, then the volume
of the gas is directly proportional to its temperature’, that is
V∝T
Where V= Volume of a gas sample; T= Absolute temperature. Quite simply put, it says that
Gases expand on heating and contract on cooling.

This equation can be used to solve for initial or final value of volume or temperature under the
given condition that pressure and the number of moles of the gas stay the same.

► Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law states that ‘Equal volumes of all gases at conditions of same temperature and
pressure have the same number of molecules’, written as:
V∝n or V/n =K
where V=volume of gas; n= Number of moles (1 mole=6.022 x 1023 molecules).

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

It implies that under similar conditions of pressure, volume band temperatures all gases will
have an equal number of molecules, independent of the weight and density of the gas.
Example: What is a gas temperature in Celsius when it has a volume of 25 L, 203 mol, and
143.5 atm?

2.2.3. The Real gas equation of state

It is represented by the Van Der Waals equation of state written as:

The Van Der Waals equation of state differs from the ideal gas by addition of two adjustable
parameter (a and b). These parameters are intended to correct for the omission of molecular
size and intermolecular attractive forces in the ideal gas equation of state.
The parameter (b) corrects for the finites size of molecules and parameter (a) corrects for the
attractive force between the molecules.

2.2.4. Partial derivatives for an ideal gas

Each derivative is taken with respect to one of the three easily-controlled variables T, P, or V
while another of these variables is held constant. We have already seen some of these
expressions, and the derivations of the others are indicated below. f(P, V, T )

Exercise: prove the above equation using the equation of state of an ideal gas.

2.2.5. Coefficient of volume expansion (𝛽)

The coefficient of volume expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a
change in volume. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in
temperature at a constant pressure.

Example: Prove that the Coefficient of volume expansion (𝛃) equal 𝟏/𝑻 for an ideal gas.

2.2.6. Coefficient of Compressibility of an Ideal gas

The coefficient of compressibility describes how the size of an object changes with a change
in volume. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in pressure
at a constant temperature.

Example: Prove that the coefficient of compressibility (K) equal 𝟏/𝐏 for an ideal gas.

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

2.2.7. Internal Energy

The internal energy of a gas depends only on the number of molecules (N) it contains and, on
the temperature, (T).

Where k is the Boltzmann constant.

In a free expansion of gas (it doesn't do any work in this case), the initial and final internal
energies are equal, Ei = Ef .

2.4. WORK FOR THERMAL PROCESSES

2.4.1. Definition
Work is defined as a force F acting through a displacement x, the displacement being in the
direction of the force.

Consider a gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a movable position at equilibrium, the gas
occupies a volume (V) and exerts a uniform pressure (P) on the cylinder walls and on the piston.
If the piston has a cross–sectional area (A), the force exerted by the gas on the piston is:
F=PA

The work done by the system is dW = F.dx = PA. dx

Because (Adx) is the increase in volume of the gas (dv), we can express the work done by the
gas as: dW= P dV

The total work done by the gas as its volume changes from Vi to Vf is given by the integral of
equation:

Note:
- Expansion: work on piston positive, work on gas negative.
- Compression: work on piston negative, work on gas positive.

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

2.4.2. Work for isochoric process

An isochoric process is one in which the volume does not change (V= constant).

2.4.3. Work for isobaric process

An isobaric process is one in which the pressure does not change (P= constant).

2.4.4. Work for isothermal process

An isothermal process is one in which the temperature does not change (T = constant, dT =
zero).

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien

IUGET / south polytech Etc/nws_hnd2

Example 1: A 1 mol sample of an ideal gas is kept at 0ºC during expansion from 3 L to 10 L.
How much work is done by the gas during the expansion?

Example 2: An ideal gas expands from a given initial state to a given final state along the two
paths
shown below, A and B. Calculate the work done along path A and path B.

Example 3: Calculate the work done in taking an ideal gas around the cycle shown here along
each of the segments. Then, calculate the total work done. Will the temperature
remain constant on each of the segments?

Physics III Eng. FOTSEU Julien