I-D.

Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 1

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS – PASSING PACKAGE

I. OSSEOUS SYSTEM – 5M
1. Classify bones of Skeleton system (axial or appendicular)
AXIAL
❖ SKULL
I. Cranium bones: Cranium is 8 bones.
a. Frontal bone - 1
b. Parietal bones - 2
c. Temporal bones - 2
d. Occipital bone - 1
e. Sphenoid bone - 1
f. Ethmoid bone - 1
II. Facial bones: The bones which make the face are 14 in number.
a. Maxillae (upper jaw) 2
b. Mandible (lower jaw) 1
c. Palate bones 2
d. Zygomatic bones 2
e. lacrimal bones 2
f. Nasal bones 2
g. Inferior turbinate bones 2
h. Vomer 1
• HYOID BONE
• EAR OSSICLES
✓ Two malleus bones
✓ Two stapeses.
✓ Two incus.
❖ VERTEBRAL COLUMN: In all, there are 26 vertebrae. In children there are 33 vertebrae.
Classification of vertebrae:
1. Cervical vertebrae: 7 in number.
2. Thoracic vertebrae: 12 in number.
3. Lumbar vertebrae: 5 in number.
4. Sacral vertebrae: 1 in number.
5. Coccygeal vertebrae: 1 in number.
❖ Sternum
❖ Ribs: They are arranged in twelve pairs, On the back side, all of them are attached to thoracic vertebrae.
Depending on their attachment in the front, they are classified as:
➢ True ribs which are the upper seven pairs.
➢ False ribs which are the lower five pairs.
➢ Floating ribs are the lowest two pairs.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
❖ BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
• Two innominate bones.
❖ BONES OF UPPER LIMB
• SCAPULA
• CLAVICLE

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 2

• HUMERUS
• RADIUS & ULNA
❖ BONES OF WRIST AND HAND
• scaphoid, lunate, triquetral and pisiform bones.
• trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones.
✓ Bones of Palm
• metacarpal bones.
• carpal bones.
• phalanges. (finger bones)

❖ BONES OF LOWER LIMB

• FEMUR:
• PATELLA
• TIBIA
• FIBULA
❖ BONES OF FOOT
• Tarsal bones (7 bones).
• Metatarsal bones (5 bones).
• Phalangial bones (14 bones).

2. Define and classify joint? Explain Synovial joint.

❖ Joint: Any connection between bones of the skeleton is called as a joint or articulation. Arthrology is
the term applied for the study of joints.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:
❖ Fibrous joints
❖ Cartilagenous joints
❖ Synovial joints
SYNOVIAL JOINTS (or diarthroses): They called as freely movable joints. The characteristics of are also these
joints are:
• Articular ends of bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.
• Bones are bound together by ligaments.
• Joint is enclosed by fibrous capsule.
• Capsule of the joint is lined by synovial membrane.
• The cavity of the joint contains synovial fluid.
Classification of synovial joints:
1. Gliding joint (plane joint): Here two flat surfaces of bones glide on each other.
Example: joint between carpal and tarsal bones.
2. Hinge joint: Here, movement is possible in one plane only.
Example: elbow joint.
3. Pivot joint: In this joint, rotation is the only possible movement.
Example: joint between radius and ulna.
4. Ball and socket joint: Articula: end of one bone is ball like. It fits into the socket like cavity of another
bone. Movement in all directions is possible in this type.
Example: shoulder joint and hip joint.
5. Condyloid joint: It is similar to hinge joint, but movement occurs in two planes.
Example: Wrist joint.
6. Saddle joint: It has one concave surface. This results in free movement in all directions.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 3

Example: joint between metacarpal bone of thumb and trapezium.

II. HAEMOPOTITIC SYSTEM – 5+3+=8M

3. Write Composition and function of blood.
Composition of blood:
❖ Blood contains a fluid called plasma, in which the cellular elements of blood are suspended.
❖ Plasma: It contains
1. Water to the extent of 91%.
2. Proteins (albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen).
3. Other substance like glucose, sodium chloride, iron, urea, uric acid, and cholesterol.
❖ Plasma proteins: Plasma proteins occur in blood to the extent of 7 to 8%. The plasma proteins are:
1. Albumin: It is present in very high concentration. It is responsible for osmotic pressure of blood.
It is synthesized in the liver.
2. Globulin: It is of three types: alpha, beta and gamma. It is produced in lymphoid tissues. It
produces antibodies and immune substances.
3. Fibrinogen: It is responsible for coagulation of blood. It is synthesized in the liver.
❖ Serum is obtained from plasma after removing fibrinogen.
(Serum = plasma - fibrinogen).
❖ CELLULAR ELEMENTS OF BLOOD
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
2. White blood cells (leucocytes)
3. Platelets (thrombocytes)
Functions of blood
• It transports oxygen and nutrients to various tissues.
• It transports waste products to organs of excretion.
• It transports hormones from endocrine glands to various tissues.
• It redistributes water from one part of the body to the other.
• Clotting of blood protects against hemorrhage.

4. Explain the Process of hemopoiesis.

PROCESS OF HEMOPOIESES/HEMATOPOIESIS
❖ Hemopoieses is the process through which the body manufactures blood cells.it begins early in the
development of embryo well before birth and continues for the life of an individual.
❖ Hematopoiesis begins during the first weeks of embryonic development.
❖ All blood cells and plasma develop from a stem cell that can develop into an any other cell.
❖ About 1% of body’s blood cells must be replaced every day.
❖ The process of hemopoiesis being with a stem cell these stem cells multiplies and some of these new
cells transform into precursor cells.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 4

1. Erythropoiesis: It is the process by which RBCs are formed. In the foetus, RBCs are formed in the liver, spleen
and red bone marrow. After birth, they are formed only in the red bone marrow of sternum, ribs, vertebrae
etc.
The stages in the developments of RBCs are as follows.
❖ Proerythroblast is the first stage. It is a large cell having a nucleus. It does not have hemoglobin
initially. In the latter stages, hemoglobin starts appearing.
❖ Normoblast is the second stage. It is a smaller cell with degenerated nucleus. Hemoglobin is fully
present.
❖ Reticulocyte develops from normoblast. It contains hemoglobin and reticulum in the cytoplasm.
❖ Erythrocyte which is the fully developed RBC. It does not contain reticulum but contains adequate
hemoglobin.
Both vitamin B12 and folic acid are necessary for the development of RBCs.

2. Leucopoiesis: is a process by which WBCs are formed. Myeloblast and monoblast originating from the
granulocytes and monocyte colony forming cells

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3. Thrombopoiesis: formation of platelets is known as thrombopoiesis. CMP cells transform into three
different cell types before becoming platelets.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 6

5. Write the Functions of blood cells (ANY 1)

a. Red blood cells
Functions of haemoglobin are.
❖ It transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
❖ Maintenance of acid base equilibrium.
b. White blood cells
Functions of WBCs
❖ Protection against infection. This is done by neutrophils and monocytes which engulf bacteria.
This process is called as phagocytosis.
❖ to aid in the repair of injured tissues.
❖ To produce immune substances which defend against diseases. This is done by lymphocytes
through the synthesis of gamma globulin.
❖ Basophils secrete an anticoagulant substance called heparin.
c. Platelets
Function of platelets:
❖ Thromboplastin liberated from platelets is essential for clotting.
❖ They close minute lesions in the walls of blood vessels.
❖ They aid in body's defence mechanism against bacteria.
❖ They contain histamine and serotonin.
❖ They contain some antigenic substances also.

6. Explain Mechanism of blood clotting

❖ Clotting of blood is a defence mechanism of the body. It prevents loss of blood from the site of injury.
If a leak develops in blood vessels, a clot is formed, and it plugs the leak. This prevents the loss of
blood.
❖ An injury or trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release coagulation promoting substance
called thromboplastins, which activates the mechanism of coagulation tissue at the site of injury also
release tissues thromboplastin.
❖ Thromboplastin help in the formation of the enzyme complex called thrombokinase.
❖ Thrombokinase converts inactive protein prothrombin present in the plasma into thrombin.

❖ Thrombin is an enzyme which converts soluble fibrinogen of plasma into insoluable fibrin calcium
ions are essential for both the activation and action of thrombin.

❖ Fibrin form a network of threads which traps dead and damaged formed elements of blood to form
the blood colt or coagulum.
Clotting factors: The various factors involved in the scheme of clotting described above are designated by
numbers as factors I, II etc. These factors are:
1. Factor I - Fibrinogen

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 7

2. Factor II - Prothrombin
3. Factor III - Thromboplastin
4. Factor IV - Calcium
5. Factor V- Quick's labile factor
6. Factor VI - Existence of this factor not accepted.
7. Factor VII - Quick's stable factor
8. Factor VIII - Antihemophilic factor
9. Factor IX Christmas factor
10. Factor X – Stuart power factor
11. Factor XI – plasma thromboplastin antecedent
12. Factor XII – Hageman factor
13. Factor XIII – Fibrin stabilizing factor.

7. Write a note on blood groups.

❖ BLOOD GROUPS: In early times, transfusion of blood from one person to another was dangerous and
unsuccessful. This is because, plasma of some individuals contains some factors.
❖ These factors produce agglutination or hemolysis of the erythrocytes of other persons. These
reactions occur due to the presence of agglutinins and agglutinogens in blood. Agglutinogens are
present in erythrocytes. They are of two types: A and B. Agglutinins are present in plasma. They are
of two types: a and b. Depending on the presence of these two substances, blood is grouped as
follows:
Group A contains A agglutinogen and b agglutinin.
Group B contains B agglutinogen and a agglutinin.
Group AB contains AB agglutinogens and no agglutinins.
Group O contains no agglutinogen but a and b agglutinins.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 8

❖ Agglutination occurs between the same type of agglutinogen and agglutinin (e.g., A and a). But no
agglutination occurs between different types of agglutinogen and agglutinin (e.g., A and b).
❖ So, it can be seen that group O blood (contains no agglutinogen) can match with all other blood
groups. But this group of individuals can receive blood only from 0 group and not from any other
group.
❖ Individuals with 0 group of blood are called Universal donors. Individuals with blood group AB
(contains no agglutinins) can receive blood from all groups. They are called as (Universal recipients).

Rh factor: It is another type of agglutinogen. It is called as Rhesus factor (Rh factor) since it was first seen in
Rhesus monkey. Rh +ve individuals have this factor. But Rh -ve individuals do not have this. The
corresponding agglutinin is never present in the body. But it is developed after the first exposure to the
agglutinogen. If a Rh +ve blood is given to a Rh -Ve person, no immediate reaction occurs. But during a
second transfusion, the Rh -ve person develops Anti-Rh agglutinin. This further leads to agglutination.

III. CARDIOVASULAR SYSTEM – 5+3=8M

8. Explain the anatomy of heart.
❖ Heart is a conical, hollow, musculotendinous organ. It lies in the thorax between lungs and behind
the sternum. It is about 10cm long and weighs about 300g.
❖ The base of the heart is above, and apex is below. Two thirds of the heart is on left side.
❖ Heart is surrounded by an outer covering called pericardium. It contains two layers called visceral
pericardium & parietal pericardium. Pericardial fluid is present between these two layers.
❖ The middle layer is made up of cardiac muscle fibres and it is called as myocardium. The inner
epithelial lining is called as endocardium.
❖ Heart is made up of four chambers. They are right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and left
ventricle. The two atria are separated by inter atrial septum and the two ventricles are separated by
inter ventricular septum.
❖ The opening between right atrium and right ventricle is guarded by tricuspid valve. The opening
between left atrium and left ventricle is guarded by bicuspid valve (mitral valve). Tendinous cords
called as chordae tendinae arise from lower borders of these valves. These chordae tendinae are
attached to papillary muscles which arise from ventricular walls.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 9

❖ The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and
coronary sinus. Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs for
oxygenation. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs through four pulmonary veins.
The aorta carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle and supplies to all parts of the body. The
opening of aorta and pulmonary valves are guarded by semilunar valves.
❖ The heart receives blood supply through right and left coronary arteries. They are the first branches
of aorta. Venous blood of heart is collected by coronary sinus which opens directly into the right
atrium.
❖ Heart is supplied by sympathetic and vagus nerves. Branches from these nerves pass to the Sino
auricular node.

9. Explain Blood circulations (pulmonary, systematic, coronary)

• The continuous flow of blood throughout the human body is known a blood circulation.
• The blood is circulated throughout the body from heart and blood vessels.
1. Systemic circulation: It is the circulation involving blood supply to all parts of the body except
lungs. This starts from aorta which carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle. It breaks up into
smaller arterioles and finally ends in capillaries. These capillaries later unite to form smaller
venules which join up to form veins. These veins finally form two larger venous trunks namely
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava which open into right atrium of the heart.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 10

2. Pulmonary circulation: It is the circulation involving the purification of blood in lungs. Impure
venous blood is drained out by right ventricle through pulmonary artery to lungs where it gets
oxygenated. Four pulmonary veins carry this pure blood from lungs to left atrium of the heart.
3. Coronary circulation: It is the circulation involving blood supply to heart itself. Ascending aorta
gives off left coronary artery and right coronary artery which supply heart itself. Venous blood is
collected by coronary sinus that opens into right atrium.
4. Portal circulation: It is the circulation of blood through liver. Portal vein carries blood that has
circulated in stomach, intestines, and pancreas to liver. It divides into capillaries in liver. These
capillaries join with the capillaries of hepatic artery. The venous blood of liver is collected by
hepatic vein which joins inferior vena cava.

10. Write a note on Cardiac cycle.

• Cardiac cycle is sequence of events which occur in the heart during a single beat. The rate of heart is
72 beats per minute. So, the time taken for one beat is 0.8 second. So, the sequence of events occurs
every 0.8 second. Cardiac cycle occurs in two phases.
1. Systole - a period of contraction
2. Diastole - a period of relaxation

• The cycle of events occurs as follows:

• Blood from the superior and inferior vena cava fill the right atrium and the pulmonary veins fill the
left atrium.
• This is followed by a wave of contraction in the atria. This leads to emptying of atrial blood into
respective ventricles.
• When the ventricles are full, they contract. Blood in ventricles is forced into systemic & pulmonary
circulation. At this stage, the semilunar valves guarding the aorta and pulmonary arteries are opened.

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 11

At the same time, the atrioventricular valves are closed. This period of muscular contraction of the
heart is called Systole.
• This is followed by a period of rest called Diastole.
• This sequence of events constitutes the cardiac cycle.

11. Briefly explain Blood pressure and its regulations

BLOOD PRESSURE (BP)
❖ It is the lateral pressure exerted by blood-on-blood vessels. The blood pressure which is normally
expressed is arterial blood pressure. It has two phases:
1. Systolic blood pressure: It is the maximum blood pressure. This occurs during the systole of the
heart. (Range 100 to 120 mm Hg.)
2. Diastolic blood pressure: It is the minimum pressure. It occurs during the diastole of the heart
(range 60 to 80 mm Hg.)
❖ Blood pressure is usually measured by an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
❖ The cardiovascular centre is located in the medulla and pons of brain. It responds to inputs from
baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and higher centers of brain.
❖ Baroreceptor’s: These are present in carotid and aortic bodies. A rise in blood pressure sends
input to cardiovascular centre from baroreceptors. Centre responds and stroke volume of heart
decreases and blood vessels become more dilated. Blood pressure gets decreased.
❖ Chemoreceptors: These are present in the carotid and aortic bodies. They are primarily involved
in the control of respiration. They are sensitive to changes in the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen
and pH of the blood.
❖ Higher Centers in the Brain: Input to cardiovascular centre from higher centre is influenced by
emotional states that may stimulate changes in blood pressure. Cardiovascular centre responds
by adjusting the diameter of blood vessels in skin.

IV. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – 3M

12. Explain the Mechanism of breathing.
1. Inspiration (or breathing in): It is an active process. It is produced by the contraction of the
following muscles:
• Diaphragm, the contraction of which enlarges the chest cavity vertically (i.e., from above
downwards).
• Intercostal muscles when contract produce elevation or ribs and sternum. This enlarges the
chest cavity in all the other four sides.
• The lungs expand at this stage and fill this increased space. Now, the pressure in the lungs is less
than atmospheric pressure. So, air flows into the lungs.
2. Expiration (or breathing out): It is a passive process. It is produced by the relaxation of diaphragm
and intercostal muscles.
• This produces reduction in the size of chest cavity. So, the pressure in the lungs increases which
forces the air out.
• The rate of respiration is 16 to 18 per minute in adults. The rate is higher in children.

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13. Write a note Respiratory volume and capacities.

I. Tidal volume (TV): It is the volume of air passing in and out of the lungs with ordinary quiet
breathing (Normal value is 0.5 litres). (500ML).
II. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): It is the maximum amount of air inspired tidal volumes by
deepest inspiration.
• Its value is about 3000ml (2500 to 3000ml) or 2.5 litres.
III. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): It is the amount of air expired over tidal volume by most
forceful expiration.
• Its value is 1000ml (1000-1100ml) or 1 litre.
IV. Residual volume: It is the amount of air that remain inside lungs after forceful expiration, Residual
volume cannot be given out of lungs.
• Its value is 1200ml (1200-15000ml).
V. Inspiratory capacity (IC): It is the amount of air, one can inspire by maximum distension or
expansion on his lungs, it’s called as inspiratory capacity. In its inspiratory reserve volume and tidal
volume are included.
IC = IRV + TV
= 3000ml + 500ml
IC = 3500ml
VI. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): It is the amount of air that normally remains inside lungs after
inspiration. In its expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are includes.
FRC = ERV + RV
= 1000ml + 1200ml
FRC = 2200ml
VII. Vital Capacity (VC): It is the amount of air that can be expired by most forceful expiration after a
deepest inspiration, in its inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and tidal volume
are included.
VC = IRV + ERV + TV
= 3000ml + 1000ml + 500ml

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 I-D.Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Important Questions with Answers 13

VC = 4500ml
VIII. Total lung Capacity (TLC): It is the maximum amount of air that lungs can hold, in its inspiratory
reserve volume, tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume are included.
TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
= 3000ml + 500ml + 1000ml + 1200ml
TLC = 5700 ml (6000ml)

14. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of respiratory system.

V. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – 5+3=8M

15. Describe the Structure and function of liver.
❖ Structure: Liver is the largest abdominal organ. It lies in the upper part of abdominal cavity below the
diaphragm and under the cover of lower ribs. External features: Externally, the liver contains two lobes
and four surfaces.
❖ Lobes: They are:
• A right lobe.

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• A left lobe
❖ Surfaces: They are:
• Superior surface which is in contact with the wit surface of diaphragm.
• Inferior surface which is facing the abdominal viscera.
• The hilum or portal fissure is present in the inferior surface.
• The blood vessels of liver and bite duct pass through the hilum.
• Anterior surface which is separated from ribs and costal cartilages by the diaphragm. 4.
Posterior surface which lies in front of vertebral column, aorta, inferior vena cava and lower
end of oesophagus.
Internal (minute or microscopic structure):
• The liver consists of a large number of liver cells called lobules each lobule has a central vein or
intralobular vein.
• The connective tissue lying in between the lobules contains the branches of:
➢ Portal vein
➢ Hepatic artery
➢ Bile duct

FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
➢ Secretion of bile.
➢ Synthesis and storage of glycogen.
➢ Formation of urea by the de-amination of amino acids.
➢ Synthesis of plasma proteins like albumin and globulin.
➢ Conversion of unsaturated fats into saturated fats.
➢ Storage of iron and Vitamin B12 (which are necessary for the formation of RBC).
➢ Synthesis of prothrombin and fibrinogen which are necessary for blood coagulation.
➢ Synthesis of heparin, the natural anticoagulant.
➢ Production of heat because of metabolic reaction.
➢ Inactivation of toxic substances and drugs.
➢ Storage of vitamins A, D, E and K.

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16. Explain the structure and functions of stomach.

STOMACH
• Stomach is the dilated portion of alimentary canal, and it receives food from oesophagus.
• Stomach is a hollow, muscular, bag-like structure. It differs in size and shape in every individual from
time to time, depending upon the contents present in the stomach.
• Body posture is another factor that alters its shape and size at any given moment of time. Stomach lies
between the oesophagus and the small intestine.
• The second phase of digestion (after mastication) takes place in the stomach where the food (or bolus)
is broken down into smaller components before being passed on to the remaining parts of the
digestive system.
• Parts of stomach:
I. Two surfaces: an anterior and a posterior surface.
II. Two borders: an upper border called lesser curvature; a lower border called greater curvature.
III. Two ends: Upper end called cardiac end; it is guarded by cardiac sphincter. Lower end called pyloric
end; it is guarded by pyloric sphincter. a dome shaped upper part lying to the left of cardiac end.
IV. Fundus: A dome shaped upper part lying to the left of cardiac end.

Functions of stomach
• Its act as a storage of food material
• The water present in the stomach further liquifies food material which is swallowed.
• It helps in mixing of food.
• The gastric gland presents I the stomach secrets gastric juices which help in chemical digestion.
• Stomach helps in absorption of water glucose and certain drugs.

17. Write a note on Pancreas.

STRUCTURE: Pancreas is a long, slender gland which lies transversely across the posterior abdominal wall.
It lies behind the stomach at the level of 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
• Pancreas consists of a head, body, and tail. Organs
• Head lies in the C-shaped curve of duodenum.
• Body lies in front of the bodies of lumbar vertebrae.

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• Tail lies in contact with the hilum of spleen.

• The substance of pancreas contains number of lobules of secretory cells called acini. In between the
acini there are groups of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans.
• Small ducts emerge from these lobules. These ducts unite and reunite to form the pancreatic duct
(duct of Wirsung). This duct begins at the tail and emerges from the head of pancreas. It entres the
duodenum along with common bile duct.

FUNCTION: The secretions of pancreas can be classified into:

a. Exocrine secretion: It is pancreatic juice which is digestive in function. It is conveyed to duodenum
through pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains the following digestive enzymes:
➢ Lipase, which converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
➢ Amylase which converts starch into maltose.
➢ * Trypsin which converts pe1ptones into amino acids.
➢ Chymotrypsin and trypsin
b. Endocrine secretion: It is secreted by the islets of Langerhans and directly poured into circulation. This
secretion contains two different hormones which are secreted by the two different cells of islets of
Langerhans. These hormones are:
➢ Glucagon secreted by alpha cells.
➢ Insulin secreted by beta cells.

18. Write a note on salivary gland.

I. SALIVARY GLANDS
• There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. They are parotid, submandibular and sublingual
glands.
1. Parotid glands: One on each side is present below and in front of each ear. Each gland has a duct called
Stenson's duct.
2. Submandibular glands (Submaxillary glands): They are smaller than parotid glands. One on each side lies
under the angle of jaw. Each gland has a duct called Wharton's duct.
3. Sublingual glands: They are the smallest salivary glands which lie under the tongue.
SALIVA: It is a mixed secretion of all the three pairs of salivary glands. It is an alkaline fluid containing water
the extent of 99%. The solid contents of saliva are mucin which is a glycoprotein, ptyalin, an enzyme which
converts starch into maltose. Also, it contains salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.

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VI. NERVOUS SYSTEM – 5+3=8M

19. Explain the Structure and function of spinal cord.
Spinal cord structure
• Spinal cord is the elongated part of the CNS extending from the lower end. It is cylindrical in shape
and includes the upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal. It ranges from the level of the upper
border of the atlas to either the upper border or the lower border of vertebra, Spinal cord forms
the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain.
• The spinal cord and spinal nerve contain neural circuits responsible for rapid reaction towards
environmental stimuli.
External structure
• On viewing the spinal cord externally, two visible enlargements i.e. the cervical enlargement
(superior) and lumbar enlargement (inferior) are seen. From the cervical enlargement, arises the
nerves to and from the upper limb; and from the lumbar enlargement, arises the nerves to and from
the lower limbs.
Internal structure
• Internally, the spinal cord is made up of grey and white matter.
• The grey matter is arranged in the shape of H or a butterfly and is surrounded by the white matter.
• The grey matter is made up of dendrites, neuronal cell bodies, non-myelinated axons, and neuroglia;
and the white matter consists of bundles of myelinated axons of neurons.

Function
• Sensory and motor tracts are contained within the white matter of the spinal cord.
• The sensory tracts conduct nerve impulses towards the brain and the motor tracts conduct motor
nerve impulses from the brain to the effector organs.
• The grey matter of the spinal cord forms the spot for integration (summing) of Excitatory and Inhibitory
Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs, respectively).

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• CNS is connected to the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands all over the body via the spinal nerves
and their branches.
• All reflex activities are mediated through spinal cord.
Reflex action
• An action produced instantaneously and automatically without intentions, in response to a mechanical
stimulus (produced by stimulation of specific receptors) is termed as a reflex activity.

20. Write physiology of cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, basal ganglia, and hypothalamus.
(ANYONE)
a. Cerebrum
❖ Frontal lobs
• Controls voluntary activities if opposite half of the body.
• Control the spoken speech.
• Control emotional, concentration, attention, and judgement.
❖ Parietal lobs
• Perception of exteroceptive (touch, pain, and temperature).
❖ Occipital lobs
• Reception and perception of isolated visual impression of colour, size, form, motion .
❖ Temporal lobs
• Reception and perception of isolates auditory impression of loudness, quality, and pitch.

b. Cerebellum
❖ Body posture and equilibrium is maintained by the cerebellum. The muscles, joints, eyes, and
the ears bring in the sensory input for these functions.
❖ To maintain the balance and equilibrium of the body, the cerebellum acts to influence impulses
leading to the skeletal muscle contraction. It is responsible for controlling and coordinating the
movements of several groups of muscles, resulting in smooth, even, and clearcut action.
❖ The coordination of voluntary muscular movement is carried out by the cerebellum. Activities of
the cerebellum cannot be controlled voluntarily.

c. Medulla oblongata
❖ Medulla oblongata (med-oo-la ob-long-ah-ta), often just called the medulla, is a key part of your
nervous system.
❖ It’s key not only because of its location but also because of what it controls.
❖ Some of its jobs include:
• Manages heart, circulation, and breathing. Your medulla is where your cardiovascular and
respiratory systems link together into a united system that controls your heart rate,
breathing, blood pressure and more.
• Manages other automatic processes. These are things that your body often does without you
having to think about them. Some examples include coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting
and maintaining your balance.
• Nerve connections. Most major nerves converge at your spine, carrying signals to and from
your brain. That means those signals must pass through your medulla. Four of your 12 cranial

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nerves (which connect areas of your throat and tongue directly to your brain) pass through
your medulla.
• Crossover point. your medulla is the location of a region called “the pyramids,” where most of
the movement-related nerves in your body crisscross. That crossover is why one side of your
brain almost always controls parts on the opposite side of your body.

d. Basal gangalia
❖ The basal ganglia are best known for how they help your brain control your body’s movements.
However, ongoing research continues to uncover other ways that the basal ganglia interact with
other parts of your brain.
❖ Though experts continue to uncover more about the inner workings of the basal ganglia, there’s
much about them that remains unknown.
Movement
• The basal ganglia are a key part of the network of brain cells and nerves that control your body’s
voluntary movements.
• They can approve or reject movement signals that your brain sends, filtering out unnecessary or
incorrect signals.
• If the basal ganglia approve a signal, it continues to the motor pathways, the nerves that
eventually carry the signal down your spinal cord and nerves to their destination muscle. If they
don’t approve the signal, they redirect it into an area where other brain cells dampen those signals
until they stop.
• The parts of your brain that process information from your senses, namely sight, sound, smell,
taste, and touch, also send that information to your basal ganglia.
• That sensory information helps the basal ganglia refine your movements further.
Decision-making
• Another job of the basal ganglia is processing how you evaluate goals and risks. It also processes
signals that affect your emotions and your motivation. That means it also plays a role in learning
and forming habits, planning, and carrying out tasks, and more.

e. Hypothalamus
❖ Hypothalamus receives chemical messages from nerve cells in your brain and from nerve cells in
your body (your peripheral nervous system), which is also responding to signals outside your
body.
❖ Hypothalamus’s main function is to react to these messages to keep your body in a stable state or
internal balance.
• Body temperature.
• Blood pressure.
• Hunger and thirst.
• Sense of fullness when eating.
• Mood.
• Sex drive.
• Sleep.

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❖ Hypothalamus performs many of its “body balancing” jobs either by directly influencing the
autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones. Your autonomic nervous system (bodily
functions that work automatically) controls several important functions, such as your heart rate
and breathing (respiration).
❖ Hypothalamus makes some hormones itself that are stored elsewhere (in your posterior
pituitary)
❖ Sends signals (hormones) to your pituitary gland, which either releases hormones that directly
affect a part of your body or sends another signal (hormone) to a different gland in your body
that then releases its hormone.

21. Difference between Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• It is the thoracolumbar system • It is the craniosacral system

• Sympathetic trunk ganglia and collateral • Parasympathetic ganglia are present.

ganglia are present.

• Ganglia are close to the CNS and distant from • Ganglia are near or within the wall of visceral
visceral effectors. effectors.

• The preganglionic nerve fibres are smaller. • The preganglionic nerve fibres are longer.

• The postganglionic nerve fibre is larger. • The postganglionic nerve fibre is smaller.

• The preganglionic neuro- transmitter is • The preganglionic neuro- transmitter is

adrenaline. acetylcholine.

• The targeted receptors are mostly • The targeted receptors are mostly
adrenergic. cholinergic.

• Distributed throughout the body. • Distribution is limited particularly to head

and viscera of thorax, abdomen and pelvis.

• It is also known as adrenergic nervous • It is also known as cholinergic nervous

system. system.

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VII. SENSE ORGANS- 5+3=8M

22. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of Eye.

23. Explain the structure and function of Ear.

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MECHANISM OF HEARING
✓ Sound waves in air are collected by pinna.
✓ The external auditory meatus directs these waves to the tympanic membrane which then vibrates.
✓ The vibrations are transmitted by malleus incus and stapes to the membrane covering fenestra.
✓ From the inner surface of this membrane, vibrations are transmitted to organ of Corti through perilymph
and endolymph.
✓ From the organ of Corti the impulses (produced by perilymph and endolymph. Vibrations) are carried to
brain stem through cochlear portion of 8th nerve.
✓ The fibres are then carried to auditory centre of brain which is present in the temporal lobe of the
opposite side.
MECHANISM OF EQUILIBRIUM
✓ Movement of head or alteration in its position produce movement of endolymph present in the semi-
circular canals.
✓ The movement of endolymph stimulates the nerve endings in ampullae.
✓ The impulses are carried to brain through the vestibular portion of 8 th nerve.
✓ These impulse produce sensations which make us conscious about the position of the head.
✓ If the position of head is disoriented, we can then adjust it to maintain balance and equilibrium.

24. Explain the structure and function of Skin.

Functions of skin
1. SECRETIONS OF SKIN: The two secretions of skin are Sweat and Sebum.
❖ Secretion of sweat: Sweat is secreted by sweat glands arise from dermis.
✓ They are twisted tubular glands, and their ducts open in epidermis.

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✓ Sweat glands are more numerous in the palms of hands and sole of feet. About 400 ml of sweat is
formed in 24 hours.
✓ Sweat contains water, some salts and trace of other waste products.
❖ Secretion of sebum: Sebum is a greasy secretion produced by sebaceous glands.
✓ They are small, flask shaped glands present in dermis. They have a duct which opens into a hair
follicle.
✓ The sebaceous glands are present in the skin of many parts except the palm of hands and sole of
feet. Sebum keeps the skin oily and prevents it from drying.

2. Regulation of body temperature: Regulation of body is an important function performed by the skin.
✓ The normal body temperature is 98.4°F (37°C). It may be slightly lower in the morning, and it may
increase in severe muscular exercise.
✓ The normal body temperature is maintained by a balance between heat production and heat loss.
3. Sensation: for the detection of stimuli of temperature, touch, pressure, and pain these are the numerous
receptors and nerve endings present on the skin.
4. Protection: skin function as a physical barrier.
5. Physiology of pain: Pain is a protective mechanism which warns the body against disorders and defects
in its parts. Pain can be classified into:
❖ Cutaneous pain: It may be produced by:
✓ Pathological states of skin
✓ Injury to skin.
✓ Release of chemical substances such as those which produce itching.
❖ Visceral pain: It may occur due to an altered physiology of an internal organ like kidney, liver etc.
✓ Sometimes sensation of pain is displaced from the affected area and felt at adjacent areas, and
it is called as referred pain.
❖ Deep pain: It arises from the receptors of muscles, tendons, and joints.
❖ Headache: Headache may occur due to a variety of conditions like anxiety, tension, pathological
changes in intracranial blood vessels or visual defects.

VIII. URINARY SYSTEM- 3M

25. Explain the process of urine formation.
FORMATION OF URINE: The formation of urine by kidneys involves three processes
1. Glomerular filtration.
2. Tubular secretion.
3. Tubular reabsorption.
1. Glomerular filtration: The filtration of blood under pressure is called ultrafiltration, it occurs in glomerular
hence it is called as glomerular filtration.
✓ The blood containing waste materials is carried into the glomerulus by afferent arterioles.
✓ The walls of glomerulus capsule act as a filter and blood are filtered under pressure of about 10mm
Hg.
✓ About 125ml of blood is filtered out per minute as a glomerular filtrate.
2. Tubular secretion: It is an active process which occurs in the convoluted tubules.
✓ Abnormal substances or normal substances present in excess in blood are eliminated by this process.
✓ Potassium, hydrogen and drugs like penicillin are excreted by tubular secretion.

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3. Tubular reabsorption: The rate of glomerular filtration is about 100 ml per minute.
✓ So about 6 litres of glomerular filtrate can be formed in one hour. But the volume of urine eliminated
per day is only about 1.5 litres.
✓ It is so, because nearly 99 percentage of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed.
✓ Reabsorption of water occurs in the convoluted tubules and collecting tubule. In addition to water,
some salts are also reabsorbed in the renal tubules.

26. Describe Renin Angiotensin System (RAAS).

✓ Renin-angiotensin system is a physiological hormone system involved in the regulation of arterial blood
pressure and plasma sodium concentration.
The members of the renin-angiotensin system are:
• Renin
• Angiotensin I
• Angiotensin II
• Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE)
• Aldosterone
Functions of the Renin-Angiotensin System
• Build resistance vessels, hence increasing arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance.
• Stimulates delivery of sodium at different renal tubular sites and increasing the bod water retention.
• Stimulates the liberation of vasopressin the posterior pituitary and increases liquid retention by the
kidneys.
• Stimulates the liberation of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary and increases liquid retention by the
kidneys.
• Provides release of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves and prevents norepinephrine uptake
thereby optimizing sympathetic adrenergic function.

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IX. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-5+3=8M

27. List out the hormones of pituitary gland Pituitary gland and write their functions.
I. ANTERIOR PITUITARY: Hormones of anterior pituitary:
1. Growth hormone is necessary for the normal growth and development of the body.
2. Thyrotrophic hormone regulates the synthesis of thyroid hormone in the thyroid gland.
3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesise its hormones.
4. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates.
i) Ovary in females to synthesise oestrogen.
ii) Testes in males to produce spermatozoa.
5. Luteinizing hormone stimulates:
i) Ovary in females to produce progesterone.
ii) Testis in males to produce testosterone.
6. Luteotropic hormone (prolactin) stimulates milk production in females.

II. POSTERIOR PITUITARY: The posterior lobe of pituitary secretes two hormones. They are oxytocin and
vasopressin.
Oxytocin:
i) Contraction of uterus during labour (delivery) and o bring about parturition (i.e., birth of
baby).
ii) Ejection of milk from the breast.
Vasopressin (Antidiuretic hormone, ADH):
i) Decreasing urine output by increasing tubular reabsorption in the kidney.
ii) Increasing blood pressure by constricting capillaries and arterioles.

28. Name the hormones of adrenal gland adrenal gland and write its functions.
1. An outer cortex: secretes three groups of hormones.
a. Zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids.
b. Zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids.
c. Zona reticularis secretes sex steroids.
➢ Mineralocorticoids: The mineralocorticoids are aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone. They influence
water and mineral metabolism.
• By increasing the reabsorption of sodium in the renal tubules.
• By promoting excretion of potassium.
➢ Glucocorticoids: The glucocorticoids are cortisol, cortisone, and corticosterone. The glucocorticoids
influence carbohydrate metabolism.
• Increase the synthesis of glycogen.
• Increase the breakdown of protein into amino acids.
• Anti-inflammatory and anti- allergic effect.
➢ Sex steroids: They are androgens (in males) and oestrogens (in females). These two hormones are like
those produced by testes and ovaries. These two hormones influence growth and sex development.

2. Adrenal medulla: secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline.

Function of adrenaline and noradrenaline:
➢ Vasoconstriction and rise in blood pressure.

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➢ Contraction of splenic capsule and release of RBCs.

➢ Dilatation of the pupil.
➢ Contraction of nictitating membrane in animals.
➢ Relaxation of the intestine.
➢ Erection of the hair due to contraction of erector pili muscle (of hair follicles).

29. Write the functions of thyroid hormones Thyroid gland.

1. Thyroxine
2. Triiodothyronine.
Functions of thyroid hormones: The thyroid hormones influence growth and metabolism.
• Increase in oxygen consumption and heat production in tissues.
• Increase in basal metabolic rate (BMR).
• Increase in the absorption and utilisation of glucose.
• Increase in the rate of cholesterol synthesis in liver.
• Myelination of central nervous system.
• Storage of iodine.

Note: These questions totally carry 59 marks. Select the chapters you feel easy to study.
Highlighted Chapters with yellow colour can be ignored if you want to just pass.
*********** ALL THE BEST***********

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