PHY 101

Lecture Notes on Rotational Motion, Torque, Vector Product, Moment, Rotation of

Coordinate Axes, Angular Momentum, Polar Coordinates, and Conservation of Angular
Momentum

By Dr. A.C. Adebisi

1. Rotational Motion

Rotational motion occurs when a body spins about an axis. Unlike translational motion where
objects move in a straight line, rotational motion describes objects rotating around a fixed point
or axis. Examples include the rotation of the Earth, wheels, and gears.

Key Concepts in Rotational Motion:

 Angular Displacement (θ): This is the angle through which an object rotates, measured
in radians. It is the rotational equivalent of linear displacement.
1 full revolution = 2πr/r = 2π radians.
1 rad = 57.30 = 0.159 rev.

As the position on the compact disc moves from (A) to (B), the disc rotate through the
angle:
  Angular Velocity (ω): The rate of change of angular displacement over time, which tells
us how fast an object is rotating.
o ω = Δθ / Δt

o average angular velocity

o Angular velocity can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of
rotation.
o The instantaneous angular velocity ω of a rotating rigid object is the limit of the average
velocity Δθ / Δt as the time interval Δt approaches zero:

 Angular Acceleration (α): This is the rate of change of angular velocity.

o α = Δω / Δt.
o Units: radians per second squared (rad/s²).

Comparison between Linear and Rotational Motion:

Linear Motion Rotational Motion

Displacement (s) Angular displacement (θ)
Velocity (v) Angular velocity (ω)
Acceleration (a) Angular acceleration (α)
Force (F) Torque (τ)
Mass (m) Moment of inertia (I)

Example
2
The rotor on a helicopter turns at an angular velocity of 3.20 x 10 revolutions per minute. (a) Express this angular velocity in
2
radians per second. (b) If the rotor has a radius of 2.00 m, what arclength does the tip of the blade trace out in 3.00 x 10 s? (c)
The pilot opens the throttle, and the angular velocity of the blade increases while rotating twenty-six times in 3.60 s. Calculate the
average angular velocity during that time.

Solution 1
2. Torque

Torque is the measure of the rotational force applied to an object. Torques causes angular
acceleration. It is the rotational equivalent of force in linear motion and is responsible for
changing the rotational state of an object (i.e., starting or stopping its rotation, or changing its
rotational speed).

(a) (b) (c)

The magnitude of the force is given by

τ = rF

τ = r × F = rFsin(θ),
 o where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is
applied,
o F is the applied force, and
o θ is the angle between the force and the position vector.

Torque depends on:

1. The magnitude of the force.

2. The distance from the point of force application to the axis of rotation.
3. The angle at which the force is applied.

The direction of torque is determined using the right-hand rule. Curl your fingers in the direction
of rotation, and your thumb points in the direction of the torque vector.

Torque in Static Equilibrium:

 If an object is in rotational equilibrium, the sum of all torques acting on it must be zero:
∑τ = 0.
 This is similar to the condition for translational equilibrium, where the sum of forces is
zero (∑F = 0).

Example:

Two disgruntled businesspeople are trying to use a revolving door (Fig. 2), which is initially at
rest. The woman on the left exerts a force of 625 N perpendicular to the door and 1.20 m from
the hub’s center, while the man on the right exerts a force of 8.50 x 102 N perpendicular to the
door and 0.800 m from the hub’s center. Find the net torque on the revolving door

Fig. 2

Solution:
3. Vector Product (Cross Product)

The vector product, or cross product, of two vectors results in a third vector that is perpendicular
to both. In rotational dynamics, the cross product is used to calculate torque and angular
momentum.

 Formula: A × B = |A||B|sin(θ) n,
o where A and B are vectors,
o θ is the angle between them,
o n is a unit vector perpendicular to both A and B.

Applications in Physics:

 Torque: τ = r × F
 Angular Momentum: L = r × p

The cross product gives both the magnitude and direction of the resulting vector. The right-hand
rule is used to determine the direction of the resulting vector.

Right-Hand Rule for Cross Product (Torque)

 Steps:
o Point your right hand’s index finger in the direction of the first vector (A).
o Point your middle finger in the direction of the second vector (B) (at a 90-degree
angle from your index finger).
o Your thumb will point in the direction of the cross product (A × B).

4. Moment

The term "moment" is used interchangeably with torque in many applications. In mechanical
systems, the moment refers to the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis.

Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance from the pivot point.

To calculate the moment (or torque) of a force about a point, we use the formula:

M=r×F

Moments are important in engineering, especially when dealing with beams, levers, and other
structures where forces cause rotation.
5. Rotation of Coordinate Axes

The rotation of coordinate axes involves transforming a set of coordinates from one frame of
reference to another, typically when the coordinate system is rotated by a certain angle θ. This
transformation is crucial in analyzing problems in mechanics where the axes may be aligned
differently than the object’s motion.

 Transformation Equations for a Rotation by Angle θ:

o If the coordinate axes are rotated counterclockwise by an angle θ, the new
coordinates (x', y') are related to the old coordinates (x, y) by:
 x' = x cos(θ) + y sin(θ)
 y' = -x sin(θ) + y cos(θ)
These transformations simplify the analysis of rotational problems by aligning the axis with the
motion of the object.

6. Angular Momentum

Angular momentum (L) is the rotational analog of linear momentum. It is a conserved quantity in
physics, meaning it remains constant in the absence of external torques. Angular momentum is
crucial in explaining the behavior of rotating systems such as planets, spinning tops, and rotating
machinery.

 Formula for a Point Particle:

o L = r × p,
o where r is the position vector, and p is the linear momentum (p = mv).
 For a Rigid Body: L = Iω,
o where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity.

Moment of Inertia (I):

 Moment of inertia is the rotational equivalent of mass. It depends on how the mass of an
object is distributed relative to the axis of rotation. The moment of inertia of an object is a
determined measurement for a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis. The axis might be
internal or external, and it can be fixed or not. However, the moment of inertia (I) is
always described in relation to that axis.
o I = Σmr² for point masses.

Conservation of Angular Momentum:

 If no external torque acts on a system, the total angular momentum of the system remains
constant.
o L_initial = L_final,
o I₁ω₁ = I₂ω₂.

This principle explains phenomena such as the increase in rotational speed of a figure skater as
they pull their arms inward.

7. Polar Coordinates

Polar coordinates are an alternative to Cartesian coordinates (x, y) for describing the position of a
point in a plane. In the polar coordinate system, a point is described by:

 r: The radial distance from the origin.

 θ: The angular position relative to a reference direction, usually the positive x-axis.
  Conversion between Polar and Cartesian Coordinates:
o x = r cos(θ),
o y = r sin(θ),
o r = √(x² + y²),
o θ = tan⁻¹(y/x).

Example: Convert the Cartesian point (1, √3) to polar coordinates.

Solution:

r = √(1² + (√3)²) = √(1 + 3) = 2

θ = arctan(√3/1) = π/3

Therefore, the polar coordinates are (2, π/3).

Applications:

 Polar coordinates are useful in analyzing circular or rotational motion, where it’s more
natural to describe a point's position based on its distance from a central point and the
angle it makes with a reference axis.

8. Conservation of Angular Momentum

.Conservation of angular momentum is a physical property of a spinning system such that its spin
remains constant unless it is acted upon by an external torque; put another way, the speed of
rotation is constant as long as net torque is zero. i.e.

(1)

(2)
If no net external torque act on the system then equation (2) becomes

Let Li and Lf be the angular momenta of a system at two different times, and suppose there is no
net external torque, so ∑ = 0. Then
 Li = Lf (angular momentum is conserved)

If the moment of inertia of an isolated rotating system changes, the system’s angular speed will
change. Conservation of angular momentum then requires that

Ii i= fI f

Note that conservation of angular momentum applies to macroscopic objects such as planets and
people, as well as to atoms and molecules. There are many examples of conservation of angular
momentum; one of the most dramatic is that of a figure 1a. Upon landing, extending her arms
and legs increases her moment of inertia and helps slow her spin as shown in figure 1b.

Figure 1a Figure 1b

If the component of the net external torque on a system along a certain axis is zero, then the
component of the angular momentum of the system along that axis cannot change, no matter
what changes take place within the system.

The spinning volunteer, the springboard diver, Long jump etc are examples of conservation of
angular momentum.

Applications:

 Astronomy: The conservation of angular momentum explains why planets speed up as

they approach the sun in elliptical orbits (closer distance, higher angular velocity).
 Sports: Ice skaters spin faster when they pull their arms in, reducing their moment of
inertia but increasing angular velocity to conserve angular momentum.
  Engineering: The design of flywheels, gyroscopes, and other rotating machinery relies
on the conservation of angular momentum.

Assignment 2: to be Submitted on Friday 17th January, 2025 (Time: 9:45am)

Question 1:

A student sits on a pivoted stool while holding a pair of weights.

(See Fig. 2 .) The stool is free to rotate about a vertical axis with negligible
friction. The moment of inertia of student, weights, and stool is
4.87. kg m2. The student is set in rotation with arms outstretched, making
one complete turn every 5 s, arms outstretched. (a) What is the initial
angular speed of the system? (b) As he rotates, he pulls the weights inward
so that the new moment of inertia of the system (student, objects, and
stool) becomes 2.02 kg m2. What is the new angular speed of the system?
(c) Find the work done by the student on the system while pulling in the
weights. (Ignore energy lost through dissipation in his muscles.)
Fig.2

Question 2.

Question 3
A grindstone rotates at constant angular acceleration 0.35 rad/s2 . At time t = 0, it has an angular
velocity of 4.6 rad/s and a reference line on it is horizontal, at the angular position = 0.

(a) At what time after t = 0 is the reference line at the angular position 5.0 rev?

(b) Describe the grindstone’s rotation between t = 0 and t = 32 s

Question 4

Three forces, each of magnitude 2.0 N, act on a particle. The particle is in the xz plane at point A given
by position vector, where r is 3.0 m and 30°. Force F1is parallel to the x axis, force F2is parallel to the
z axis, and force F3 is parallel to the y axis.What is the torque, about the origin O, due to each force?

Question 5

a. Find the angle between vectors A = 2i + 3j and B = -4i + 5j.

b. A uniform beam of mass 50 kg and length 4 m is supported at its ends. A load of 100 kg is placed 2
m from one end. What are the reactions at the supports?
c. A point (2, 3) is rotated by 60 degrees counterclockwise about the origin. Find the new coordinates
of the point.