UNIT-III

Fundamentals of Academic Writing

The four main types of Academic Writing

Descriptive, Analytical, Persuasive and Critical writing; book review

Character, Place, travel, Event movie and food description

What is Academic Writing

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications.
You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected
to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific
conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

Types of academic writing

Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports,
books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic
writing assignments are listed below.

Type of academic text Definition

Essay A fairly short, self-contained argument, often using sources from a class in response
to a question provided by an instructor.

Research paper A more in-depth investigation based on independent research, often in response to a
question chosen by the student.

Thesis/dissertation The large final research project undertaken at the end of a degree, usually on
a dissertation topic of the student’s choice.

Research proposal An outline of a potential topic and plan for a future dissertation or research project.

Literature review A critical synthesis of existing research on a topic, usually written in order to inform
the approach of a new piece of research.

Lab report A write-up of the aims, methods, results, and conclusions of a lab experiment.
Type of academic text Definition

Annotated A list of source references with a short description or evaluation of each source.
bibliography

Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For
example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results;
in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of
textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to
help convey information as effectively as possible.

Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school, or build an academic
career, effective writing is an essential skill.

Academic writing is…

 Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base
arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims
should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your
own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology and being
honest about the limitations of your research.

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently
across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other
research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices.
Avoid informal language, including slang, contractions, clichés, and conversational phrases:

 Also, a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.

 Moreover, many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

 Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what
you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language:

 People have been interested in this thing for a long time.

 Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years.
Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that
you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately
and directly conveys your meaning:

 This could perhaps suggest that…

 This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which
generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to
make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:

 It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.

 Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
 The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read
papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.

 Focused and well structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear
purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement, and use it to develop a
focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three
levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Overall  Always include an introduction and a conclusion.

structure  Divide longer texts into chapters or sections with clear headings.
 Make sure information is presented in a logical order.

Paragraph  Start a new paragraph when you move onto a new idea.
structure  Use a topic sentence at the start of each paragraph to indicate
what it’s about, and make clear transitions between paragraphs.
 Make sure every paragraph is relevant to your argument or
question.

Sentence  Use transition words to express the connections between

structure different ideas within and between sentences.
 Use appropriate punctuation to avoid sentence fragments or run-
on sentences.
 Use a variety of sentence lengths and structures.
You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging
whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and
a reference list at the end.

APA citation example

In-text Elsewhere, it has been argued that the method is “the best currently available”
citation (Smith, 2019, p. 25).

Smith, J. (2019). Statistical analysis methods (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Reference list
Norton.

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles
are APA, MLA, and Chicago. Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your
institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism. A
good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late.

You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

 Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to
consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:

 How to write numbers

 Introducing abbreviations
 Using verb tenses in different sections
 Capitalization of terms and headings
 Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

Academic writing is not…

 Personal
Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author
may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal
reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the
impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:
  As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
 As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
 Teachers must treat their students fairly.

 Long-winded
Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-
winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in

the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of
your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

 Emotive and grandiose

An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though
you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in
an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

What is Descriptive Writing?

Descriptive writing
The main function of descriptive writing is to describe a place, person is writing in
which the author's intent is to create a vivid image of what he/she is describing in the mind of
the reader. It relies on the author using detailed descriptions that convey the sensory
details of what he/she is describing, often with the use of specific techniques.

Descriptive writing uses vivid language to create the overall effect that the reader is
present in the story, event, or thing. The writing format ensures that it can help the reader
create a clear image of whatever is presented to them. One of the best ways to ensure proper
descriptive writing is to pay close attention to the details that can engage all the senses.
Teaching students to write in a more descriptive fashion will improve their writing skills and
make it more interesting and engaging for the readers.

So, what exactly is descriptive writing? whether you’re describing people, places, objects, or
scenes. Descriptive writing allows the reader to paint a picture in their head. Descriptive
writing makes your text more appealing and therefore draws in the reader. writing in
technical papers or academic writing. Unless, of course, your academic paper is about
literature or writing. Professional emails also shouldn’t include descriptive writing. For
example, if you’re sending an email to your boss explaining that you’re home sick, the last
thing you want to do is add details.

Characteristics of Descriptive Writing

Good descriptive writing includes vivid details that appeal to the senses of the reader and
allow them to paint a clear picture in their mind. Proper descriptive writing can intrigue all
senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.

Descriptive writing may also be used to present the emotions of the person, place, or
thing. One of the best ways to move on to descriptive writing is to strategize the information
you want to include and place them tactfully. Good descriptive writing often makes the use of
figurative languages like analogies, similes, and metaphors to provide a decent comparison
for the reader to help them paint a better picture in the mind.

Efficient descriptive writing includes the use of precise language. General adjectives,
nouns, and passive verbs are not to be used in descriptive writing. The best way to write a
descriptive piece is to involve specific adjectives, nouns, and strong active action verbs to
give the reader a clear picture of what they are reading. Good descriptive writing requires
good organization. Some simple ways to organize descriptive writing include:

 Chronology (time)
 Spatial (location)
 Order of importance (priority)

When describing a person, some of the most important aspects of the writing is the physical
description followed by the emotions and actions.

It is important for the writer to bring to light all the aspects of the person for the reader to
create a clear picture.

Why Is Descriptive Writing Important?

Descriptive writing can help enhance your text for many reasons:
 It brings your writing to life.

 Readers better understand and envision the message you would like to convey.
 It makes your writing fun to read.
 Lastly, it strengthens your abilities as a writer by forcing you to be more creative.

How To Be Descriptive In Your Writing

  There are several ways to use descriptive writing in your text. We’ll cover a few of
them below and provide examples.

1. Engage senses by using details.

 Adding specific details helps your readers visualize what you’re writing about.
The bakery smelled good.
↓
As soon as I walked into the bakery, I was greeted by the warm, intoxicating air of freshly
baked cookies.

2. Use precise synonyms.

Some words are more accurate than others and can help you better portray what you’re
writing about.
She wore a red dress.
↓
She wore a scarlet-colored dress.

3. Use metaphors, similes, personification, or other figures of speech.

Figures of speech can make your writing more relatable and easier to understand.
I was excited.
↓
I felt like a young boy on Christmas morning getting ready to open all his presents.

3. Critical writing

Your writing needs to show your interpretation of the evidence and source material, how you
have used that information to demonstrate your understanding, and your subsequent position
on the topic. Being critical in your writing means engaging in academic debates and research
happening in your subject area.

The sources you select, the way you show how they agree or disagree with other pieces of
evidence, and the way you structure your argument will all show your thought process and
how you have understood the information you have read.

 Use evidence to strengthen your position

Always keep your reader in mind and try to anticipate the questions they would. You can use
evidence to help you strengthen your position, answer readers' questions, and "neutralise"
opposing points of view.

Remember to keep descriptive statements to a minimum — there is no need to provide large

amounts of background or historical information.

Make sure you move from description to analysis and evaluation. Give your interpretation of
the facts, and explain the significance, consequences and implications of the statements you
have made.

Descriptive vs critical writing examples

The following examples demonstrate the difference between descriptive writing and
critical/analytical writing. They are taken from: Cottrell, S. 2003. The Study Skills Handbook.
2nd ed. London: Palgrave.

State what happened vs identify its significance

To write critically you will need to not only describe what happened, but also identify the
significance of what happened.

I) Descriptive example

"The data shows that the incidence (new cases) of asthma rates in children under 15 years old
increased rapidly from 1977, peaking in 1993 and then declining, though rates still remain
significantly higher than pre-1976 levels."

Critical example

"The trend, from 1977 until 1993, of a rapid rise in rates of asthma diagnosis in children
under 15 years, suggests t hat one of the causal factors was particularly prevalent during this
time, but has since declined in importance or effect."
Explain the theory vs show its relevance

Descriptive writing will explain what the theory says. To write critically you need to go
further and show why that theory is relevant.

II) Descriptive example

"Carl Rogers' theory of a person-centred approach focuses on the freedom of the individual to
determine what values should be used to measure successful personal outcomes or benefit,
and is particularly relevant for social workers when wanting to take into account the diverse
needs of the client group."

Critical example

"Carl Rogers' theory of a person-centred approach is particularly suitable for social workers
wanting to work with a client group with diverse needs because it allows the client to
determine what values should be used to measure successful outcomes, rather than those
externally determined by, for example, the service, state or dominant culture in society."

Note the method used vs indicate its appropriateness

Rather than simply noting the method used, which is the descriptive approach, a critical
writer will show how appropriate that method was.

III) Descriptive example

"In addition to competency-based questions, the candidates were asked to complete an in-tray
exercise, which required them to allocate different priority levels to tasks, as an appropriate
method to measure their likely performance in the actual job."

Critical example

"In addition to competency-based questions, candidates were asked to complete an in-tray

task prioritisation exercise. This was because it was considered a more effective way to
measure likely performance in the actual role as the majority of the job would involve similar
tasks, with little interaction with customers and therefore less requirement for highly
developed communication skills."