UNIT-1

BCA-DS-102: HARDWARE INTERFACES

COMPUTER

When we think of a computer, we generally picture computer hardware: the monitor, the
keyboard, and the electronic circuitry contained within the rectangular case. There is more to a
computer than this, however. The missing element is software–the instructions that tell the
computer how to operate the hardware. All computers must have these two components to
function. However, it is software that gives the computer one of its most distinguishing
characteristics—the ability to program a single machine to perform many different functions. In
general terms, a computer is a machine operating under the control of instructions stored in its
own memory. These operations and instructions enable the computer to receive data from a user
(input), transform and manipulate the data according to specified rules (process), produce results
(output). Additionally, data, instructions, and information are stored (storage) for future retrieval
and use. Many computers are also capable of another task: communicating directly with other
machines.

A computer is a programmable device that stores, retrieves, and processes data. The term
"computer" was originally given to humans (human computers) who performed numerical
calculations using mechanical calculators, such as the abacus and slide rule. The term was later
given to a mechanical device as they began replacing the human computers. Today's computers
are electronic devices that accept data (input), process that data, produce output, and store
(storage) the results. Below is a picture of a computer with each of the main components. In the
picture below, you can see the desktop computer, flat-panel display, speakers, keyboard, and
mouse. We've also labeled each of the input devices and output devices.

WHAT PARTS ARE NEEDED FOR A COMPUTER TO WORK?

A computer does not require all the components mentioned above. However, a computer cannot
function without having at the very minimum the parts listed below. Processor - Component that
executes instructions from the software and hardware. Memory - Temporary primary storage for
data traveling between the storage and CPU. Motherboard (with onboard video) - Component
that connects all components. Storage device (e.g., hard drive) - Slower secondary storage that
permanently stores data. However, if you had a computer with only the minimum parts above,
you would be unable to communicate with it until you connected at least one input device (e.g.,
keyboard). Also, for you to see what is happening, you would need at least one output device
(e.g., monitor).

HARDWARE

Physical structure that houses a computer's processor, memory, storage, communication ports
and peripheral devices. Each of these components (called devices) have a different purpose,
which may be either accepting inputs, storing data or sending outputs. For example, a mouse and
a microphone are input devices used to record user activities and transform them into data that is
transmitted to the system unit. A hard disk is a storage unit where data is stored and accessed by
other devices. A monitor or a speaker are output devices that transform processed data into
(respectively) video and audio signals. Usually, the core components that represent the bare
minimum that allow a computer to function are:

Processor (CPU)
The component that processes and executes inputs received from hardware and software.

Motherboard
A mainboard that provides basic connection between all the other hardware components and
devices (internal and external).

Memory (RAM)
A temporary data storage space that stores the information the CPU is actively using.

Storage device
A storage device where data is stored on a permanent basis. It’s slower but less volatile than the
RAM.

Power supply unit

That’s pretty self-explanatory: without power, no electronic device can work!

SOFTWARE
All parts of a computer that are not strictly physical, such as data, programs, applications,
protocols, etc., are broadly defined as “software.” Although software has no material form, it is
no less critical to receive information, encode, store and process it. Computer software includes
all executable and non-executable data, such as documents, digital media, libraries, and online
information. A computer’s operating system (OS) and all its applications are software as well. A
computer works with software programs that are sent to its underlying hardware architecture for
reading, interpretation and execution.
 Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on hardware to run different jobs.
 Software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.

Computer hardware and software work together to process information in the following
way:

1. The hardware consists of the physical components of the computer, such as the
processor (CPU), memory (RAM), hard drive, and other peripherals.
2. The software consists of the instructions that tell the hardware what to do. This
includes the operating system (OS), which manages the hardware and allows other
programs to run, and application software, which performs specific tasks for the user.
3. When a user inputs information into the computer, the hardware and software work
together to process it. The hardware retrieves the data from the input device (e.g.,
keyboard, mouse), and the CPU (central processing unit) processes it according to the
instructions provided by the software.
4. The processed information is then stored in the computer's memory (RAM) until it is
needed. When the information is needed, the hardware retrieves it from memory and
displays it on the output device (e.g., monitor, printer).
5. This process of input, processing, storage, and output is repeated continually as the
computer performs various tasks for the user.
 How do software and hardware work together?

Hardware and software are able to work together because of your operating system and CPU.
Your operating system acts as an interpreter between you and the central processing unit which
is the brain of your computer. It abstracts away instructions so that you don’t have to continually
write code to use your hardware devices.

When you start your computer the operating system is first loaded onto the RAM, which is a
storage device, and then executed. From there the rest of the operating system is then booted and
your device springs to life.

Your CPU is the brain of your computer. It is in charge of sending and receiving instructions to
other parts of the system and creates the instructions that other devices interpret and use to
function. Without your CPU there is no functioning link between your hardware and software.
Your CPU:

1. Reads the program counter

2. Loads instructions from the RAM
3. Decodes instructions
4. Executes instructions and sends to other pieces of hardware
5. Increments the program counter and repeats
As users we don’t manage the CPU directly, we use our operating system to do this. When we
launch Word, our operating system tells the CPU we need an application received from storage.
When we play a song our operating system informs the CPU that our speakers need to emit
sound.

Information generally flows from users toward the CPU. For example, we move the mouse or
type on the keyboard in a Word document it is sent as instructions via your operating system to
the processor.
Fundamental building blocks of the PC

Input
All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit. The input unit comprises
different devices like a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. In other words, each of these devices acts
as a mediator between the users and the computer.
The data that is to be processed is put through the input unit. The co’mputer accepts the raw data
in binary form. It then processes the data and produces the desired output.
The 3 major functions of the input unit are-
 Take the data to be processed by the user.
 Convert the given data into machine-readable form.
 And then, transmit the converted data into the main memory of the computer. The sole
purpose is to connect the user and the computer. In addition, this creates easy
communication between them.

CPU – Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit or the CPU, is the brain of the computer. It works the same way a human
brain works. As the brain controls all human activities, similarly the CPU controls all the tasks.
Moreover, the CPU conducts all the arithmetical and logical operations in the computer. Now the
CPU comprises of two units, namely – ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit).
Both of these units work in sync. The CPU processes the data as a whole.
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
The Arithmetic Logic Unit is made of two terms, arithmetic and logic. There are two primary
functions that this unit performs.
1. Data is inserted through the input unit into the primary memory. Performs the basic
arithmetical operation on it. Like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It
 performs all sorts of calculations required on the data. Then sends back data to the
storage.
2. The unit is also responsible for performing logical operations like AND, OR, Equal to,
Less than, etc. In addition to this it conducts merging, sorting, and selection of the given
data.
CU – Control Unit
The control unit as the name suggests is the controller of all the activities/tasks and operations.
All this is performed inside the computer.
The memory unit sends a set of instructions to the control unit. Then the control unit in turn
converts those instructions. After that these instructions are converted to control signals.

These control signals help in prioritizing and scheduling activities. Thus, the control unit
coordinates the tasks inside the computer in sync with the input and output units.

Memory Unit
All the data that has to be processed or has been processed is stored in the memory unit. The
memory unit acts as a hub of all the data. It transmits it to the required part of the computer
whenever necessary.
The memory unit works in sync with the CPU. This helps in faster accessing and processing of
the data. Thus, making tasks easier and quicker.
1. Primary memory – This type of memory cannot store a vast amount of data. Therefore,
it is only used to store recent data. The data stored in this is temporary. It can get erased
once the power is switched off. Therefore, is also called temporary memory or main
memory.

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is an example of primary memory. This
memory is directly accessible by the CPU. It is used for reading and writing purposes.
For data to be processed, it has to be first transferred to the RAM and then to the CPU.

2. Secondary memory – As explained above, the primary memory stores temporary data.
Thus it cannot be accessed in the future. For permanent storage purposes, secondary
memory is used. It is also called permanent memory or auxiliary memory. The hard disk
is an example of secondary memory. Even in a power failure data does not get erased
easily.
Output
There is nothing to be amazed by what the output unit is used for. All the information sent to the
computer once processed is received by the user through the output unit. Devices like printers,
monitors, projectors, etc. all come under the output unit.
The output unit displays the data either in the form of a soft copy or a hard copy. The printer is
for the hard copy. The monitor is for the display. The output unit accepts the data in binary form
from the computer. It then converts it into a readable form for the user.
Summary
Let us finally look at what the data flow looks like inside the computer step by step-
1. The data is accepted by the input unit. It is given by the user. It is then converted into
binary form for the computer to read it.

2. The information is then sent to the memory unit for storage and processing.
 3. The required data, that needs to be processed is accessed by the CPU. It is accessed from
the primary storage. The arithmetic and logical operations are then performed on the data.
The control unit schedules all the activities for the smooth working of the computer.

4. The data is then sent to the storage unit. It is used for storing or further processing
purposes.

5. Then the output unit receives the final processed output.

Booting

Booting is basically the process of starting the computer. When the CPU is first switched on it has
nothing inside the Memory. In order to start the Computer, load the Operating System into the Main
Memory and then Computer is ready to take commands from the User. Learn the types of booting

What happens in the Process of Booting?

Booting happens when you start the computer. This happens when we turned ON the power or
the computer restarts. The system BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) makes the peripheral devices
active. Further, it requires that the boot device loads the operating system into the main memory.

Types of Booting

There are two types of booting:

Cold Booting
A cold boot is also called a hard boot. It is the process when we first start the computer. In other
words, when the computer is started from its initial state by pressing the power button it is called
cold boot. The instructions are read from the ROM and the operating system is loaded in the main
memory.

Warm Booting
Warm Boot is also called soft boot. It refers to when we restart the computer. Here, the computer
does not start from the initial state. When the system gets stuck sometimes it is required to restart it
while it is ON. Therefore, in this condition the warm boot takes place. Restart button or
CTRL+ALT+DELETE keys are used for warm boot.

Steps of Booting

We can describe the boot process in six steps:

1. The Startup
It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It supplies electricity to the main
components like BIOS and processor.

2. BIOS: Power On Self Test

It is an initial test performed by the BIOS. Further, this test performs an initial check on the
input/output devices, computer’s main memory, disk drives, etc. Moreover, if any error occurs, the
system produces a beep sound.

3. Loading of OS
In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main memory. The operating system starts
working and executes all the initial files and instructions.

4. System Configuration
In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main memory. Drivers are programs that help in the
functioning of the peripheral devices.

5. Loading System Utilities

System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume control, antivirus, etc. In this
step, system utilities are loaded into the memory.

6. User Authentication
If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system checks for user authentication.
Once the user enters the login Id and password correctly the system finally starts.

Advantages of Booting

 Booting is important to prevent the operating system from getting crash.

 External storage mediums are very helpful in repairing operating systems.
 Bootable media installs an operating system on computer hard disk drives.
 Bootable media are also used and utilized in creating partitioned harddisks.
 Difference between Cold Booting and Warm Booting

Cold Booting Warm Booting

Cold Booting is Usually called Hard Booting. Warm Booting is also called Soft Booting.

Cold Booting is a natural process to start a Warm Booting is a process where the user deliberately
computer. restarts the computer

In the cold boot, temporary memory is cleared. In Warm boot, temporary memory is not cleared.

To perform cold boot user has to press the To Perform a warm boot user has to press
POWER ON button from the CPU. CTRL+ALT+DEL or RESET key from the CPU.

Warm Booting is a comparatively faster process

Cold Booting is a Slow process.
compared to Cold booting.

Power on Self Test [POST] is executed in cold

POST is omitted.
booting.

The process is done regularly. This process is done occasionally.

Doesn’t affect application software and system Application software and system software can get
software. corrupt.
CPU essentials and processor modes
The full form of CPU is Central Processing Unit . It is a brain of the computer. All types of
data processing operations and all the important functions of a computer are performed by the
CPU. It helps input and output devices to communicate with each other and perform their
respective operations. It also stores data which is input, intermediate results in between
processing, and instructions.

What is a CPU?
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A CPU is a
hardware that performs data input/output, processing and storage functions for a computer
system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket. These sockets are generally located on the
motherboard. CPU can perform various data processing operations. CPU can store data,
instructions, programs, and intermediate results.

Different Parts of CPU

Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:
1. Memory or Storage Unit
2. Control Unit
3. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The
memory unit is responsible for transferring information to other units of the computer when
needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage
or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage devices.
Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory in the
computer, which are primary memory and secondary memory. Some main functions of
memory units are listed below:
 Data and instructions are stored in memory units which are required for processing.
 It also stores the intermediate results of any calculation or task when they are in process.
 The final results of processing are stored in the memory units before these results are
released to an output device for giving the output to the user.
 All sorts of inputs and outputs are transmitted through the memory unit.
Control Unit
As the name suggests, a control unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but it
does not carry out any data processing operations. For executing already stored instructions, It
instructs the computer by using the electrical signals to instruct the computer system. It takes
instructions from the memory unit and then decodes the instructions after that it executes those
instructions. So, it controls the functioning of the computer. It’s main task is to maintain the
flow of information across the processor. Some main functions of the control unit are listed
below:
 Controlling of data and transfer of data and instructions is done by the control unit among
other parts of the computer.
 The control unit is responsible for managing all the units of the computer.
 The main task of the control unit is to obtain the instructions or data which is input from
the memory unit, interprets them, and then directs the operation of the computer according
to that.
 The control unit is responsible for communication with Input and output devices for the
transfer of data or results from memory.
 The control unit is not responsible for the processing of data or storing data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical functions or
operations. It consists of two subsections, which are:
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Now, let us know about these subsections:

Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division, and all these operation and functions are performed by ALU.
Also, all the complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the mentioned operations
by ALU.

Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like selecting,

comparing, matching, and merging the data, and all these are performed by ALU.
Note: CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining timers that help
run the computer system.

What Does a CPU Do?

The main function of a computer processor is to execute instruction and produce an output.
CPU work are Fetch, Decode and Execute are the fundamental functions of the computer.
 Fetch: the first CPU gets the instruction. That means binary numbers that are passed from
RAM to CPU.
 Decode: When the instruction is entered into the CPU, it needs to decode the instructions.
with the help of ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit) the process of decode begins.
 Execute: After decode step the instructions are ready to execute
 Strore: After execute step the instructions are ready to store in the memory.
 Over clocking and its requirement
Overclocking is the process of running a computer component at a faster clock rate than the
manufacturer’s specifications. Components that can be overclocked typically include
motherboard chipsets, processors, video cards and RAM.
Overclocking is often carried out by users who are trying to get superior performance out of their
computers. The objective is to increase performance on cheaper low-end computer components
or to overclock high-end components to perform above specified standards. A PC enthusiast may
also overclock outdated components to keep updated with new system requirements instead of
buying new hardware.

Only the hardware components those with internal clock to synchronize its speed can be
overclocked. Such devices include, CPU, GPU and RAM. While overclocking improves
performance in many ways, it aren't flawless. If handled without caution it could do some serious
damages to the internal components. Therefore, it is essential to take note of both benefits and
risks before attempting this process.

Overclocking is also known as clock chipping

Overclocking is achieved by manipulating the CPU multiplier (bus/core ratio) and the
motherboard’s frontside bus (FSB) clock rate. The clock rate is the number of cycles per second
produced by an oscillator or crystal. Clock speed regulates the timing for a synchronous circuit.
A single clock rate is generally less than a nanosecond (one billionth of a second) on newer
nonembedded microprocessors that toggle between logic 0 and logic 1. The CPU multiplier
measures the ratio of the internal CPU clock rate against the external supplied clock. The CPU
multiplier is generally changed in the basic input/output system (BIOS) setup.

Overclocking can improve the speed of information being processed, but it can sometimes be
harmful to components – especially if they are not upgraded. This is because clock rate is only
one feature of the many that influence PC performance. Other factors that affect a PC’s
performance include:

 The internal layout

 The width of the CPU’s bus, which transfers data between internal computer components
 The clock rate of the memory chip and front side bus
 The speed of the disk storage system
 The amount of Level 1 and Level 2 cache

Overclocking can be a complicated process. There are many aspects to consider, such as:

 Voltages
 Individual semiconductor clocks
 CPU multipliers
 Thermal loads and tolerances
 Bus dividers
 Cooling techniques
 Proper settings and having adequate power to operate at the new clock rate
One method of overclocking a processor is to alter the hardware jumper settings or to increase
the speed of the CPU that is located in the system BIOS. Altering the settings might improve
overall performance.

Sometimes performance is only improved slightly because most component settings are
permanently fixed, such as those of the frontside bus speed, backside bus speed and the memory
speed.

The advantages of overclocking are:

1. Performance
The primary goal of overclocking a hardware component is to increase its performance. Some
graphics intensive programs and games require immense graphics that can never be achieved
without overclocking. Overclocking a CPU/GPU will eventually increase the clock speed which
in turns drives to overall performance.

2. Cost Savings
Overclocking a hardware component leads to cost savings in many ways. For an example, users
can purchase a graphics card for a cheaper price and overclock them to achieve a performance
similar to a higher model. Thus, users can enjoy playing high end games still without spending
much.
3. Maximized Speed
Some hardware manufacturers especially of GPU allow overclocking to a certain extent. The
performance is lowered deliberately to reduce power consumption. Only by means of
overclocking, the users can experience its full potential ; in terms of better graphics and faster
response time.

4. Device Upgrade
Overclocking also makes old devices function closer to the newer ones. Especially for the
devices with non-removable hardware components through means of overclocking a user can
ensure that it fulfills current system requirements.

5. Test & Researches

At times overclocking is used for testing and researching purposes. Through overclocking, users
will be able to compare it with other hardware components. Overclocking a CPU/GPU can make
the user understand the maximum potential of a particular brand.

Disadvantages of Overclocking
1. Warranty Nullify

Most of the warranties of hardware is nullified once you overclock them. The clock rates of these
components are set to a level that they exhibit their maximum functionality. Unless you are using
a hardware component which supports overclocking from its manufacturer. These manufacturers
will probably replace or repair the components that is been damaged by overclocking.

2. Damage Components
Always overclocking to a higher extent will result in damaging the hardware component. A
hardware which is subjected to overclocking tends to get more damaged due to the voltages
passing from it. As a result, the overall lifespan of a hardware components are greatly reduced.

3. Overheating
Furthermore, overclocking definitely releases excess heat which causes overclocking of
components. The fan and the heat sink alone cannot remove this excess heat. For this, a proper
cooling system needs to be installed. Without a cooling system, the system could experience
frequent crashes or even damage the hardware permanently.

4. Noises
A CPU/GPU which undergoes overclocking will probably release heat a lot. For dissipating this
heat, fans run at maximum speed producing a loud noise. This noises are considerably hearable if
the room is in pin drop silence.

5. Power Consumption
Even though overclocking will definitely increase the performance of a hardware component at
the same time it could double the amount of power consumed. The increase clock speed always
draw more power from the PSU. Therefore, the system that undergoes overclocking cannot be
energy efficient.

Types of Computer
Micro, Mini and Mainframe

1. Micro Computers:
The smallest among them are micro computers. They are small in physical size (most of them are
desktop system; however, notebook micro computers that can fit into a briefcase are also
available). They are economical in terms of costs and are friendly in use. Personal computers
(PCs) fall into this category.
These computers can be used for small data processing jobs of bigger companies or serve as
complete computer systems for small firms. PC can also be connected with bigger computers and
be used as an intelligent terminal to a bigger computer.

2. Mini computers:
Mini computers are very popular among medium sized companies. Mini computers offer
facilities for faster processing of voluminous information. Mini computers, of course, are bigger
than microcomputers but smaller than most of their elders called mainframes.
They cost somewhere between Rs. 5 to 15 lac depending upon the configuration. However, these
prices are only indicative and are subject to substantial changes over time. The mini computers
like VAX 8000 series from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and AS/400 series from IBM
have been quite popular in computer aided manufacturing, as well as departmental computers.
They have also been used extensively as gateways between mainframe networks and as main
servers for local area networks of microcomputers.
3. Mainframes
Mainframes are bigger computers, capable of handling data processing needs of, say, head office
of a bank, or a big multinational company or may be a public utility office. Mainframe computer
systems have larger storage and the speed of processing is also very high.
They also offer the advantage of wider choice with regard to up-gradation of the system in
future. They offer features such as parallel processing. The parallel processing involves
combining a large number of processors that break down an application into many separate parts
in order to enhance processing speed.
The speed of processing is expressed in terms of 10 to 100 millions of instructions per second
(MIPS), and cost somewhere between 1 to 5 million dollars depending upon the configuration.
IBM still holds almost 80 per cent of mainframe market with its popular mainframe series IBM
System 390.
The mainframe popularity has fallen due to emergence of micro computers and popularity of
client server technology. However, they still find niche markets in large volume data processing
requirements such as central database servers.
Super computers are on the higher end of mainframe computers. They offer tremendous
computing power and are being used primarily in scientific research and forecasting. For
example, Cray T3E-900 series of computers are packed with computing powers that are
incomparable to any big mainframe.

4. Supercomputers:
Supercomputers have a speed of between 100 to 900 MIPS. They are quite expensive and cost
somewhere around 10-30 million dollars depending upon the configuration. The other
competitors of Cray supercomputers are machines from NEC of Japan.

The above differences are primarily on the basis of three basic factors, namely,
i. The primary storage capacity,
ii. Speed of processing data, and
iii. Ability to support different input, output and mass storage devices such as printers, tape
drives, etc.
These features are inter-dependent and faster computers will ordinarily have large memory sizes
and shall have facility to use a large number of sophisticated input-output devices. The speed of
a computer system depends, partly, on the memory size, and the number and type of input-output
devices connected to it. The lines of demarcation between these categories of computers are very
thin.
Figure represented the grey areas among these types of computer systems.
As may be noticed from Figure, there are common areas between two adjoining rectangles.
These areas represent the fact that the higher end of smaller computer system may have the
capacities equivalent to lower end of bigger computer system.
For example, a highly configured micro computer may be as good as smaller minicomputer. The
same is true for a mini computer and the mainframe. Only a few years ago, computers could be
distinguished on the basis of amount of primary memory or speed of processing. These bases are
no longer valid for classification.
The distinctions are changing and some of them are fast .dying out as a result of advancements in
hardware technologies. In each category, the buyer has many configuration options. With
increasing competition, sellers are falling on one another trying to sell configurations as high as
possible to push up their revenues.
The innovations like parallel processing using cheaper PC platforms are cutting into the
mainframe market. Such parallel processing involves combining of hundreds of processors that
break down an application into many parts in order to enhance the processing speed.
Generation of processor Intel Brand

What are Intel processors?

Intel processors are the most popular CPUs for desktops and laptops in the world. They’re
offered in a range of model families, with names like Core, Xeon, Pentium, and Celeron. They
come in multiple generations like 9th, 10th, and 11th, also called Coffee Lake, Comet/Ice Lake,
and Rocket/Tiger Lake.
These household-word processors power most of the PCs on the market, with specific models
engineered for enhanced speed, mobility, creative workflows, gaming performance, business
news, big data, and other applications.

THE PARTS OF AN INTEL PROCESSOR NAME:

 Brand: The overall product line, such as Core, Xeon, Pentium, or Celeron.
 Brand modifier: In the Core brand of Intel chips (and only there), you’ll find a brand
modifier such as i3, i5, i7, or i9 after the “Core” name. Higher modifier numbers
generally mean better performance and more features. (The Xeon, Pentium, and Celeron
brand names don’t have these modifiers.)
 Generation indicator: After the brand and modifier, you’ll find a generation indicator
like 9, 10, or 11, closely followed by an SKU number sequence. This indicates when the
chip was made. (9th Gen Intel chips came out in 2018-2019, 10th Gen in 2019-2020, and
11th Gen in 2020-2021.)
 SKU: This is a more specific model number within each brand and generation.
Generally, a higher model number means a more full-featured processor. But you can’t
compare model numbers from one brand to another, such as Core vs Xeon.
 Product line: The product line suffix at the end of each Intel processor name lets you
know what each processor is generally meant for. For instance, the “XE” at the end of an
Intel Core processor’s name denotes a max-performance desktop chip.

How to Find the Generation of Intel® Core™ Processors

To identify your Intel Core generation, you need first to identify the processor.
Here is an example with 13th Generation Intel® Core™ Processor.

Here are some examples by processor generation:

13th Gen example

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-13700K is 13th Gen because number 13 is listed after i7.

12th Gen examples

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-12700K is 12th Gen because number 12 is listed after i7.
Intel® Core™ Processor i9-12900HX is 12th Gen because number 12 is listed after i9.

11th Gen examples

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-1165G7 is 11th Gen because number 11 is listed after i7.
Intel® Core™ Processor i5-1130G7 is 11th Gen because number 11 is listed after i5.

10th Gen examples

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-1065G7 is 10th Gen because number 10 is listed after i7.
Intel® Core™ Processor i5-10210U is 10th Gen because number 10 is listed after i5.

9th Gen examples

Intel® Core™ Processor i9-9900K is 9th Gen because number 9 is listed after i9.
Intel® Core™ Processor i5-9300H is 9th Gen number 9 is listed after i5.

8th Gen examples

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-8650U is 8th Gen because number 8 is listed after i7.
Intel® Core™ Processor i5-8600 is 8th Gen because number 8 is listed after i5.

7th Gen examples

Intel® Core™ Processor i5-7200U is 7th Gen because number 7 is listed after i5.
Intel® Core™ Processor i3-7350K is 7th Gen because number 7 is listed after i3.

6th Gen example

Intel® Core™ Processor i5-6400T is 6th Gen because number 6 is listed after i5.

5th Gen example

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-5650U is 5th Gen because number 5 is listed after i7.

4th Gen example

Intel® Core™ Processor i3-4350T is 4th Gen because number 4 is listed after i3.

3rd Gen example

Intel® Core™ Processor i7-3820QM is 3rd Gen because number 3 is listed after i7.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS

1. Intel Core processors

Intel Core processors are Intel’s flagship family of CPUs. First released in 2006, they replaced
the popular Pentium line as the standard for high-end processor chips. They’re available in
different models like Core i3, i5, i7, i9, and X, and they bring a new generation to market every 1
to 2 years.
As a rule, 1) the higher the Core “i” number, the better the chip; and 2) the newer the generation,
the better the chip. So an Intel Core I7 processor will give higher performance than an Intel Core
i5 chip, and an 11th Generation Core i9 chip performs better (with more features) than a 10th
Generation Core i9 chip.
INTEL CORE PROCESSORS, RANKED BY PERFORMANCE:
11TH GENERATION

2021 Rocket Lake; Core i9-11

2020 Comet Lake Refresh; Core i7-11, Core i5-11, Core i3-11

10TH GENERATION
2019 Comet Lake; Core i9-10
2019 Ice Lake; Core i7-10, Core i5-10, Core i3-10

9TH GENERATION
2018 Coffee Lake Refresh; Core i9-9, Core i7-9, Core i5-9, Core i3-9

CORE SUFFIX MEANINGS:

C: Desktop processor with high-end graphics
F: High-performance processor used with discrete graphics cards (ex. Gaming)
H: High-performance graphics
K: Unlocked for overclocking
M: Mobile
Q: Quad-core
R: Desktop processor, BGA1364 (mobile) package, high-end graphics
S: Performance-optimized lifestyle
T: Power-optimized for best desktop computing
U: Ultra-low power for laptop efficiency
X: Extreme unlocked for high desktop performance
Y: Extreme low power

2. Intel Pentium processors

Intel Pentium processors are mid-to-entry level CPUs that deliver high value at more modest
price points than the Core and Xeon processor lines. These chips manage similar clock speeds to
the more robust Core chips, keeping prices down by not including premium features like Turbo
Boost and HyperThreading. That means if you’re not running processor-guzzling applications for
big data or design, a Pentium processor can be an excellent choice.
INTEL PENTIUM PROCESSOR GENERATIONS:
Jasper Lake, 2021; Pentium Silver
Comet Lake, 2019 to 2020; Pentium Gold
Tiger Lake (Mobile), 2019 to 2020; Pentium Gold
Coffee Lake, 2018 to 2019; Pentium Gold
H: High power
U: Medium power
T: Low power

3. Intel Xeon processors

An Intel Xeon processor is a cutting-edge central processing unit from Intel (CPU). They’re
identical to Intel Core CPUs in many aspects. They’re also more sophisticated in several ways.
The Intel Xeon CPUs are unquestionably influential. They contain a lot of cores and certain
unique features that make them ideal for executing heavy applications and mission-critical
activities. Error-correcting code memory is arguably the most crucial of these characteristics.
Intel Xeon processor generations:
Cooper Lake(2020-2021); Xeon Gold, and Xeon Platinum
Comet Lake(2020-2021); Xeon W
Cascade lake(2019-2020); Xeon Platinum, Xeon Gold, Xeon Silver, and Xeon Bronze
Coffee Lake(2018-2019); Xeon E

Xeon
Meaning
Suffix
E Embedded
H Large memory support of up to 1.12 TB per socket
HL Large memory support of up to 4.5 TB
L Large memory support of up to 4.5 TB
M Medium memory support of up to 2 TB
N Networking specialized
P Performance and power
R Refresh (high performance)
S Search optimized
T Thermal / long life cycle / low power
U Uniprocessor
V Virtual machine density optimized
Y Speed select

4. Intel Celeron processors

Celeron is the low-end (and low-cost) member of Intel’s P6 architecture-based CPU family.
Although it shares the same architecture as the Pentium II, it lacks several of Pentium II’s high-
performance capabilities. Celeron versions after the 300 A include an on-chip L1 and L2 cache,
which means the cache is accessible at the same clock speed as the CPU. The Celeron L2 cache
is less than the Pentium II’s (128 kilobytes) (512 KB). The Celeron L2 cache is on the CPU chip,
but the Pentium II’s is not, hence their effective L2 speeds are almost identical. Celeron
processors are enticing to power users at first appearance, with clock speeds up to 466 MHz.
Still, they should be compared to the Pentium II’s computational capability to understand their
practical use.
Intel Celeron processor generations
Jasper Lake(2021); Celeron N
Comet Lake(2019-2020); Celeron G5
Tiger Lake (Mobile: 2019-2020); Celeron 6305
Coffee Lake(2018-2019); Celeron G4
Intel Celeron suffix meanings:
Celeron
Meanings
Suffix
E Embedded
J The processor has NX (No-execute) feature
L Mobile low power
S Small form factor CPU
Celeron
Meanings
Suffix
P Mobile power-optimized
Q Desktop or mobile quad-core
T Extended temperature range
U Mobile ultra-low power
X Desktop or mobile extreme power

Summary

 Intel produces hundreds of different CPU models, with new ones being released every
year.
 The Intel Xeon processor family is optimised for scientific and data-intensive activities.
 The Intel Pentium line of CPUs is a cost-effective solution that gives you a lot of bang for
your buck.
 For entry-level buyers with light-level workloads, Intel Celeron delivers rapid
performance.
Mobile processor and its configuration

What is a mobile processor?

A smartphone processor is a microchip and also known as SoC, that is used in a smartphone to
process data. It handles the processing of the phone's operating system and applications.
A mobile device would not be able to function without a processor. The mobile processor is the
brain of the device that controls hardware and software interactions. It is responsible for
completing tasks, executing code, and storing data within a given power budget.
A good processor can make a world of difference in how a phone operates. The speed, power
efficiency, and battery life are all impacted by the processor that it has. A smartphone processor
is the brain of a phone, or more specifically, the brains of all the components inside a phone.

How does a smartphone processor work?

You're opening a few pictures in an app, for example. This action is registered by the processor
and stored in the memory of your device. That's the fetch phase. The action is then translated to
ones and zeros in the decode phase. The instructions are now saved in a language your
smartphone understands. It's ready for the execute phase. The processor transmits the ones and
zeros, and you can see it all happen on the screen. Your pictures are opened. Finally, the
executed instructions are saved in the register memory during the save phase. Afterwards, the
process will restart.

The Processor

The processor is the central hub of your smartphone. It receives and executes every command,
performing billions of calculations per second. The effectiveness of the processor directly affects
every application you run, whether it's the camera, the music player, or just a simple email
program. Pick the wrong one and you could experience sluggish, stuttering apps and limited
network performance, regardless of carrier, manufacturer, or operating system.
When you do something more complex, like playing an online multiplayer game with 3D–
intensive graphics or capturing 1080p video, the load put on a processor can be immense. The
ability of the processor to coordinate efficient communication between all its components—the
modem, graphics, and multimedia engines—is essential to smooth operation.
The CPU, GPU, audio and video engine, connectivity features (GPS, WiFi, FM), and 3G/4G
modem are the major components of a Qualcomm® Snapdragon™ mobile processor that control
the operation of some of the most powerful and power-efficient smartphones. In contrast, other
processors may not integrate as many components, which is why the all-in-one name is key. Let's
take a look at what a Snapdragon processor is designed to do, and how the parts of the processor
work together to enable seamless actions.

CPU, or Central Processing Unit. This is the "brain" of your smartphone. The CPU receives
commands, makes instant calculations, and sends signals throughout your device. There are
multiple ways to gauge the performance of a CPU besides checking the Gigahertz (GHz) speed
or the number of CPU cores (a.k.a dual-core and quad-core). One of the most important ways to
gauge performance is by looking at its supporting cast. In the past, the CPU handled the visuals
that were sent to the screen in addition to its other duties, but the demands of high quality
graphics led to the development of another component to lighten its load— the GPU.

GPU, or Graphics Processing Unit. The GPU assists the CPU by handling the visuals,
particularly the kind that are delivered on games and other graphically-rich applications. By
offloading work to the GPU, your phone can do a much better job handling a multitude of
graphics-related chores than the CPU could alone. An integrated GPU is designed so video won't
stutter, photo-edits will appear more quickly, and fast-moving objects won't appear pixilated.
What's more, the GPU frees up the CPU, allowing it to conserve or redirect its resources.

Camera ISP (Image Signal Processor). An integrated Image Signal Processor provides the
"oomph" for many of your smartphone's camera functions. It is designed to deliver a tightly
bound image processing package and enable an improved overall picture and video experience.
An integrated ISP can also be invaluable when it comes to things like instant image capture,
high-resolution support, image stabilization, and other image enhancements.

Audio and Video. A good processor will also have dedicated processing units that handle audio
and video. In a Snapdragon processor, a component called the Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
handles music playback and other audio processing scenarios that the CPU would otherwise have
to do. The same applies to video capture and playback, for which there is a dedicated video
engine designated to handle these tasks. The concept of distributing work among these areas is
what makes processing so fast and efficient in a Snapdragon powered device.

Radio (RF Transceiver) & 3G/4G Modem. These components control your connection to the
world. Broadly speaking, the RF Transceiver receives and transmits voice connections and the
modem enables your phone to send and receive digital signals. When enabled with 4G LTE, the
radio and modem have a high-speed cellular wireless network at their disposal, capable of speeds
that mimic your home Wi-Fi connection. When working closely with the CPU and GPU, a 4G
LTE modem can deliver seamless, fluid access from your LTE network to your applications.

Characteristics of robust mobile processor

1. User Friendly Interface

People judge a book by its cover. And the same goes for your mobile app. If your app doesn’t
have a good look and feel to it, chances are, users will soon abandon it or worse, won’t even
click on it.
So, to avoid this unwanted outcome, you have to make sure that your app is user-friendly,
responsive, and easy to use. It should have an intuitive interface and provide users a seamless
browsing experience no matter their device types and screen sizes.
One more thing to keep in mind here is to not duplicate the app’s browsing experience with your
website. Otherwise, users will not have much incentive to use your app.

2. Exclusive Design
With so many apps available in the market today, it’s important for your app to stand out from
the crowd. An exclusive design helps you do exactly that by making your app distinguishable
from others and helping you build a brand identity of your own.
You can tweak and tailor different elements of your app including layout, content, and
functionalities to get noticed by your users. Also, pay attention to details like spellings, sound,
and colors to create a cohesive overall outlook.
3. Fast Speed and High Performance
Nobody likes an app that takes forever to load. Ideally, your app should load within 2 seconds.
Because every single second delay after that amounts to a 7% reduction in conversions.
Keeping your app optimized for all in-app processes will help you get a faster load time. It is
also crucial for the app performance to be consistent across all devices.

4. Cross Platform Compatibility

Your mobile app should be compatible with the different operating systems (Android, iOS,
Windows) and must be available on both Google Playstore and iOS App Store to offer the best
possible user experience. It should maintain a high-level uniformity in its look and feel when
viewed on these platforms.
For this, you can use cross-platform app development frameworks like ReactNative, PhoneGap,
NativeScript, etc., to create mobile apps that comply with the different features and guidelines of
each platform.

5. Customer Support and Help Module

Not all your users are tech-savvy. Some of them will need help with the installation, usage, and
in-app purchases of your app. So, you must have efficient customer service to answer all their
queries.
You can also create an FAQ section and use chatbots to interact with your users 24/7. Another
good option is to outsource your customer support for smoother internal workflows.

6. Regular Updates
A good software product needs continuous improvements to perform at its best. Regular updates
will help you improve your app’s weak points and push new features for better performance.
They also help remove any bugs that your app might have to ensure that it doesn’t crash. Regular
updates are also instrumental in keeping your app relevant and useful to build trust over time
among the users.

7. Push Notifications
Push Notifications are an effective way to drive user engagement and retention. They are easier
to send than an email and are targeted to users through behavioral insights.
Relevant push messaging also enables you to up-sell and cross-sell your products, tackle cart
abandonment, and increase return visits, ultimately leading to higher conversions.

8. Security
Security should be among your topmost priorities because users will only use your app if they
feel secure.
The recent increase in cybercrime has made users skeptical to even download an app that doesn’t
look authentic to them. So, you need to make sure that your app is foolproof and follows a
security-led approach with encryption and secure codes.
If your app stores customer’s private and sensitive information like credit and debit card details,
it should also have stringent data integrity measures in place.

9. Integration with Social Channels

In today’s connected application ecosystem, social media integration is no longer a bonus but a
must for your business. It will not only help increase your social shares but also enhance the end-
user experience.
By integrating social channels, you can simplify the user signup process to reduce friction in
accessing your app. The integration will also give you additional access to users’ data for
personalization.

10. Search Option

It may look obvious but many apps miss on this important feature. You should understand that
since your users have different levels of technical understanding, it’s not easy for everyone to
find the right content.
A search option helps them better navigate your app and easily find the content they are looking
for. This not only provides faster results but also increases user satisfaction, thus, helping
enhance customer loyalty.