A manometer is an instrument used for measuring the pressure of gases or liquids.

It typically
measures the difference in pressure between a fluid in a pipe and the atmosphere, or between two
points in a system. There are various types of manometers, and each has a unique design based
on the measurement requirement. Below are the common types of manometers, along with their
derivations and the principles behind their functioning:

Types of Manometers

1. U-Tube Manometer

2. Inclined Manometer

3. Digital Manometer

4. Bourdon Tube Manometer

5. Capsule Manometer

6. Piezoelectric Manometer

1. U-Tube Manometer

The U-Tube manometer consists of a "U" shaped tube filled with a liquid (usually mercury or
water). One side of the tube is connected to the system whose pressure is to be measured, and the
other side is open to the atmosphere (or connected to a reference pressure).

Working Principle: The liquid in the U-tube shifts when there is a difference in pressure
between the two sides. The height difference (Δh) between the liquid columns gives the pressure
difference.

Derivation:

Let:

 P1 be the pressure at the point of measurement (connected side),

 P2 be the atmospheric pressure (or reference side),

 ρ be the density of the liquid (mercury or water),

 g be the acceleration due to gravity,

 h be the height difference between the liquid columns.

P1−P2=ρgh

Thus, the pressure difference is proportional to the height difference and the density of the liquid.

2. Inclined Manometer

This is a variation of the U-Tube manometer, where the U-tube is tilted at an angle (usually 45
degrees or more). The inclination increases the sensitivity of the instrument, making it suitable
for measuring small pressure differences.

Working Principle: The pressure difference is measured by the displacement of the liquid along
the inclined tube.

Derivation:

Let the height difference along the inclined tube be h’ and the angle of inclination be θ\thetaθ.
The vertical height difference is:

h=h′sinθ
Thus, the pressure difference is:
P1−P2=ρgh′sinθ

For small pressure differences, the inclined manometer offers a higher degree of precision
compared to the U-tube.

3. Digital Manometer

A digital manometer measures the pressure using an electronic sensor and displays the result on
a digital screen. The sensor can be based on different principles, such as piezoelectric sensors,
strain gauges, or capacitive sensors.

Working Principle: Digital manometers measure pressure through an electronic sensor that
converts the mechanical force or strain caused by pressure into an electrical signal. This signal is
then processed and displayed.

Derivation:

The working principle of a digital manometer is based on the relationship between the
mechanical deformation of the sensor element and the applied pressure:
P=f(sensor output)

where f is a function that correlates the sensor's deformation (or electrical signal) with the
pressure.

4. Bourdon Tube Manometer

The Bourdon tube manometer consists of a curved, hollow tube that tends to straighten when
pressure is applied. The tube is connected to the system whose pressure is being measured, and
the displacement of the tube is measured mechanically or through a pointer to indicate the
pressure.

Working Principle: As pressure increases, the tube straightens, and the movement is linked to a
pointer on a scale, indicating the pressure.

Derivation:

For a Bourdon tube, the pressure PPP is related to the deflection of the tube. The relationship is
generally nonlinear but can be approximated by:

P=C⋅θn

where:

 C is a constant,

 θ is the deflection angle of the tube,

 n is a constant that depends on the tube geometry.

5. Capsule Manometer

This type of manometer is used for low-pressure measurements and consists of two flexible
metal capsules that expand or contract based on the pressure inside. The change in the shape of
the capsule is mechanically linked to a pointer or dial that indicates the pressure.

Working Principle: The pressure inside the capsules causes them to expand. The expansion is
converted into rotational motion and displayed on a scale.

Derivation:

The pressure is related to the deflection or displacement of the capsule:

Piezoelectric Manometer

Piezoelectric manometers use piezoelectric materials that generate an electric charge when
subjected to mechanical stress. The pressure exerted on the manometer causes a mechanical
deformation in the piezoelectric material, generating a voltage that is proportional to the applied
pressure.

Working Principle: The piezoelectric sensor generates a voltage when pressure deforms the
material. This voltage is then measured and converted into a pressure reading.

Derivation:

The relationship between the pressure and the output voltage V is given by:

P=Vα

where α is a constant that depends on the piezoelectric properties of the material.

Conclusion:

Manometers are essential instruments for measuring pressure in various systems. Each type of
manometer is designed based on the specific requirements, such as the range of pressures to be
measured and the level of precision needed. The basic working principle is based on the balance
between pressure and force, with different methods to display or record the resulting pressure.