1. Co-Channel and Adjacent Channel Interference in Mobile Computing.

Co-channel interference is not actually an interference but more a sort of congestion when
more than one device is operating on the same frequency channel. It hinders performance by
increasing the wait time as the same channel is used by different devices. Sources of
interference are as follows:
 Another mobile in the same cell.
 Ongoing call in neighbor’s cell
 When a different Base Station operates on the same frequency.

Co-Channel Interference
Co-channel cells are those cells that use the same frequency in a given coverage area.
Interference from these cells is called co-channel interference. In co-channel interference, the
cells are clustered as close together as possible to reduce the co-channel interface and provide
sufficient isolation. Increasing the co-channel reuse ratio improves the transmission quality
because of the smaller level of co-channel interference. An example of co-channel
interference is when a radio transmitter is operating on the same frequency.
The reasons behind Co-channel interference are:
 Bad weather condition
 Poor frequency planning
Ways we can reduce co-channel interference in cellular communication are:
 Proper planning and implementation.
 The frequency reuse technique increases overall system capacity.
Adjacent Channel Interference
It is the interference caused to the signal which is adjacent in frequency to the desired signal.
Imperfect receiver side filters allow the neighboring signal to mix with the actual pass band.
if adjacent channel signal strength becomes strong, it will be difficult for Base Station to
differentiate the actual mobile signal from the strong mobile signal.
The reasons behind adjacent channel interference are as follows:
 Due to multiple channels close to each other communicating using similar
frequencies.
 Irrelevant power emission from an adjacent channel.
Factors for reducing Adjacent Channel Interference are as follows:
 Proper filtering
 Careful Channel Assignments
 By managing the space between two adjacent cells which should remain constant.
2. Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region is done. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or
Frequency sub-bands to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell. The shape
of the cell is Hexagonal. The process of selecting and allocating the frequency sub-bands
for all of the cellular base station within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency
Planning. Salient features of using Frequency Reuse:
 Frequency reuse improve the spectral efficiency and signal Quality (QoS).
 Frequency reuse classical scheme proposed for GSM systems offers a protection
against interference.
 The number of times a frequency can be reused is depend on the tolerance
capacity of the radio channel from the nearby transmitter that is using the same
frequencies.
 In Frequency Reuse scheme, total bandwidth is divided into different sub-bands
that are used by cells.
 Frequency reuse scheme allow WiMax system operators to reuse the same
frequencies at different cell sites.

Advantages :

 Improved Spectral Efficiency: By reusing the same frequency in different

geographic areas, spectral efficiency can be improved, enabling more efficient
spectrum usage.
 Better Quality of Service: With the ability to reuse the same frequency in
different cells, the interference between cells can be minimized, leading to better
quality of service.
 Cost-Effective: Frequency reuse can reduce the cost of building a cellular
network since fewer frequency bands are required.
Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding
more cells as needed.
 Increased Network Capacity: Frequency reuse allows more cells to be served
with the same amount of spectrum, resulting in increased network capacity.
 Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding
more cells as needed.

Disadvantages:

 Increased Interference: Frequency reuse can result in increased interference,

particularly in areas where cells are closely spaced. This can reduce the quality
of service and network capacity.
 Implementation Complexity: Frequency reuse requires careful planning to
ensure that cells are appropriately spaced and that interference is minimized.
This can make the implementation process more complex and time-consuming.
 Reduced Coverage: With the use of smaller cells to achieve higher capacity, the
coverage area of each cell is reduced, requiring more base stations and
infrastructure.
  Increased Power Consumption: Due to the use of smaller cells, more base
stations are required, leading to higher power consumption and operational
costs.
 Increased Network Cost: The cost of implementing a frequency reuse system
may be higher due to the need for additional infrastructure and careful planning
to ensure proper frequency reuse.
3. A white noise has a 2-sided power spectral density of 6 kW/MHz. It is passed through a
low pass filter having a bandwidth of 1 kHz. Compute the output noise power.

4. A composite TV signal has a bandwidth of 40 MHz and is transmitted with a power of 0.1
W through a satellite channel. The white noise has a 2 sided PSD is 10-15 W/Hz. What is
the noise power for the link?

Solution − The noise power is expressed as the product of the system bandwidth and the
noise power spectral density. The noise is going to exist over the range of the frequencies
over which the signal is going to be transmitted. Hence, the signal bandwidth is equal to
the noise bandwidth.

The one-sided PSD of noise can be found using the data given.
5. The noise level available at the output of a communication receiver is -10 dBm. What is
the noise level in the absolute scale?

6. For a microwave terrestrial-based line-of-sight communication operating at 10 GHz, what

is the maximum faithful coverage distance that the signal could make before requiring a
repeater? The following details are provided:

Signal transmission power = 27.78 dBW

Transmit antenna gain = 18 dBi
Receive antenna gain = 20 dBi
Signal transmission bandwidth = 4 MHz
2- sided Noise power spectral density = 10-10 W/Hz
Solutions:
Question 7: We are required to establish a wireless communication link between a
transmitter and receiver that are 50 km apart from each other. Power available at the
transmitter is 5 kW. The link operates at 12 GHz. The transmission power available at each
repeater is 3 dB lower than that available at the source. The signal transmission bandwidth
is 5 MHz. If the antenna gains are 25 dBi each (both at the source, repeaters and receiver),
how many repeaters are required to complete the communication link?
Answer:
With the given data, let us first compute the faithful distance covered by the signal from the
source. Using (1 b), we find that after about 14 km, the signal gets buried in noise. Thus, we
don’t need a repeater till 14 km. After this cut-off distance, we are in need of a repeater. The
repeaters operate at power levels 3 dB lower than that available at the source. Hence, 5 kW
reduced by 3 dB gives us 2.5 kW.

We proceed to find the faithful distance covered by the signal from the first repeater. From (1
b), we can find that this cut-off distance is 9.95 km. Thus, the distance covered so far is 23.95
km. After this, the signal fades out and hence we are in need of the next repeater.

Since the parameters related to all the repeaters are the same, we can complete the cycle.

0 to 14 km – No repeater required

After 14 km till 23.95 km – covered by 1st repeater

After 23.95 km till 33.9 km – covered by 2nd repeater

After 33.9 km till 43.85 km – covered by 3rd repeater

After 43.85 km till destination – covered by 4th repeater

Thus, we require 4 repeaters each operating at 2.5 kW and displaced by 9.95 km from each
other to complete the communication link between the transmitter and the receiver. The
transmitter takes care of the first 14 km.

WiMax

WiMax stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access. This technology is
based on IEEE 802.16. It is used to provide higher data rates with increased coverage. It is
based on MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology. Its range is upto 50 Km. It may
provide speed upto 70 Mbps and it can operate in Non-Line-of-Sight. This technology is fast,
convenient and cost effective.

1. Physical Layer: This layer specifies frequency band, synchronization between

transmitter and receiver data rate and multiplexing scheme.
This layer is responsible for encoding and decoding of signals and manages bit
transmission and reception. It converts MAC layer frames into signals to be
transmitted. Modulation schemes which are used on this layer includes: QPSK,
QAM-16 and QAM-64.

2. MAC Layer:
This layer provides and interface between convergence layer and physical layer
of WiMax protocol stack. It provides point to multipoint communication and is
based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance).
The MAC layer is responsible for transmitting data in frames and controlling
access to shared wireless medium. The MAC protocol defines how and when a
 subscriber may initiate a transmission on the channel.

3. Convergence Layer:
This layer provides the information of the external network. It accepts higher
layer protocol data unit (PDU) and converts it to lower layer PDU. It provides
functions depending upon the service being used.

Q: Internet of Things : IOT is known as the Internet of Things where things are said to be
the communicating devices that can interact with each other using a communication media.
Usually every day some new devices are being integrated which uses IoT devices for its
function. These devices use various sensors and actuators for sending and receiving data
over the internet. It is an ecosystem where the devices share data through a communication
media known as the internet or Iot is an ecosystem of connected physical object that are
accessible through internet. Iot means anything which can be connected to internet and can
be controlled or monitored using internet from smart devices or PC.
2. Machine to Machine : This is commonly known as Machine to machine
communication. It is a concept where two or more than two machines communicate with
each other without human interaction using a wired or wireless mechanism. M2M is an
technology that helps the devices to connect between devices without using internet. M2M
communications offer several applications such as security, tracking and tracing,
manufacturing and facility management.
Basis of IoT M2M

Abbreviation Internet of Things Machine to Machine

Devices have objects that are Some degree of intelligence

Intelligence
responsible for decision making is observed in this.

The connection is via Network

Connection type The connection is a point to
and using various communication
used point
types.

Traditional protocols and

Communication Internet protocols are used such
communication technology
protocol used as HTTP, FTP, and Telnet.
techniques are used

Data is shared between other

Data is shared with only the
Data Sharing applications that are used to
communicating parties.
improve the end-user experience.
SigFox for M2M & IoT
SigFox provides a system that is aimed at providing long range low power & data rate IoT
connectivity to a network of base stations.

What is SigFox

SigFox provides a cellular style network operator that provides a tailor-made solution for low-
throughput Internet of Things and M2M applications.

For a host of applications from smart meters to control nodes that need connectivity over long
ranges the only option until recently has been to use a cellular connection. This option has
several disadvantages because cellular phone systems are focussed on voice and high data rates.
They are not suited to low data rate connections as the radio interface is complex and this adds
cost and power consumption - too much for most M2M / IoT applications.

The SigFox network is aimed at providing connectivity for a variety of applications and users.
It is not aimed at one area, but at being for general use by a variety of different types of users.
The SIGFOX network performance is characterised by the following:

 Up to 140 messages per object per day

 Payload size for each message is 12 bytes
 Wireless throughput up to 100 bits per second
Frequency Reuse is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a
coverage region is done. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or
Frequency sub-bands to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell. The shape
of the cell is Hexagonal. The process of selecting and allocating the frequency sub-bands
for all of the cellular base station within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency
Planning. Salient features of using Frequency Reuse:
 Frequency reuse improve the spectral efficiency and signal Quality (QoS).
 Frequency reuse classical scheme proposed for GSM systems offers a protection
against interference.
 The number of times a frequency can be reused is depend on the tolerance
capacity of the radio channel from the nearby transmitter that is using the same
frequencies.
 In Frequency Reuse scheme, total bandwidth is divided into different sub-bands
that are used by cells.
 Frequency reuse scheme allow WiMax system operators to reuse the same
frequencies at different cell sites.
 Cell with the same letter uses the same set of channels group or frequencies sub-
band. To find the total number of channel allocated to a cell: S = Total number of
duplex channels available to use k = Channels allocated to each cell (k<S) N = Total
number of cells or Cluster Size Then Total number of channels (S) will be,
S = kN
Frequency Reuse Factor = 1/N
Q : Handoff in Cellular Telecommunications

In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to the process of

transferring an ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base Station to another Base
Station. When a mobile moves into a different cell while the conversation is in progress then
the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new
Base Station.
When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength loses
for the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or
data connectivity for mobile users goes on without interrupting.
Types of Handoff
 Hard Handoff
 Soft Handoff
 Delayed Handoff
 Mobile-Assisted Handoff

Q: What is Blocking?
Blocking in telecommunication systems is when a circuit group is fully occupied and unable
to accept further calls [1]. It also referred to as congestion. Due to blocking in
telecommunications systems, calls are either queueued (but not lost) or are lost (all calls
made over congested group of circuits fail). Such systems are called queueing systems (delay
systems) and lost-call systems respectively.

 An example of a queueing system: a message-switched exchange

 An example of a lost-call system: a circuit-switched exchange
The proportion of calls that are lost or delayed during blocking portray the measure of
the grade of service which is basically the measure of the service provided. A large grade of
service indicates a poor service offered to the customer. The grade of service is always
specified at the busy hour.
The grade of service (B) in a lost-call system is defined as:
B = Number of lost calls / Number of offered calls
B may also be defined as:

 B = Lost traffic / Offered traffic

 B = Proportion of time in which congestion exists
 B = Probability that a call will be lost through congestion
There are acceptable grade of service standards for different telecommunication systems [1].
Values which are lower than the stipulated values imply the systems offer poor service.

 0.001 for cheap tie line circuits

 0.002 for within building inter-exchange connections
 0.01 for expensive international circuit groups
  0.02 for cellular circuit groups

The grade of service is the blocking probability. A higher grade of service implies high
probability of loss during the busy hour. Blocking probability is the chance that a customer
will be denied service due to lack of resources. A blocking probability of 0.01 means 1% of
customers will be denied service. It should be as low as possible and can be decreased by [3]:

1. Increasing resources in the system

2. Offering incentives and discounts during off-peak hours to encourage usage
of resources outside the busy hour.
Two formulae are used for calculating the blocking probability: the Erlang-B and Erlang-C.
The choise of formula is dependent upon the method of handling of customers when all
resources are busy.

 Erlang-B: used for lost-call systems whereby calls are lost should all resources be
busy.
 Erlang-C: used for queueing systems whereby calls are queued should all
resources be busy.
Q: Fading in Wireless Communication
In wireless communication, fading is a phenomenon in which the strength and quality of a
radio signal fluctuate over time and distance. Fading is caused by a variety of factors,
including multipath propagation, atmospheric conditions, and the movement of objects in
the transmission path. Fading can have a significant impact on the performance of wireless
communication systems, particularly those that operate in high-frequency bands.

Small Scale Fading

 Small-scale fading is a common issue in wireless communication.
  It happens when a signal is transmitted from a transmitter to a receiver and it
experiences multiple signal paths due to reflection, diffraction, and scattering
from objects in the environment.
 These signal paths can cause interference and distortion to the signal, resulting in
fluctuations of the signal strength at the receiver.
 Small-scale fading is called “small-scale” because the variations occur over short
distances, such as a few centimeters to a few meters.
 Small-scale fading can happen very quickly, sometimes in microseconds or less.
 It is primarily caused by the multipath propagation of the signal.
 Overall, small-scale fading is a common issue in wireless communication that
affects the quality of the received signal. However, with proper mitigation
techniques, it is possible to maintain reliable communication even in the presence
of small-scale fading.

Multipath delay spread

 Multipath delay spread is a type of small-scale fading that occurs when a

transmitted signal takes multiple paths to reach the receiver.
 The different components of the signal can arrive at the receiver at different times,
causing interference and rapid variations in signal amplitude and phase.
 Multipath delay spread can cause Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI), where symbols
in the transmitted signal overlap and interfere with each other, leading to errors in
the received signal.
 The root means square (RMS) delay spread is a measure of the dispersion of the
signal and determines the frequency-selective characteristics of the channel.
 A higher RMS delay spread indicates a more frequency-selective channel, while
a lower RMS delay spread indicates a flatter, more frequency-invariant channel.
 Multipath delay spread can be mitigated by using techniques such as equalization,
diversity, and adaptive modulation.
 Equalization techniques are used to compensate for the time dispersion caused by
multipath delay spread.
 Diversity techniques are used to combine multiple signal paths to mitigate the
effects of fading.

Doppler Spread

 Doppler spread is a type of small-scale fading that occurs when there is relative
motion between the transmitter and the receiver.
 The relative motion causes a shift in the frequency of the transmitted signal,
known as the Doppler shift.
 The Doppler shift causes different frequency components of the signal to arrive at
the receiver with different phases and amplitudes.
  This results in rapid variations in signal amplitude and phase, which can cause
fading and errors in the received signal.
 The Doppler spread is a measure of the rate of change of the Doppler shift and
determines the time-varying characteristics of the channel.
 A higher Doppler spread indicates a faster time variation in the channel, while a
lower Doppler spread indicates a slower time variation.
 Doppler spread can be mitigated by using techniques such as equalization,
diversity, and adaptive modulation.
 Equalization techniques are used to compensate for the time dispersion caused by
Doppler spread.
 Diversity techniques are used to combine multiple signal paths to mitigate the
effects of fading.
Large Scale Fading
 Large-scale fading is a phenomenon that occurs in wireless communication when
the signal strength decreases over long distances.
 Large-scale fading is called “large-scale” because the variations occur over long
distances, typically several kilometers.
 Unlike small-scale fading, which affects individual symbols or bits, large-scale
fading affects the entire signal.
 Large-scale fading is a slow-varying phenomenon, meaning that it changes over
time scales of seconds to minutes.
 Mitigation techniques for large-scale fading include power control, antenna
placement, repeaters, and site diversity.
 Overall, large-scale fading is an important factor to consider in wireless
communication system design, as it can significantly impact the quality of the
received signal.

Path Loss

 Path loss is the reduction in signal power as the signal travels from the transmitter
to the receiver.
 Path loss is caused by a variety of factors, including distance, the frequency of the
signal, obstacles in the path of the signal, and the characteristics of the
environment.
 The path loss is generally modeled using an attenuation equation that takes into
account these factors.
 Path loss is generally a slow-varying phenomenon and affects the overall received
signal power.
 Path loss can be mitigated by increasing the transmitted power, using directional
antennas, or reducing the distance between the transmitter and the receiver.
Shadowing

 Shadowing is a type of large-scale fading that occurs due to the presence of

obstacles or obstructions in the path of the signal.
 Shadowing causes the signal power to vary as the receiver moves in the
environment
 Shadowing is generally modeled as a log-normal distribution, with a mean and
standard deviation that depend on the characteristics of the environment.
 Shadowing is a slow-varying phenomenon and affects the overall received signal
power.
 Shadowing can be mitigated by using techniques such as diversity, where multiple
antennas are used to combine multiple signal paths, or by using signal processing
techniques to estimate the shadowing effects and compensate for them.
Q:Diversity and its Types
Superposition of multiple signal at the receiver cause random amplitude variation which is
known as Fading. A Diversity mechanism is used to decrease the effect of fading is called
Diversity. In Diversity mechanism, multiple copies of the same data is transmitted to the
receiver through multiple paths or channels and the decision is made by the receiver without
knowing to the transmitter.
Types of Diversity:
1. Space Diversity: Replica of same signal is transmitted through different antenna. Space
should be between adjacent antenna so that channel gain will be independent of signal path.
Space diversity may give a path that avoid shadowing and also decrease the large scale
fading. Space diversity offer different path without an increase in transmitter power or
bandwidth.
Space diversity reception methods :
• Selection diversity : The highest instantaneous SNR branch is connected to the
demodulator.
Antenna signal themselves could be sampled and the best one sent to a single
demodulation.
• Feedback diversity : N-signals are scanned until one is found to be above a predetermined
threshold.
Signal is received until it falls below threshold scanning process is again initiated.
• Maximal Ratio Combining Technique: Signal from all of the N-branches are weighted
according to the SNR’s and then summed.
Signal must be co-phased.
Output SNR = Sum of the individual SNR’s.
Equal gain combining technique: Branch weight are all set to unity.
Signal from each antenna is co-phased.
Make use of energy in all branches.
Performance is marginally inferior to MRC and superior to selection
diversity.
2. Time Diversity: Time diversity is obtained by re-transmitting the same signal at separate
interval of time. The re-transmission interval should be less than the coherence time. Time
Diversity also does not require any increase in the transmission power.
Time Diversity can be realized in different ways:
• Repetition coding
• Automatic Repeat Request
• Combination of interleaving and coding
3. Frequency Diversity: Frequency diversity is obtained by transmitting the same
information on more than one carrier frequency or transmitting the same signal over
different carrier frequency. In Frequency Diversity only one antenna is needed. It requires
large bandwidth and more number of receivers hence high cost.
4. Polarization Diversity: Polarization Diversity require two transmitter and two receiving
antennas with different polarization. The transmission wave with two different polarization
constitute two different paths. This provide only two different diversity branches.
Polarization Diversity uses half power by dividing the power between two different
polarized antennas.
5. Angular Diversity: It is also known as pattern diversity. This diversity allows the
identical antennas to be located at same location but with a different pattern. These two co-
located antennas with different patterns will provide a diverse path for multipath signal. It
enhances the decorrelation of signal at closely spaced antennas.
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Q: Maximum Data Rate (channel capacity) for Noiseless and Noisy channels
As early as 1924, an AT&T engineer, Henry Nyquist, realized that even a perfect channel
has a finite transmission capacity. He derived an equation expressing the maximum data
rate for a finite-bandwidth noiseless channel. In 1948, Claude Shannon carried Nyquist’s
work further and extended to it the case of a channel subject to random(that is,
thermodynamic) noise (Shannon, 1948). This paper is the most important paper in all of the
information theory.
Data rate governs the speed of data transmission. A very important consideration in data
communication is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate
depends upon 3 factors:
 The bandwidth available
 Number of levels in digital signal
 The quality of the channel – level of noise
 Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist
for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
  1. Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate: For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit
rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
Nyquist proved that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a low-pass filter of
bandwidth, the filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only
2*Bandwidth (exact) samples per second. Sampling the line faster than
2*Bandwidth times per second is pointless because the higher-frequency
components that such sampling could recover have already been filtered out. If the
signal consists of L discrete levels, Nyquist’s theorem states:

BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2(L) bits/sec

In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number
of signal levels used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed. Hence, the data rate is
directly proportional to the number of signal levels.

Examples:

Input1: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal

with two signal levels. What can be the maximum bit rate?
Output1 : BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log2(2) = 6000bps

Input2: We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz.
How many signal levels do we need?
Output2 : 265000 = 2 * 20000 * log2(L)
log2(L) = 6.625
L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels
2 Noisy Channel Shannon Capacity: In reality, we cannot have a noiseless
channel; the channel is always noisy. Shannon capacity is used, to
determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR) bits/sec

In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-
noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second. Bandwidth is a
fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed. Hence, the channel capacity is directly proportional
to the power of the signal, as SNR = (Power of signal) / (power of noise).
The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in decibels (dB) given by the formula:
10 * log10(S/N)
Input1 : A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned
for data communication. The SNR is usually 3162. What will be the capacity for this
channel?
Output1 : C = 3000 * log2(1 + SNR) = 3000 * 11.62 = 34860 bps
Input2 : The SNR is often given in decibels. Assume that SNR(dB) is 36 and the channel
bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate the theoretical channel capacity.
Output2 : SNR(dB) = 10 * log10(SNR)
SNR = 10(SNR(dB)/10)
SNR = 103.6 = 3981
Hence, C = 2 * 106 * log2(3982) = 24 MHz

Noiseless Channel:
Advantages:
1. Maximum data rate is high

2. Error-free transmission
3. Low latency: Since there is no noise in the channel, the transmission delay is
very low. This means that data can be transmitted quickly and in real-time.
4. High signal quality: A noiseless channel provides high signal quality, which
means that the data is transmitted with high accuracy and without any distortion.
5. Suitable for critical applications: A noiseless channel is well-suited for
applications that require high reliability and precision, such as in medical
equipment, military communication, and aerospace systems.
Disadvantages:
1. Not realistic as most channels have some degree of noise
2. Cost: Implementing a noiseless channel requires expensive equipment and
resources, making it impractical for many applications.
3. Limited range: A noiseless channel has a limited range, meaning that it cannot
be used for long-distance communication.
4. Vulnerability to interference: Although a noiseless channel is free from
external noise, it is still vulnerable to interference from other sources such as
electromagnetic radiation, which can cause errors in transmission.
5. Lack of error correction: Since a noiseless channel is error-free, it does not
provide any error correction mechanism. This means that any errors that do
occur in transmission cannot be detected or corrected, making the
communication less reliable.
Noisy Channel:

Advantages:
1. More realistic as most channels have some degree of noise

2. Techniques like error correction can be used to improve transmission reliability

3. Longer range: Unlike a noiseless channel, a noisy channel can be used for long-
distance communication as it can propagate signals over large distances.
 4. Greater flexibility: A noisy channel can be used for a wide range of
applications, from simple voice communication to high-speed data transfer.
5. Lower cost: Since most communication channels are noisy, using a noisy
channel is generally more cost-effective than implementing a noiseless channel.
Disadvantages:
1. Maximum data rate is lower than in noiseless channels

2. Higher probability of errors in transmission

3. In a noisy channel, the maximum data rate is lower than in a noiseless channel
due to the presence of noise. The presence of noise limits the maximum amount
of information that can be transmitted over the channel.
4. Increased complexity: In a noisy channel, additional techniques such as error
correction and signal processing are required to ensure reliable transmission.
This adds complexity to the system design and can increase the cost of
implementation.
5. Limited range: The presence of noise in a channel can limit the range of the
communication, particularly in wireless systems, where interference from other
sources can also affect the quality of the signal.
Q: MIMO: In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) (/ˈmaɪmoʊ, ˈmiːmoʊ/) is
a method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmission and
receiving antennas to exploit multipath propagation.[1][2] MIMO has become an essential
element of wireless communication standards including IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4), IEEE
802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5), HSPA+ (3G), WiMAX, and Long Term Evolution (LTE). More recently,
MIMO has been applied to power-line communication for three-wire installations as part of
the ITU G.hn standard and of the HomePlug AV2 specification.[3][4]
At one time, in wireless the term "MIMO" referred to the use of multiple antennas at the
transmitter and the receiver. In modern usage, "MIMO" specifically refers to a class of
techniques for sending and receiving more than one data signal simultaneously over the same
radio channel by exploiting the difference in signal propagation between different antennas
(e.g. due to multipath propagation). Additionally, modern MIMO usage often refers to
multiple data signals sent to different receivers (with one or more receive antennas) though
this is more accurately termed multi-user multiple-input single-output (MU-MISO).
CDMA: CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is basically a channel
access method and is also an example of multiple access. Multiple access basically
means that information by several transmitters can be sent simultaneously onto a
single communication channel.
There are multiple users which are provided or assigned variant CDMA codes and thus the
users can access the entire band of frequencies or the whole bandwidth. This method does
not limit the frequency range of the user. Hence, with the help of CDMA, multiple users
can share a band of frequencies without any kind of undue interference between them.
CDMA makes the use of spectrum technology along with analog to digital
conversion(ADC). It is thus used by various radio communication technologies. Mainly, it
is used for mobile communication.
History
CDMA technology has been in use for a long time. In 1935, the first time this subject was
published by Dmitry Ageev. CDMA also came in use during the time of World War-II in
order to stop the efforts of jamming transmissions. Thus it made its application in the
military field and was used in anti-jamming, ranging, etc. It was used in 1957 by Leonid
Kupriyanov ich while he was making a model of automatic wearable mobile phone. Finally,
in the year 1993, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) approved the
standards for CDMA technology. 16 million subscribers were recorded to use the CDMA
systems in September 1998. Currently, CDMA is being supported by 22 countries.
Characteristics of CDMA
 It allows more users to connect at a given time and thus provides improved data
and voice communication capacity.
 A full spectrum is used by all the channels in CDMA.
 CDMA systems make the use of power control to eliminate the interference and
noise and to thus improve the network quality.
 CDMA encodes the user transmissions into distinct and unique codes in order to
secure its signals.
 In CDMA systems all the cells can thus use the same frequency.
 CDMA systems have a soft capacity.Thus there is no particular limit to the
number of users in a CDMA system but with increase in the number of users the
performance degrades.
Advantages
 Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports a lot more
users in comparison to TDMA or FDMA.
 CDMA is more secure as the information transmitted is below the noise floor
making the intrusion of the spectrum difficult.
 CDMA systems have comparatively fewer dropouts than GSM. Thus, it can also
be used in rural areas.
 The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in GSM.
 CDMA provides a high quality of voice with almost no noise during the calls.
 Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.
 CDMA has a very low power requirement.
Disadvantages
 CDMA lacks the facility of international roaming which is provided by GSM.
 Since there is no limit to the number of users the system performance degrades
with an increase in the number of users.
 Self-jamming problem occurs in CDMA systems because of loss of
orthogonality.
 The problem of channel pollution occurs in CDMA systems which thus degrades
the quality of audio.
 Since most of the mobile companies use GSM thus there is a lack of handsets for
CDMA technology.
OFDMA (orthogonal frequency-division multiple access)
Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) is a technology of Wi-Fi
6 (802.11ax) that lets access points serve multiple clients at the same time. OFDMA follows
a set of rules created for the transmission of data between multiple terminals or clients over a
transmission medium. The terminal could be any device at the end of a transmission channel,
such as a computer or phone, and the medium could be a wireless network.

Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing is a signal modulation technique that uses

multiple subcarriers within the same communications channel. These subcarriers are closely
spaced, transmit in parallel and carry low-bit rate data. The use of multiple subcarriers makes
the technique resilient to selective fading and interference as well as provides fairly
high spectral efficiency.

OFDM is itself based on frequency-division multiplexing and was commonly used in the past
for cellular networking, broadcast media and older Wi-Fi standards like IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-
Fi 5). OFDMA is a variant of the OFDM scheme. Specifically, it is a multi-user variant of
OFDM, meaning it allows for multiple access and simultaneous data access for different
users. This form of communication is an upgrade to both FDM and OFDM.

How OFDMA works

Traditional multiplexing technologies used analog modulation. In contrast, OFDMA uses
carrier signal waves, called subcarriers, to move small bits of information in a more
streamlined fashion. These subcarriers may be data subcarriers, reference-signal subcarriers
or null subcarriers. Only the data subcarriers are used for data transmission. The channel is
split into smaller frequencies known as resource units (RUs), so wireless carriers can
efficiently occupy and use the frequency bands they are licensed to use.

By assigning subsets of time-frequency RUs to multiple users (e.g., access points), OFDMA
allows users to communicate with multiple clients and simultaneously transmit data. The RUs
are assigned depending on the bandwidth needed by the user as well as other factors, such
as quality of service requirements, packet size and device constraints. Users may also have
varying usage patterns or data loads but they are all accommodated in OFDMA because of
the use of multiple closely-spaced subcarriers and flexible RU allocation.

An example of how OFDMA works is when two phones send data over the same phone line.
A time-interval may be assigned to each phone so that they will take turns sending their
signal over the line at their assigned intervals. However, these time frames are imperceptibly
small, making it seem that the data transfers by both phones are happening simultaneously
and seamlessly.
Q: Demonstrate the potential of wireless-M Bus technology in futuristic wireless
communication.
Q: Distinguish 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G systems in terms of user fairness and user densification.
Q: At what frequencies ground wave and sky wave propagation takes place?
Q: LTE, LTE-A and 5G
Q: different application scenarios of 5G networks in healthcare system.
Q: The NOMA technologies for 5G networks.
Q: application scenarios of 5G networks in a smart city
Q: Consider the downlink of a GSM system where the carrier frequency is 950MHz and the
RX sensitivity is −102 dBm. The output power of the TX amplifier is 30 W. The antenna gain
of the TX antenna is 10 dB and the aggregate attenuation of connectors, combiners, etc. is 5
dB. The fading margin is 12 dB and the breakpoint dbreak is at a distance of 100 m. Calculate
the covered distance of the signal.
Solution is available in molish book page no 41