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The document outlines advanced flight mechanics, focusing on the general equations of unsteady motion for aircraft. It covers kinematics, dynamics, and the effects of spinning rotors, detailing the equations of motion in both body-fixed and Earth-fixed reference frames. Additionally, it discusses stability problems and the linearization of equations for small disturbances in flight dynamics.

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Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Advanced Flight Mechanics

General Equations of Unsteady Motion

Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Kinematics
Orientation of the Aircraft
Flight Path
Summary of kinematic equations

3 Dynamics
Summary of dynamic equations

4 Summary

5 Annex I

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Dynamical Model

Aircraft = Complex System

Elastic subsystems connected among them
Rigid and elastic relative motion

Advanced Flight Mechanics

In this course, Aircraft = rigid body
Additional complexity
Gyroscopic effect of rotors
Aeroelastic effects

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Rigid Body Equations

Motion w.r.t. Earth

Earth-fixed reference frame FE assumed to be inertial
Flat Earth approximation
Second Newton Law applied to all the elements of the Aircraft
Motion of the CM
f = mV̇
f ≡ summation of all forces that act upon all elements
(resultant of external forces)
m ≡ mass of the aircraft
V ≡ velocity of the center of mass of the system

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Rigid Body Equations (II)

Relation between external moment and orientation of the A/C
Sum of angular momentum of all elements of the A/C w.r.t.
CM
Angular Momentum Evolution
G = ḣ

G ≡ resultant external moment about CM

h ≡ angular momentum of the Aircraft w.r.t. CM
Taking into account that aircraft is a rigid body:
Angular Momentum
h = Iω

I is the tensor of inertial of the aircraft

ω is the angular velocity
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Rigid Body Equations (III)

Angular Velocity

ω = piB + qjB + rkB

Subscript B correspond to body-fixed reference frame FB (to

be defined)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Orientation of the Aircraft

Euler Angles
Euler angles to define orientation.
Sequence of rotations 3-2-1
(3) Rotation about Cz1 angle ψ (azimuth) (−π ≤ ψ ≤ π)
(2) Rotation about Cy2 angle θ (elevation) (−π/2 ≤ ψ ≤ π/2)
(1) Rotation about Cx3 angle φ (bank) (−π ≤ φ ≤ π)
Rotation matrix from FE to FB

LBE = Lx (φ)Ly (θ)Lz (ψ)

Drawback Euler angles
Continuity
Singularities
Alternatives
Quaternion
Direction cosines
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Orientation of the Aircraft

Euler Angles (II)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Flight Path

Position

Position of CM of A/C in FE given by xE , yE , zE

Ground speed in FE
 
ẋE
B
 ẏE  = LEB VE
żE
B ≡ velocity of the CM w.r.t. F in body-fixed axes
VE E
LEB = Lz (−ψ)Ly (−θ)Lx (−φ)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Summary of kinematic equations

Kinematic Equations
Position
ẋE = uE cos θ cos ψ + v E (sin φ sin θ cos ψ − cos φ sin ψ) +
+wE (cos φ sin θ cos ψ + sin φ sin ψ)
ẏ E = uE cos θ sin ψ + v E (sin φ sin θ sin ψ + cos φ cos ψ)
+wE (cos φ sin θ sin ψ − sin φ cos ψ)
ż E = −uE sin θ + v E sin φ cos θ + wE cos φ cos θ
Angular velocity
φ̇ = p + (q sin φ + r cos φ) tan θ
p = φ̇ − ψ̇ sin θ
θ̇ = q cos φ − r sin φ
q = θ̇ cos φ + ψ̇ cos θ sin φ
ψ̇ = (q sin φ + r cos φ) sec θ
r = ψ̇ cos θ cos φ − θ̇ sin φ

Wind
u E = u + Wx v E = v + Wy w E = w + Wz
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Euler’s Equations of motion

Equations of motion in body axes because time derivative of

angular momentum
ḣ easier in FB
I constant in FB
Time derivatives in non-inertial reference frame → Coriolis
theorem
da da
= + ωBE × a
dt E dt B
Dynamic equations in body axes

E
fB = m V̇B + ωBE × V
GB = ḣB + ωBE × h

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Euler’s Equations of motion (II)

External forces: gravitational plus aerodynamic (and

propulsive)
f = mg + A
AB = [X Y Z]T
Components of velocity and external torques in body fixed
reference frame
E
VB = [uE v E z E ]T
GB = [L M N ]T

Aircraft rigid ⇒ I˙ B = 0
Cxz plane of symmetry ⇒ Ixy = 0 = Iyz

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Summary of dynamic equations

Dynamic Equations

X − mg sin θ = m u̇E + qwE − rv E

Y + mg cos θ sin φ = m v̇ E + ruE − pwE

Z + mg cos θ cos φ = m ẇE + pv E − quE

L = Ix ṗ − Izx ṙ + qr (Iz − Iy ) − Izx pq

M = Iy q̇ + pr (Ix − Iz ) + Izx p2 − r2

N = Iz ṙ − Izx ṗ + pq (Iy − Ix ) + Izx qr

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Discussion of the Equations

System of 12 coupled ordinary differential equations and three

algebraic equations
Forces and moments must depend on:
Relative motion of A/C w.r.t. air given by V and ω
The control variables that fix the angles of the movable
surfaces
Settings of any propulsion control that determine thrust vector
Six forces and moments = function(state vector, control
vector)
State vector = (u, v, w, p, q, r)
T
Control vector, c = [δa δe δr δp ]

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Flight Dynamics Problems

Stability Problems. Controls fixed
Disturbance of given equilibrium. Controls locked c = c0
Linearization of set of ODEs around equilibrium
Stability Problems. Controls free
Of interest for manually controlled airplane
Variation of controls function of the interaction with
aerodynamic forces
Stability Problems. Automatic controls
Airplane under control of AFCS (not fixed nor free)
c determined by feedback loop
Response to controls
Determine effectiveness of controls
Response to atmospheric turbulence
Inverse problems
Given the motion, which are the required controls?
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Kinematics Dynamics Summary Annex I

Effect of Spinning Rotors

Portions of the airplane (rotors, propellers) have an angular
momentum relative to body axes
Relative angular momentum can be computed as rotor rigid
0
body, h
Tensor of inertia of the rotor w.r.t. body axes Cxyz
Angular velocity of the rotor relative to the airplane
Assumed to be constant
Total angular momentum
0
hB = IB ω + h
Additional terms in Euler’s equations
0 0
L = Ix ṗ − Izx ṙ + qr (Iz − Iy ) − Izx pq + qhz − rhy
0 0
M = Iy q̇ + pr (Ix − Iz ) + Izx p2 − r2 + rhx − phz

0 0
N = Iz ṙ − Izx ṗ + pq (Iy − Ix ) + Izx qr + phy − qhx
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - General Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Linear Equations of Motion

Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo, Rauno Cavallaro

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Reference Flight Condition

3 Aerodynamic Modelling

4 Linear Equations of Motion

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Small-disturbance Theory

Assumption: the motion consists of small deviations from a

reference condition
Good results in practice
Stability
Dynamic response
Limitations: large disturbance angles
Advantages (reasons for success):
1 Aerodynamic effects linear on disturbance
2 Small values of variables → large disturbed flight

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Reference Steady State

Variables at reference condition → subscript 0

Perturbation (superposed to reference condition) ∆. Thus
v = v0 + ∆v.
Symmetric (wrt body-axes). v0 = φ0 = 0(= ψ0 )
No angular velocity. p0 = q0 = r0 = 0
Stability axes. w0 = 0
Reference speed u0 = V
Reference climb angle. θ0
No wind. W = 0
Effects of spinning rotors negligible (engines off, or
counter-rotating, or small h0 ).

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Linear variables
Aerodynamic (and propulsive)
Velocities
actions
u = u0 +∆u
X = X0 +∆X
v= ∆v
Y = Y0 +∆Y
w= ∆w
Z = Z0 +∆Z
p= ∆p
L = L0 +∆L
q= ∆q
M = M0 +∆M
r= ∆r
N = N0 +∆N

Linear and angular position

xE = x0 +∆xE ψ= ∆ψ
yE = y0 +∆yE θ = θ0 +∆θ
zE = z0 +∆zE φ= ∆φ

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Linearization

Take equations of motion, substitute the reference +

perturbation decomposition, linearize!
Example: equation of motion of CM in x direction
X − mg sin θ = m (u̇ + qw − rv)

X0 + ∆X − mg sin (θ0 + ∆θ) =

m [u˙0 + ∆u̇ + (q0 + ∆q) (w0 + ∆w) − (lr0 + ∆r) (v0 + ∆v)]

Write the equilibrium equation for the reference (steady in

this case) condition
X0 − mg sin θ0 = 0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Linearization

Linearize the perturbations →

X0 + ∆X − mg (sin θ0 + ∆θ cos θ0 ) = m∆u̇

Write equation for the perturbed state →

O (1) : X0 − mg sin θ0 = 0
O (∆) : ∆X − mg cos θ0 ∆θ = m∆u̇
| {z }

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Linearization

Whole set of linearized equations of motion

X0 + ∆X − mg (sin θ0 + ∆θ cos θ0 ) = m∆u̇

Y0 + ∆Y + mgφcosθ0 = m (v̇ + u0 r)
Z0 + ∆Z + mg (cos θ0 − ∆θ sin θ0 ) = m (ẇ − u0 q)
L0 + ∆L = Ix ṗ − Izx ṙ
M0 + ∆M = Iy xq̇
N0 + ∆N = −Izx ṗ + Iz ṙ

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Linearization

Whole set of linearized differential kinematic equations

θ̇ = q
φ̇ = p + r tan θ0
ψ̇ = r sec θ0
x˙E = (u0 + ∆u) cos θ0 − u0 ∆θ sin θ0 + w sin θ0
y˙E = u0 ψ cos θ0 + v
z˙E = − (u0 + ∆u) sin θ0 − u0 ∆θ cos θ0 + w cos θ0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Reference Flight Condition

Forces and torques at reference condition

X0 − mg sin θ0 = 0
Y0 = 0
Z0 + mg cos θ0 = 0
L0 = M0 = N0 = 0

Ground speed at reference condition

ẋE0 = u0 cos θ0
ẏE0 = 0
żE0 = −u0 sin θ0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Aerodynamic Modelling

We have equations linearized in the state variables, however,

we didn’t tell anything about ∆ aerodynamic forces
To nicely fit the framework, we need to express such
perturbation forces linearly in the motion variables...and also
their derivatives! Why?
Example: airfoil at α. Aerodynamic forces depend not only on
the instantaneous value of α, but also on the entire past
history [remember Wagner from aeroelasticity course]

L(t) = L[α(τ )] ∞≤τ ≤t

With a Taylor expansion of α, we can eventually write

L(t) = L(α, α̇, α̈, . . . )

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Aerodynamic Modelling

Assumption: aerodynamic forces and moments depend only

on the disturbed motion variables and their derivatives,

∆X = f (∆u, ∆v, ∆w, ∆p, ∆q, ∆r, ∆u̇, ∆v̇, ∆ẇ, ∆ṗ, ∆q̇, ∆ṙ, ...)

Stability or aerodynamic derivatives

∂X
Xu =
∂u
Linearization of aerodynamic actions

∆X = Xu ∆u + Xv ∆v + Xw ∆w + Xp ∆p + ...

Linear aerodynamics (classical assumption)

Keep only linear terms

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Simplifications

In truly symmetric configuration Y , L, N ≡ 0 in any condition

of symmetric flight (symmetry plane remains vertical)
Then, β, p, r, φ, ψ ≡ 0
Then, derivatives of lateral forces w.r.t. the longitudinal
variables u, w, q are zero
Neglect derivative of symmetric forces and moments w.r.t.
asymmetric variables
Neglect all derivatives w.r.t. rates of change of motion except
Zẇ and Mẇ
Typically we can also neglect Xq
None of this assumptions is necessary. They are made as a
mater of experience and convenience.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Linear Forces and Moments

∆X = Xu ∆u + Xw ∆w + ∆Xc
∆Y = Yv ∆v + Yp ∆p + Yr ∆r + ∆Yc
∆Z = Zu ∆u + Zw ∆w + Zẇ ẇ + Zq ∆q + ∆Zc
∆L = Lv ∆v + Lp ∆p + Lr ∆r + ∆Lc
∆M = Mu ∆u + Mw ∆w + Mẇ ẇ + Mq ∆q + ∆Mc
∆N = Nv ∆v + Np ∆p + Nr ∆r + ∆LNc

Subscript c → control forces and moments

Substituting this expression of the aerodynamic forces into
(linearized) equations of motion, we can recast everything in
the state-space form (next slide).
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Longitudinal Equations of Motion

ẋ = Ax + b
 
∆u
 w 
x=
 q 

∆θ
 Xu Xw 
m m
0 −g cos θ0
 Zu Zw Zq +mu0 −mg sin θ0 
 
m−Zẇ m−Zẇ m−Zẇ m−Zẇ
A=
 
 1 M + Mẇ Zu Mẇ Zw Mẇ (Zq +mu0 ) M mg sin θ0

1 Mw + m−Z 1 Mq + − ẇ 
 Iy u m−Z Iy Iy m−Zẇ Iy (m−Zẇ ) 
ẇ ẇ
0 0 1 0
 
∆Xc /m
 ∆Zc 
 m−Zẇ 
b=
 ∆Mc + Mẇ + ∆Zc


 Iy Iy m−Zẇ 
0

∆ẋE = ∆u cos θ0 + w sin θ0 − u0 ∆θ sin θ0

∆żE = −∆u sin θ0 + w cos θ0 − u0 ∆θ cos θ0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Lateral Equations of Motion

ẋ = Ax + b
T
x= vprφ
Yp

 Yv Yr 
m m m
− u0 g cos θ0
 
 Lv 0 Lp 0 Lr 0
0 + Izx Nv 0 + Izx Np 0 + Izx Nr 0

 
I
A =  x
 Ix Ix 

N N
Izx Lp + 0p Izx Lr + N0r
 0 0 0
 Izx Lv + 0v 0

Iz Iz Iz

0 1 tan θ0 0
∆Yc /m
 
 ∆Lc + I 0 ∆N 
 0 zx c 
 I
b= 0 x

I ∆Lc + ∆Nc +

 zx 0
I

z
0

2
0 Ix Iz − Izx
Ix =
Iz
r 2
ψ̇ = 0 Ix Iz − Izx
cos θ0 Iz =
Ix
∆ẏE = u0 ψ cos θ0 + v
0 Izx
Izx =
2
Ix Iz − Izx

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Discussion

The longitudinal and lateral equations are DECOUPLED!

Pure longitudinal motion

∆φ, ∆v, ∆p, ∆r, ∆Yc , ∆Lc , ∆Nc = 0

Pure lateral motion

∆u, ∆w, ∆q, ∆θ, ∆Xc , ∆Zc , ∆Mc = 0

Pure longitudinal motion possible if:

1 Existence of plane of symmetry
2 No rotor gyroscopic effects
Pure lateral motion possible if:
1 Linear equations (inertial cross-coupling)
2 No rotor gyroscopic effects
3 Neglect all aerodynamic cross-coupling
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Nondimensional System

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Nondimensional Derivatives

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Reference Flight Condition Aerodynamic Modelling Linear Equations of Motion

Dimensional Derivatives

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering Advanced Flight Mechanics - Linear Equations of Motion
Introduction Longitudinal

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Longitudinal Stability Derivatives

Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo, Rauno Cavallaro

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Longitudinal
α Derivatives
u Derivatives
q Derivatives
α̇ Derivatives

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

Dimensional Derivatives

Let’s see how we arrive at the expression given in the previous

tables. Consider Zu . First, write the expression of the force
Z = 21 ρV 2 SCz . However, V 2 = u2 + v 2 + w2 , and u = u0 + ∆u.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

Example Zu

∂Cz
Derivative Zu = ∂Z ∂V
+ 12 ρu20 S

∂u 0
= Cz0 ρu0 S ∂u 0 ∂u 0
and ∂C 1

∂u 0 = u0 Czu
z

Cz0 . Remember from the equilibrium equation

Z0 = −mg cos θ0 , hence CZ0 = −Cw0 cos θ0 [recall the
nondimensionale system table]
Finally, we have:
1
Zu = −ρu0 SCw0 cos θ0 + ρu0 SCZu .
2

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

Stability Derivatives

Aerodynamic actions ⇒ stability derivatives

Within linear equations of motion
Within range of validity of approximations

Stability Derivatives
All aerodynamic information for Flight Dynamics
Derivation of all the stability derivatives involved
Longitudinal
Lateral - directional

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

Cx and Cz expressions
For convenience Cx and Cz in terms of lift, drag and thrust
coefficients
Cx = CT + CL α x − CD
Cz = − (CL + αx CD )
T
CT =
1/2ρV 2 S

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

α Derivatives

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

α Derivatives

Changes in forces and moments with changes in α

In general, ∆α ⇒ ∆L > 0 , ∆D > 0 , ∆M < 0
h i
∂Cx
∂(CT +CL αx −CD ) 2CLα
∂α 0 = ∂α → C x α = C L0 1− πAe
0
h i
∂Cz
∂(CL +αx CD )
∂α 0 = − ∂α → Czα = −CLα
0
Cmα Pitch stiffness

Cmα = a (h − hn )

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

u Derivatives

u Derivatives
Changes in forces and moments with increase in the forward
speed
Angle of attack fixed
Controls fixed
...
Change in actions twofold
Change in dynamic pressure
2
Force or moment (u0 + ∆u)
= ≈ 1 + 2∆û
Initial Force or moment u20
Change in nondimensional coefficients
Compressibility effect
Propulsive effect
Aeroelastic effect (not considered in this course)
Cx , Cz , Cm = f (M, CT )
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

u Derivatives

C xu

∂Cx ∂Cx ∂M ∂Cx ∂CT
Cxu = = +
∂ û 0 ∂M ∂ û 0 ∂CT ∂ û 0

Derivative of Mach number with respect forward speed in

reference condition

∂M ∂V/a u0 ∂V
= = = M0
∂ û 0 ∂u/u0 0 a ∂u 0
Derivative of CT with respect forward speed in reference
condition (recall CT = T /(1/2ρV 2 S))
CTu depends on propulsive system
Gliding flight (T = 0) ⇒ CTu = 0
Constant thrust (jet) (∂T /∂u = 0) ⇒ CTu = −2CT0
Constant power (propeller) (∂(T V )∂u = 0) ⇒ CTu = −3CT0
CT0 from reference condition: CT0 = CD0 + CW0 sin θ0
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

u Derivatives

Cxu (II)

In terms of aerodynamic actions [recall the definition

Cx = CT + CL αx − CD ]

∂CT CD ∂CD
Cxu = M0 − + CTu 1 −
∂M ∂M 0 ∂CT 0

In powered wind-tunnel tests, direct measure of Cx (not

components in CT , CD )

∂Cx ∂Cx
Cxu = M0 + CTu
∂M 0 ∂CT 0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

u Derivatives

Cz u

Recall Cz = − (CL + αx CD )

∂CL ∂CL
Czu = −M0 − CTu
∂M 0 ∂CT 0

First term M0 ∂C∂M
L
0
Small but at transonic speeds
Estimation for high aspect ratio swept wings
Prandtl- Glauert + sweep theory
ai α
CL = √ M cos Λ < 1
1 − M2 cos2 Λ
ai ≡ lift-slope curve in incompressible flow
Λ ≡ sweepback angle pf the 1/4 chord line

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

u Derivatives

Cz u

Thus
M20 cos2 Λ

∂CL
M0 = CL
∂M 0 1 − M20 cos2 Λ 0
Same result for supersonic flow
Low-aspect-ratio wings less sensitive to changes in M

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

u Derivatives

Cm u

∂Cm ∂Cm
Cmu = M0 + CTu
∂M 0 ∂CT 0

∂Cm
First term ∂M
From wind-tunnel tests
Largest at transonic speeds
Dependent on wing planform
Main factor: backward shift of wing center of pressure (CP)
2D symmetrical wings, CP from 0.25c in subsonic to 0.5c in
supersonic
Increase in M produces diving-moment (Cmu < 0)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

q Derivatives

Aerodynamic effects when aircraft rotates about spanwise axis

through CM with αx = 0
Both wing and tail affected
by the rotation
Wing contribution is typically
much smaller than tail
contribution
Estimation: consider only the
contribution of the tail, and
increase it by 10% (arbitrary,
wing and body) wing and
body

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

q Derivatives

Contribution of the tail

The main effect: increase of angle of attack on the tail
Quasi-static derivatives: instantaneous change in lift on the
tail

q`t
∆αt =
u0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

q Derivatives

Contribution of the tail

Czq of the tail

St St St qlt
∆CL = ∆CLt = at ∆αt = at
S S S u0
2u0 ∂CL 2u0 St lt St lt
CLq = = at = 2at
c ∂q c S u0 Sc
Czq = −CLq = −2VH at
Cmq of the tail
`t
Cmq = −2VH at
c̄

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

α̇ Derivatives

Pressure distribution on wing or tail does not adjust itself

instantaneously when the angle of attack suddenly changes
Calculation of this effect involves unsteady flow
There are methods to compute contribution of the wing
Etkin, section 5.5
Advanced discussion, not useful formulas
Approximation for tail contribution which is satisfactory in
many cases
Based on lag of downwash
Downwash at tail does not respond instantaneously to
changes in wing angle of attack

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

α̇ Derivatives

Lag of Downwash

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Longitudinal

α̇ Derivatives

Lag of Downwash (II)

Downwash → wing trailing vortices

Vorticity convected with stream → change in vortices felt
later ∆t = u`t0
Instantaneous downwash at the tail (t) corresponds to wing
conditions at t − ∆t
∂
∆ = − α̇∆t = −∆αt
∂α

∂
(Czα̇ ) = −2at VH
∂α
`t ∂
(Cmα̇ ) = −2at VH
c̄ ∂α

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Lateral Stability Derivatives

Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo, Rauno Cavallaro

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Lateral
β Derivatives
p Derivatives
r Derivatives

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

Lateral Aerodynamics

Velocity vector NOT in plane of symmetry

Yawing and rolling displacements (β, φ)
Forces and moments
Lateral Cy
Rolling moment Cl
Yawing moment Cn
Analysis more complex in lateral
Longitudinal decoupled: only rotation about y
Lateral coupled: rotations in both axes
roll rotation, p → Cl and Cn
yaw rotation, r → Cn and Cl (and change in drag and lift)
No trimming problem
Position of CM: not a dominant parameter

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

β Derivatives
Estimation methods do not give completely reliable results
Cyβ
Force in y direction when the airplane has a positive β
(side-slip to the right) [v of aircraft positive along y]
Cy < 0 and kCy k 1 usually
Main contribution: tail and body (also interference wing-body)
2
VF SF
(Cy )tail = −aF (β − σ)
V S
2
VF ∂σ SF
Cyβ tail = −aF 1−
V ∂β S
aF ≡ lift-slope of fin; VF ≡ effective velocity at fin
∂σ
∂β
≡ sidewash factor; SF ≡ fin surface
Clβ ≡ dihedral effect; Cnβ ≡ weathercock stability
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Sidewash Factor ∂σ/∂β

σ ≡ sidewash angle
Sidewash factor → difficult to
estimate
Contribution from:
Fuselage: lifting body when
yawed
Propeller: side force when
yawed
Wing: asymmetric structure
of the flow
Effect more important in
low-aspect-ratio swept wings

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Weathercock Stability, Cnβ

Yaw Stiffness
When the airplane is at an angle β of sideslip, the yawing moment should be
such that as to tend to restore it to symmetric flight

∂Cn
>0
∂β

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Weathercock Stability, Cnβ (II)

Contributions: body and vertical tail

Vertical tail.
In free stream αF = −β
Additionally, sidewash angle σ

αF = −β + σ

∂σ
Cnβ tail = VV aF 1 −
∂β
SF lF
VV =
S b
vertical-tail volume ratio

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Clφ and roll stiffness

No roll stiffness ∂Cl /∂φ in conventional airplanes if V aligned
with iB
Otherwise, there is a second-order roll stiffness (tendency to
fly wings at level) associated with Clβ .
Why? V = V cos αiB + V sin αkB
After rolling angle φ about iB
V = V cos αiB + V sin α cos φkB + V sin α sin φjB
Sideslip angle: sin β = sin α sin φ ⇒ β ≈ αφ
∂Cl ∂Cl ∂β
= ≈ Clβ α
∂φ ∂β ∂φ
Hold for a 1-dof constrained dynamics. It is an effect related
to β [Clφ is not considered in the equations of motion]
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

C lβ

Roll stiffness is however inherent thorough more complicated

mechanism involving Clβ
Called also dihedral effect
Contributions Clβ
Dihedral effect
Sweep
Fuselage
Fin

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Dihedral Effect

Normal velocity component right wing panel (R)

Vn,R = w cos Γ + v sin Γ ≈ w + vΓ
Normal velocity component left wing panel (L)
Vn,L = w cos Γ − v sin Γ ≈ w − vΓ
Different change in “effective” angle of attack due to sideslip

∆LR ∝ βΓ, ∆LL = −∆LR ⇒ ∆l ∝ −βΓ ⇒ Clβ Γ ∝ −Γ
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Clβ . Influence of Sweep

Same reasoning: instead

of change in effective α,
change in effective
velocity

Vn,R = V cos (Λ − β)
Vn,L = V cos (Λ + β)

Change in rolling
moment
∆l ∝ V 2 cos2 (Λ − β) − cos2 (Λ + β)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Clβ . Influence of Fuselage

Cylinder yawed with respect main stream.

Cross-flow component of velocity: V β
High wing
upwind at RW (∆L > 0)
upwind at LW (∆L < 0)
Resulting ∆l < 0
Enhance dihedral effect
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

β Derivatives

Clβ . Influence of Fin

β → side force on vertical tail
If mean aerodynamic center of vertical tail offset from rolling
axis → rolling moment
S F zF
∆Cl = aF (−β + σ)
Sb
∂σ SF zF
∆Clβ = −aF (1 − )
∂β Sb

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

p Derivatives

p Derivatives
Changes in roll → change in local angle of attack → changes in
aerodynamic load distribution →
Perturbations in forces and moments
Modification of trailing vortex sheet → Induced (∂σ/∂ p̂) → change
of vertical tail AoA
Trailing vortex sheet not flat

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

p Derivatives

C yp
Often negligible
Contributions: wing and vertical tail
Vertical tail: change in angle of attack αF

pzF ∂σ zF ∂σ
∆αF = − +p = −p̂ 2 −
u0 ∂p b ∂ p̂
Incremental side force

SF SF zF ∂σ
∆Cy = ∆CyF = −aF p̂ 2 −
S S b ∂ p̂
Stability derivative Cyp (tail contribution)

SF zF ∂σ
Cyp tail = −aF 2 −
S b ∂ p̂
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

p Derivatives

C lp
Damping-in-roll (resistance of airplane to roll)
p → linear variation of angle of attack across the span

Linear approximation → sum of undisturbed lift (symmetric)

and perturbation contribution (antisymmetric)
Clp ∝ p̂ and Clp < 0
Local angle of attack above stall
Clp p̂ reduced and can change sign
If change of sign: autorotation (spinning flight)
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

p Derivatives

Cnp
Yawing moment produced by rolling motion (cross derivative)
Contributions
Wing
Change in local α → change in profile drag (increase in right
hand side) → N > 0
Leading-edge suction ⇒ N < 0, N ∝ CL p̂
Tail

zF ∂σ
Cn p tail
= aF VV 2 −
b ∂ p̂

VV = SFSb`F ≡ vertical-tail
volume ratio
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

r Derivatives

Velocity field altered: yaw r

superimposed to u0
Wing contribution
Sweepback
Velocity increased on left-hand
side, decreased on right-hand
side → increase on lift, drag,
moment on left-hand side
Unsymmetrical trailing vortex
sheet → sidewash at the tail

r`F ∂σ 2`F ∂σ
∆αF = +r = r̂ +
u0 ∂r b ∂ r̂

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

r Derivatives

r Derivatives (II)
Cyr
Only important contribution tail (usually)

SF `F ∂σ
(Cyr )tail = aF 2 +
S b ∂ r̂
Clr
Rolling moment due to yawing [cross derivative]
Increase in lift in left wing + decrease in right wing = L > 0,
L ∝ CL
Important al low speed.
Important parameters: aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweptback
Contribution of tail (relevant if large)

SF zF `F ∂σ
(Clr )tail = aF 2 +
S b b ∂ r̂

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Lateral

r Derivatives

r Derivatives (III)

Cnr
Damping-in-yaw derivative. Always negative.
Wing
Increase in induced drag in left wing + decrease in right wing
→N <0
Important parameters: aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweptback
For extremely large sweepback (> 60◦ ), N associated with the
induced drag might be positive N > 0
Tail
`F ∂σ
(Cnr )tail = −aF VV 2 +
b ∂ r̂

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Lateral Stability Derivatives
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Dynamic Stability of Uncontrolled
Motion

Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo, Rauno Cavallaro

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Solution of the linear system

3 Stability Assessment

4 Longitudinal Modes

5 On Static Stability

6 Effect of Flight Condition on Longitudinal Modes

7 Long. Characteristics of a STOL Airplane

8 Lateral Modes

9 Effects of Speed and Altitude on Lateral Modes

Dynamic Stability

Stability of uncontrolled motion (fixed controls)

Aircraft in steady flight might be subject to disturbances
Turbulence in the atmosphere
Motions of the passengers
...
Questions to be answered
What is the characteristic of the motion following this
disturbance?
Does it increase the amplitude of motion or not?
If the disturbance decays, how the flight path changes?
Stability of small disturbances from steady flight: an
important property
Small disturbance model valid for disturbance magnitudes that
seem quite violent to human occupants

Longitudinal Equations of Motion

∆ẋE = ∆u cos θ0 + w sin θ0 − u0 ∆θ sin θ0

∆żE = −∆u sin θ0 + w cos θ0 − u0 ∆θ cos θ0

Lateral Equations of Motion

2
0 Ix Iz − Izx
Ix =
Iz
r 2
ψ̇ = 0 Ix Iz − Izx
cos θ0 Iz =
Ix
∆ẏE = u0 ψ cos θ0 + v
0 Izx
Izx =
2
Ix Iz − Izx

First Order Differential Equation

Disregarding control forces and moments, the first order

equations of small disturbance are

ẋ = Ax

x ≡ state vector
A ≡ system matrix ( constant )
Solutions to this first-oder ordinary differential equation are
well known
The solution can be written as a function of the exponential
of a matrix
x(t) = x(0) exp (At)

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

The eigenvalues of the matrix A are important
In determining the exact value of the exponential
In determining the qualitative solution
Eigenvalues (definition)

Ax0 = λx0

λ eigenvalue of A
x0 eigenvector corresponding to λ
In general λ ∈ C
Alternative definition

(A − λI)x0 = 0

Therefore, det(A − λI) = 0

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (II)

det(A − λI) is the characteristic determinant of the system

For longitudinal and lateral problems, the result is a
polynomial in λ of order 4th when expanded
It has in general 4 roots
Real
Complex conjugate complex pairs
Corresponding to each real λ, there is a real eigenvector x0
Corresponding to complex pair λi , λ∗i , there is a complex
conjugate pair of eigenvectors x0 , x∗0
x(t) = x0i exp(λt) is a natural mode
The general solution is a combination of all natural modes

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (III)

The pair of terms corresponding to a conjugate pair of

eigenvalues λ = n ± iω is

a1 exp [(n + iω)t] + a2 exp [(n − iω)t]

Upon expanding exponentials

exp(nt) (A1 cos ωt + A2 sin ωt)

A1 =a1 + a2 A1 ∈ R
A2 =i(a1 − a2 ) A2 ∈ R

It represents an oscillatory mode of period T = 2π/ω

It can either grow or decay depending on the sign of n

Possible Solutions

λ ∈ R, λ > 0 λ ∈ R, λ < 0

Figure: Static instability or

divergence Figure: Convergence

Possible Solutions (II)

λ ∈ C, λ = n ± iω, n < 0
λ ∈ C, λ = n ± iω, n > 0

Figure: Dynamic instability.

Divergent oscillation
Figure: Convergent oscillation

Corolary

Evaluation of the stability is obtained from the signs of the

real parts of the eigenvalues
If there is no positive real part → no instability
This information not enough to evaluate handling qualities of
the aircraft
Handling qualities depend on quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of the modes
Relevant numerical parameters
Period of oscillation
Time to double or time to half
Cycles to double of cycles to half

Numerical Parameters
Period
2π
T =
ω
Frequency of the un-dumped oscillation
p
ωn = ω 2 + n2
Damping ratio
n
ζ=−
ωn
Time to half
log 2 0.693 0.693
thalf = = =
|n| |n| |ζ|ωn
Number of cycles to half
p
log 2 ω ω 1 − ζ2
Nhalf = = 0.11 = 0.11
2π |n| |n| |ζ|ωn
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Routh’s Criteria for Stability

In former times, there was no MATLAB and it was not so

easy to solve for eigenvalues
Routh derived a criterion applied to coefficients of
characteristic equation, to check whether unstable eigenvalue

Aλ4 + Bλ3 + Cλ2 + Dλ + E = 0 (A > 0)

Test functions must be positive

F0 = A
F1 = B
F2 = BC − AD
F3 = F2 D − B 2 E
F4 = F3 BE

Routh’s Criteria for Stability(II)

The necessary and sufficient conditions for these test

functions to be positive are: A, B, C, D, E > 0 and

R = D(BC − AD) − B 2 E > 0

R ≡Routh’s discriminat
Boundary stability-instability: E = 0 and R = 0
If E changes from positive to negative → one real root
changes from negative to positive → divergence
If R changes from positive to negative → real part of a pair of
complex conjugate eigenvalues changes from negative to
positive → divergent oscillation

Longitudinal Modes B-747

B-747 Data

W 2.83176 · 106 N
S 511 m2
c̄ 8.324 m
b 59.64 m
Data from Heffley Ix 0.247 · 108 kg m2
Cruising flight at Iy 0.449 · 108 kg m2
40000 ft, Mach Iz 0.673 · 108 kg m2
number 0.8, in Ixz −0.212 · 107 kg m2
stability axes u0 235.9 m/s
ρ 0.3045 kg/m3
CL0 0.654
CD0 0.0430

B-747 Data (II)

Non dimensional stability derivatives

Cx Cz Cm
û −0.1080 −0.1060 0.1043
α 0.2193 −4.920 −1.023
q̂ 0 −5.921 −23.92
ˆ
α̇ 0 5.896 −6.314

Dimensional stability derivatives

X (N) Z (N) M (m · N)
u (m/s) −1.982 · 103 −2.595 · 104 1.593 · 104
w (m/s) 4.025 · 103 −9.030 · 104 −1.563 · 104
q (rad/s) 0 −4.524 · 105 −1.521 · 107
ẇ (m/s2 ) 0 1.909 · 103 −1.702 · 104

B-747 Longitudinal Stability

System Matrix (x = [∆u w q ∆θ]T )
 
−0.0069 0.0139 0 −9.81
−0.0905 −0.3149 235.8933 0 
A=  0.0004 −0.0034 −0.4281

0 
0 0 1.0 0
Characteristic equation
λ4 + 0.750468λ3 + 0.935494λ2 + 0.0094630λ + 0.0041959 = 0
Routh’s discriminant: E > 0 and R > 0
No unstable modes
The eigenvalues are:
λ1,2 = −0.003289 ± 0.06723 i
λ3,4 = −0.3719 ± 0.8875 i

B-747 Longitudinal Stability(II)

Two damped oscillations

Mode Name Period (s) thalf (s) Nhalf (cycles)

1 Phugoid 93.4 211 2.25
2 Short Period 7.08 1.86 0.26

The first with long period and lightly damped: Phugoid

The second with short period and highly damped: Short
Period
This result is quite typical for most aircraft

B-747 Stability(II)
Transient behavior

Phugoid

The phugoid is a lightly damped low-frequency oscillation in

speed u, which couples into pitch attitude and height h.
The angle of attack remains substantially constant during a
disturbance.

Phugoid(II)
Initially the airplane is in trimmed level equilibrium flight with
steady velocity u0 such that lift equals weight.
Following a small disturbance in speed such that the velocity
is reduced by a small amount.
Since angle of attack remains constant → reduction in lift →
aircraft no longer in vertical equilibrium.
It starts to lose height and then it starts to accelerate.
The speed continues to build up to a value in excess of u0
which is accompanied by a build up in lift

Phugoid(III)
Eventually the lift exceeds the weight by a significant margin.
The build-up in speed and lift cause the aircraft to pitch up
steadily until it starts to climb.
Since it now has an excess of kinetic energy, inertia and
momentum effects cause it to fly up through the nominal
trimmed height datum, losing speed and lift as it goes
because now it is flying “uphill”
As it decelerates it pitches down steadily until its lift is
significantly less than the weight and accelerates again ...

Phugoid(IV)
As the motion progresses the effects of drag cause the motion
variables maxima and minima at each peak to reduce
gradually until the motion eventually damps out.
Thus, the phugoid is classical damped harmonic motion.
As large inertia and momentum effects are involved, the
motion is necessarily slow such that angular accelerations are
negligible.
Once excited many cycles of the phugoid may be visible
before it damps out.

Phugoid(V)

Vector diagram
pitch rate, q̂, very small
angle of attack, α, very
small
∆û and ∆θ significant
magnitude
The first one leads the
second one by about 90
degrees in phase

Short Period (I)

We can compare the physical situation by comparison to a

torsional mass-spring-damper system

Short Period (II)

The aircraft behaves as if it were restrained by a torsional
spring.
A pitch disturbance causes the “spring” to produce a restoring
moment → oscillation in pitch.
The oscillation is damped, as if there is a “viscous damper”
Both “spring” and “damper” are entirely aerodynamic
mechanisms with contributions from all parts of the airframe.
For simplicity, we are assuming that the aerodynamics of the
tailplane dominate.

Short Period (III)

The spring stiffness arises from the natural tendency of the
tailplane to align with the incident flow.
The damping arises from the motion of the tailplane during
the oscillation when it behaves as a kind of viscous paddle
damper.
The total observed mode dynamics depend not only on the
tailplane contribution but also on the magnitudes of the
additional contributions of the airframe.
If overall stability marginal → additional contributions
significant

Short Period (IV)

The short-period mode is a

damped oscillation in pitch.
Whenever an aircraft is disturbed
from its pitch equilibrium state, the
mode is excited.
The speed remains approximately
constant during a disturbance.
Vector diagram of the short period
mode
Negligible variation in speed
The angle of attack oscillates
with amplitude and phase not
much different from that of ∆θ

Flight Paths I

Recall the differential equations for the position of CG in the

inertial frame FE

x˙E = (u0 + ∆u) cos θ0 − u0 ∆θ sin θ0 + w sin θ0

y˙E = u0 ψ cos θ0 + v
z˙E = − (u0 + ∆u) sin θ0 − u0 ∆θ cos θ0 + w cos θ0

Consider only the longitudinal plane. Reference condition is steady

level flight, stability axis (θ0 = 0), thus:

xE˙ 0 = u0
zE˙ 0 = 0

Flight Paths II
Perturbation equations
∆ẋE = ∆u
∆żE = −u0 ∆θ + ∆w
In an oscillatory mode with eigenvalues λ = n + iω and λ∗ :
∆u = u1j exp (λt) + u∗1j exp (λ∗ t)
∆w = u2j exp (λt) + u∗2j exp (λ∗ t)
∆θ = u4j exp (λt) + u∗4j exp (λ∗ t)
uij components of the eigenvector corresponding to λ
Integrating
hu i
1j
∆xE = 2 exp (nt)Re exp (iωt)
λ
u2j − u0 u4j
∆zE = 2 exp (nt)Re exp (iωt)
λ
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Flight Path: Phugoid

Undulating flight of long wavelength

The speed is largest near the bottom of the wave → different
distances being traversed during both halves of cycle.
On the right, the relative path that would be seen by an
observer moving at the reference speed.

Flight Path: Short Period

The disturbance is rapidly damped.
The deviation of the path from a straight line is small, the
principal feature of the motion being the rapid rotation in
pitch.

Approximate Equations
Numerical solution but physical insight?
Modes: mass + spring + damper or mass + damper
Values of m, k, c = f (aircraft parameters)
Analytical
No solution for the whole system
Approximation
Mathematical Approach
Order of magnitude of A, B, C, D, E in the characteristic
equation
A priori ∃λ | λ ∈ R and λ 1
D
λ≈−
E
A priori ∃λ | λ ∈ C and |λ| 1
Aλ2 + Bλ + C = 0
Physical Approach
Foreknowledge of the modal characteristics
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Phugoid Approximate Equations (a)

Lanchester in 1908
Assumptions: αT = 0, ∆α ≡ 0, T ≡ D ∀t ⇒ Conservative
motion
Constant total energy
1
E = mV 2 −mgzE = const → (V = u0 @ zE = 0)V 2 = u20 +2gzE
2
Lift coefficient constant
1 1
L = ρV 2 ScW0 = ρScW0 u20 + 2gzE

2 2
Equation of motion in vertical direction (inertial frame)
mz̈E = W − L = −ρgzE SCW0
mz̈E + kzE = 0 → k = ρgSCW0
√
Harmonic motion of period T = 2π 2u0 /g
Phugoid period depends only on the speed of flight
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Phugoid Approximate Equations (b)

Estimation of damping in phugoid (improving the model)?
Assumptions
q ≈ 0 ⇒ q̇ ≈ 0
Mq ≈ 0 ≈ Mẇ
q, ẇ 1 ⇒ Zq ≈ 0 ≈ Zẇ
Equations of motion become
   Xu Xw  
∆u̇ m m 0 −g ∆u
 ẇ   Zu Zw u0 0   w 
 = m m   (1)
 0  Mu Mw 0 0  q 
∆θ̇ 0 0 1 0 ∆θ
Characteristic equation:
Aλ2 + Bλ + C = 0
λ2 + 2ζωw λ + ωn2 = 0
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Phugoid Approximate Equations (c)

When Mu = 0
gZu
ωn2 = −
mu0
r
Xu u0
ζ=−
2 −mgZu
Recall that Zu = −ρu0 SCw0 + 21 ρu0 SCzu . If Czu = 0
Period: same as Lanchester
Damping
1 CD0
ζ=√
2 CL0

Short Period Approximate Equations

Velocity constant while airplane pitches rapidly

Assumptions.
∆u ≈ 0 ⇒ X−force equation neglected
Two degrees of freedom w, q
Zẇ m ⇒ Zẇ ≈ 0, Zq mu0 ⇒ Zq ≈ 0
" Zw Z
q +mu0
#
ẇ m− Z
ẇ

m−Zẇ w
= 1 h
Mẇ Zw
i
1
h
Mẇ (
Zq +mu0 )
i
q̇ Iy M w + m− Z Iy M q +
m− Z
q
ẇ ẇ

Characteristic equation: λ2 + Bλ + C = 0
Usually good approximation

Static vs. Dynamic Stabiltiy

Static Stability criterion in terms of pitch stiffness Cmα < 0
Dynamic Stability criterion in terms of sign of Re(λ) < 0
Is the same?
→ express dynamic stability criterion in terms of non
dimensional stability derivatives
From Routh’s criteria: E > 0.
E = det A
With θ0 = 0, Zẇ = 0 = Zq
g
E= (Zu Mw − Mu Zw )
mIy
Criterion in dimensional form
Z u Mw − M u Z w > 0
Criterion in non dimensional form
Cmα (Czu − 2CW0 ) − Cmu Czα > 0
Same as for the static case when no speed effects Cmα < 0.
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Effect of Mach and height. Short Period

No simple pattern
Period decreases with
speed
Period increases with
altitude (fixed speed)

Effect of Mach and height. Phugoid

No simple pattern
Period increases with
speed (Lanchester)
Period decreases with
altitude (fixed speed)
Striking feature: increase
in period at large Mach
number

Effect of Cmu . Phugoid

Sudden increase on phugoid period at high Mach and

altitudes is due to a loss of true static stability
Recall that the criterium is

Cmα (Czu − 2CW0 ) − Cmu Czα > 0

Czα = −CLα < 0

Cmu at these regimes become negative → reducing stability
Reasons for this bahavior
Large aircraft → quite flexible
High Mach number → transonic regime → air compressibility
leads to changes in pressure distribution

Effect of Cmu . Phugoid (b)

M = 0.8, h = 20000 ft

Effect of Vertical Density Gradient

Vertical gradient in atmospherical density expected effect on
phugoid
At the bottom of the cycle, moving fastest: greater density →
additional increase in lift
It turns out that this effect is appreciable in magnitude
Quantify the effect
Include vertical density gradient in equations of motion
Derive a representative order of magnitude of the change in
phugoid period
z is a new state variable
  Xz 

∆u̇ m ∆u
Zz
 ẇ   A m i  w 
 
  1
h
Mẇ Zz
 q̇   Mz + m−Z  q 
 
  Iy ẇ
 ∆θ̇    ∆θ
 
 0
żE − sin θ0 cos θ0 0 −u0 cos θ0 0 zE

Effect of Vertical Density Gradient (b)

Evaluation of new derivatives

1
Z = Cz ρV 2 S
2

∂Z ∂Z ∂ρ 1 2 ∂Cz ∂ρ
= = V S Cz + ρ
∂zE ∂ρ ∂zE 2 ∂ρ ∂zE
∂Cz /∂ρ ≈ 0
Density varies exponentially with height
∂ρ
ρ = ρ0 exp(κzE ) ⇒ = κρ
∂zE
κ is constant over a sufficient range of altitude for linear
analysis

Effect of Vertical Density Gradient (b)

It follows that
∂Z 1
= κρV 2 SCz
∂zE 2
∂Z
Zz = = κZ0
∂zE 0

In the same way, Xz = κX0 , Mz = κM0

Using the reference values

Zz = −mgκ Xz = 0 Mz = 0

Using a typical value of κ = 4.2 · 10−5 [ft−1 ]:

Original period 93.49 s. New one 83.17 s (11 %)

Effect of CG location

Pitch stiffness, Cmα

Single most important aerodynamic characteristic of
longitudinal stability
Varies strongly with the position of CG

Cmα = CLα (h − hn )

Static margin Kn = hn − h
Effect of changing Kn and keeping all the coefficients the same

Effect of CG location. Phugoid Characteristics

Phugoid Mode. Variation of period and damping

Large varations at small static margins. Approximation good for

mid-large Kn .
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Effect of CG location. Short-Period Characteristics

Short Period Mode. Variation of period and damping

Effect of CG location. Short-Period Root Locus

Short period. Root locus (λ = n ± ω i)
n remains constant
ω decreases till point A
From A on, two real roots (convergences)

Effect of CG location. Phugoid Root Locus

Phugoid Mode. Variation of period and damping
Unstable from point D on

Effect of CG location. Phugoid Root Locus. Mu effect

Mu = 0 (good approximation for a rigid aircraft at low Mach

number)

Motivation

Longitudinal modes depend on velocity

Equivalently (for a given mass and altitude), longitudinal
modes depend on CW0
The two characteristic periods begin to approach with CW0
increases
In case reference condition B747, CW0 = 0.654
Consider an STOL with 2 ≤ CW0 ≤ 5
Consider horizontal steady flight Cx0 = 0
Compressibility effects negligible at low speeds of STOL
Only derivatives with respect to thrust in u stability derivtives

STOL data

STOL data (b)

Additional estimations

Czq = −14 Cmq = −17.9 Czalpha

˙ = −5.5 Cmα̇ = −13

Inertial and geometric characteristics

W = 177920 N S = 92.9 m2
A = 5.42 c̄ = 4.145 m
µ = 76.8 Iˆy = 385 h = 0.30

Evaluation of system matrix for different values of CW0

STOL Root Locus. Short Period

STOL Root Locus. Phugoid

STOL Periods

B-747 Data

Non dimensional stability derivatives

Cy Cl Cn
β −0.8771 −0.2797 0.1946
p̂ 0 −0.3295 −0.04073
r̂ 0 0.304 −0.2737

Dimensional stability derivatives

Y (N) L (m · N) N (m · N)
v (m/s) −1.610 · 104 −3.062 · 105 2.131 · 105
p (rad/s) 0 −1.076 · 107 −1.330 · 106
r (rad/s) 0 9.925 · 106 −8.934 · 106

B-747 Lateral Stability

System Matrix (x = [v p r φ]T )
 
−0.0558 0 −235.90 9.81
−0.0127 −0.4349 0.4142 0 
A=  0.0004 −0.0034 −0.4281

0 
0 0 1.0 0
Characteristic equation
λ4 + 0.750468λ3 + 0.935494λ2 + 0.0094630λ + 0.0041959 = 0
Routh’s discriminant: E > 0 and R > 0
No unstable modes
The eigenvalues are:
λ1 = −0.0072973
λ2 = −0.56248
λ3,4 = −0.033011 ± 0.94655 i
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

B-747 Lateral Stability(II)

Two convergences and one damped oscillation

Mode Name Period (s) thalf (s) Nhalf (cycles)

1 Spiral – 95 –
2 Roll Convergence – 1.23 –
3 Dutch Roll 6.64 21 3.16

The first is a very slow convergence: Spiral

The second is a fast convergence: Roll Convergence
The third is a lightly damped oscillation with a period similar
to that of short-period: Dutch Roll

Rolling Convergence

Non-oscillatory lateral mode (substantially) decoupled from

other two modes (almost pure rotation, see eigenvalues)
Eigenmatrix: β = 0.678 · 10−3 p̂ = −0.499 · 10−1
r̂ = 1.455 · 10−2 φ = 0.427 ψ = −0.1244 · 10−1 yˆE = 0.702
β : φ : ψ = 0.0159 : 1 : −0.0291. Ergo, it is a mode of
almost pure rotation around x axis.
Variable significant for the aerodynamic forces
β : p̂ : r̂ = 0.036 : 1 : 0.0291. Hence, the principal rolling
moment driver is Clp p̂.

Rolling Convergence II
Disturbance development
Assuming aircraft constraint to 1 degree of freedom
Initially wings at level (reference)
Positive disturbance rolling moment → angular acceleration in
roll

Rolling Convergence (III)

Disturbance development
Rolling motion → change in effective angle of attack
Increase in down-going starboard wind and decrease in
up-going port wing
Differential lift and restoring rolling moment
Change in effective angle of attack
Differential drag produces yawing moment (but negligeable)
Physical behaviour: paddle damping (stabilising in “normal”
aircraft)
Modern combat airplanes, designed to operate in non-linear
conditions, no roll convergence
Conventional airplanes, roll mode appears as lag in response
to pilot
Time lag on the order of 1 s (dependent on moment of inertia
in roll)
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Spiral

Non-oscillatory mode, very slow to developed

β : φ : ψ = −0.0138 : −0.1505 : 1. Ergo, it is a mainly a
yawing at nearly zero side-slip , and some rolling.
Variable significant for the aerodynamic forces
β : p̂ : r̂ = 1 : −0.052 : 0.35. Aerodynamic sensitivity to β,
however, is smaller than to p̂, r̂. Hence, small forces.
Complex coupled motion in roll, yaw and sideslip

Spiral (II)

Disturbance development
Initially wing at level (reference)
Disturbance → small positive bank angle φ
This causes positive sideslip velocity (if at angle of attack)

Spiral (III)
Disturbance development
Sideslip → side force at the fin → positive yawing moment
Yawing motion → differential lift → rolling moment
Wing drop further
Divergence

Spiral (IV)

At the same time, dihedral effect → restoring moment to

return wing at level
Additionally, fin side force also restoring rolling moment
(when acting above the roll axis)
Summary
Fin effect (directional static stability) → divergence
Dihedral effect (lateral static stability) → convergence
Requirements for lateral and directional stability makes both
effects nearly equal
Spiral (in that case) neutrally stable
Convergence or divergence with large time constant (∼ 100 s)

Spiral (V)

If unstable, diverging path in roll and yaw

Vertical forces no longer in equilibrium: aircraft looses height
Pilots can cope with this situation (time constant of spiral
large)
Handling qualities perspective: unstable spiral mode permitted
In spiral, wing continues to fly in usual sense ( no spinning
motion )

Dutch Roll
Damped oscillation in yaw coupled into roll (and also, but
less, into sideslip)
Complex interaction among all three degrees of freedom
Dutch-roll is the lateral-directional equivalent of the
longitudinal short-period
Moments of inertia in pitch and yaw similar → similar mode
frequencies
Fin less effective than horizontal tailplane as a damper →
damping of Dutch roll smaller
Physical interpretation
Assuming aircraft restrained in yaw by a torsional spring acting
about the yaw axis
Spring “stiffness”: aerodynamic effect determined by the fin
Disturbance in yaw → “aerodynamic spring”: restoring yawing
moment → oscillatory motion in yaw
Disturbance in yaw → change in relative velocity on wings →
oscillatory differential lift and drag
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Dutch Roll (II)

Physical interpretation
Aerodynamic coupling → oscillation in roll which lags
oscillation in yaw by approx. 90 degrees
Development:
(a) Starboard wing yaws aft with wing tip high

Dutch Roll (II)

Development:
(b) Starboard wing reaches maximum aft yaw angle as aircraft
rolls through wings level in positive sense

Dutch Roll (II)

Development:
(c) Starboard wing yaws forward with wing tip low

Dutch Roll (II)

Development:
(d) Starboard wing reaches maximum forward yaw angle as
aircraft rolls through wings level in negative sense

Dutch Roll (III)

Path traced by starboard wing tip in one dutch roll cycle

Ratio of peak roll to peak yaw usually less than 1 (usually

associated to stable mode)
Ratio greater than 1 → more likely to have unstable dutch roll
mode
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Dutch Roll (IV)

Damping and stiffness in yaw largely determined by the fin

Large fin desirable for a well behaved stable dutch roll mode
Large fin against requirements for a stable spiral mode
Aerodynamic design compromise usually results in airplanes
with a mildly unstable spiral mode and a poorly damped
dutch roll mode
Contribution to this mode not only the fin, but other parts of
the aircraft (difficult to quatify)

Approximate equations. Lateral Modes

More difficult to make approximation in lateral-directional

equations
Motion coupling in three modes
Modes not so distinct
Simplification less relevant
Approximations for these modes are reasonable but
application with caution
Accuracy only checked a posteriori (comparison with exact
solution)
They can only be used with confidence in situations similar to
those in which they have previously been found to work well

Spiral Mode Approximate Equation

Eigenvalue of spiral mode λ1 1
Approximation: only two lowest order terms in characteristic
equation
E
Dλ + E ≈ 0 ⇒ λs ≈ −
D
For convenience, change in notation (and assume Yp = 0)
 Yv Yp Yr

m m m − u0 g cos θ0
 Lv 0 N Lp 0 Lr 0
 I 0 + Izx Ix0 + Izx Np Ix0 + Izx Nr 0 

v
A=  x 
0 L + Nv 0 L + Np 0 L + Nr
 Izx I I 0

v Iz0 zx p Iz0 zx r Iz0 
0 1 tan θ0 0
Yv 0 Yr
 
g cos θ0
 Lv Lp Lr 0 
A= Nv Np Nr

0 
0 1 tan θ0 0
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Spiral Mode Approximate Equations (b)

With this notation, expansion of det(A − λI) yields

E = g [(Lv Nr − Lr Nv ) cos θ0 + (Lp Nv − Lv Np ) sin θ0 ]

D = −g (Lv cos θ0 + Nv sin θ0 ) + Yv (Lr Np − Lp Nr ) + ...
+Yr (Lp Nv − Lv Np )

Analysis of D
Second term Yv (Lr Np − Lp Nr ) neglected
Yr neglected in Yr

D = −g (Lv cos θ0 + Nv sin θ0 ) − u0 (Lp Nv − Lv Np )

This approximation for the B747: λs = −0.00725 ( < 1 %

different from correct value)

Spiral Mode Approximate Equations (c)

Stability: E > 0
Expressing in terms of coefficients,

(Clβ Cnr − Clr Cnβ ) cos θ0 + (Clp Cnβ − Clβ Cnp ) sin θ0 > 0

Some derivatives depend on CL0 , i.e., stability will vary with

flight speed. In fact, it is not unusual for the spiral mode to
be unstable over some portion of the flight envelope.

Roll Convergence Approximate Equations

Roll convergence: motion in almost a single degree of freedom

v = 0 = r in equations of motion (recall state vector v, p, r, φ)

Consider only second row

ṗ = Lp p

Approximate eigenvalue
Lp 0
λR ≡ Lp = 0 + Izx Np
Ix

For the B747, λR = −0.434, 23 % smaller than true value

Rough approximation

Roll Convergence Approximate Equations (b)

Alternative approximation: second order system → roll
convergence and spiral (McRuer)
Side force due to gravity produces same yaw rate r that would
exist with β = 0: 0 = −u0 r + gφ (θ0 = 0)
Yp ≈ 0 ≈ Yr
Resulting equations of motion
0 = −uo r + gφ
ṗ = Lv v + Lp p + Lr r
ṙ = Nv v + Np p + Nr r
φ̇ = p
Compute the characteristic equation (not a canonical form)
0 0 −u0 g
Lv (Lp − λ) Lr 0
=0
Nv Np (Nr − λ) 0
0 1 0 −λ
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Roll Convergence Approximate Equations (c)

This leads to
Cλ2 + Dλ + E = 0

C = u0 Nv
D = u0 (Lv Np − Lp Nv ) − gLv
E = g (Lv Nr − Lr Nv )

Result for B747

λs = −0.00734 λR = −0.597

1 % and 6 % error, respectively (w.r.t. actual values)

Dutch Roll Approximate Equations

Dutch roll: lateral oscillation, ”flat” yaw/side-slipping motion
(no rolling)
p=0=φ
Yr also neglected
Resulting equations of motion
v̇ = Yv v − u0 r
ṙ = Nv v + Nr r

Corresponding characteristic equation

λ2 − (Yv + Nr )λ + (Yv Nr + u0 Nv ) = 0
Result for B747
λDR = −0.1008 ± 0.9157 i T = 6.86 s Nhalf = 1.0
Error in period about 3% but damping much overestimated
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Dutch Roll Approximate Equations (b)

Alternative to estimate damping in dutch roll

Coefficient of next-to-highest power of λ: “sum of dampings”

2nDR + λR + λS = Yv + Lp + Nr

Using approximation for roll and spiral (λs + λR = −D/C)

Lv

1 g
nDR = Yv + Nr + Np −
2 Nv u0

Result for B747

nDR = −0.0159
Error in 100% (subestimated)

Notes on the Variation of the Lateral Modes

Variation patterns may not be simple
Some of the lateral stability derivatives are dependent on CL
in a complex way
Airplanes with swept wings and low aspect ratio: increase of
Clβ with CL
Large CL : low speed and high altitude
For a rigid swept-wing airplane at low Mach number the
period of the dutch roll mode would be expected first to
increase and then to decrease as the speed increases.
The damping of this mode would be expected to be weak at
low speed and to increase at higher speeds.
The rolling convergence is well damped at all speeds, but the
damping would normally increase with speed.
The spiral mode is frequently unstable over some portion of
the speed/altitude flight envelope.
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Solution Stability Longitudinal Modes Static Stability Variation of Long. Modes Long. Characteristics STOL Late

Notes on the Variation of the Lateral Modes (b)

The characteristic times of spiral mode are usually so long

that instability does not degrade the handling qualities unduly.
When substantial aeroelastic and compressibility effects are
added to the already complex behaviour of the lateral modes,
the result is an even more irregular pattern of modal
characteristics.
Results of B747

Variation of Spiral Mode

Variation of Rolling Convergence

Variation of Dutch Roll

Variation of lateral modes with speed and height

At the two lower altitudes, the modes behave regularly

At 40000 ft and high Mach number the lateral behaviour is
quite irregular, especially the variation of the damping
The spiral mode is unstable at M = 0.7 and 0.9 but stable at
M = 0.8. This is primarily the result of the complex variation
of Clβ with CL
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Dynamic Stability
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Response to the Actuation of the
Controls

Manuel Sanjurjo Rivo

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Review of Control Theory

3 Impulse Response

4 Step Function Response

5 Frequency Response

6 Longitudinal Response

7 Lateral Response

8 Lateral Steady States

Introduction

How the airplane responds to primary controls

Similar analysis for any response problem
Previous lesson: free motion
In this lesson: forced motion
Motion results from non-autonomous actuation of controls
Next lesson: actuation of controls → response to vehicle
motion

Longitudinal Control

Variables to be
controlled
Speed
Flight path angle
Controls
Throttle
Elevator
Effect of each control (?)

Initially
Resultant steady state

Lateral Control

Lateral controls
Ailerons and rudder
Three main functions:
Provide trim (power plant failure)
Provide corrections
Provide for turning maneuvers
Long-term responses → complete non-linear EoM

Control Equations
Actuation of controls → large change in variables →
non-linear effects
0 Xc
u̇E = f (v E , wE , q, r, θ, X ) +
m
0 Yc
v̇ E = E E
f (u , w , p, r, θ, Y ) +
m
0 Zc
ẇE = f (uE , v E , p, q, θ, Z ) +
m
0 0 Lc 0
ṗ = f (p, q, r, L , N ) + 0 + Ixz Nc
Ix
0 Mc
q̇ = f (p, r, M ) + 0
Iy
0 0 Nc 0
ṙ = f (p, q, r, L , N ) + 0 + Ixz Lc
Ix
Prime: reminder of the aerodynamic forces and moments
Aerodynamic model as a function of state, control,
configuration, ...
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Control Equations (II)

Restrict the analysis to linear (time-)invariant systems

ẋ = Ax + Bc

Drawback
Small departure from steady state
Advantages
Dynamical features of motion close to steady state
Design of automatic flight control (of small disturbances)

Dimensional Control Derivatives

Control aerodynamic forces and moments expressed as

stability derivatives

X Z M
δe Cxδe 12 ρu20 S Czδe 12 ρu20 S Cmδe 12 ρu20 Sc̄
δp Cxδp 12 ρu20 S Czδp 12 ρu20 S Cmδp 21 ρu20 Sc̄
Y L N
δa Cyδa 21 ρu20 S Clδa 21 ρu20 Sb Cnδa 12 ρu20 Sb
δr Cyδr 12 ρu20 S Clδr 12 ρu20 Sb Cnδr 12 ρu20 Sb

Dimensional Control Derivatives

Response of Linear Invariant Systems

Analysis of airplane
response to controls
Linear/invariant systems:
basic single input - single
output cases

Transfer Function

Relates particular input to particular output

Unique if:
1 The system is linear and time invariant
2 It is initially quiescent
Ratio of the Laplace transform: response / input (system
quiescent t < 0)
x̄(s) = Ḡ(s)c̄(s)
ẋ(t) = Ax + Bc ⇒ sx̄(s) = Ax̄(s) + Bc̄ ⇒
x̄(s)
Ḡ(s) = = (sI − A)−1 B
c̄(s)
If n state variables and m controls:

Transfer Function. Properties

System in series
Overall transfer function of 2 systems in series
x̄1 (s) = G1 (s)c̄(s)
x̄2 (s) = G2 (s)x̄1 (s) = G2 (s)G1 (s)c̄(s)
Overall transfer function of n systems in series
Y
G(s) = Gi (s)
i

High order systems

Represented by a chain of subsystems
There exist elemental building blocks
First order
Second order
Cramer’s rule
adj(sI − A)
(sI − A)−1 =
det (sI − A)
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Transfer Function. Properties (II)

Denominator: characteristic polynomial
Numerator: polynomial in s
Nij
Gij =
f (s)
Adjoint: transpose of the matrix of cofactors
Denominator can be factored
Nij
Gij = Q Q1/2(n+m)
m
r=1 (s − λr ) r=m+1 (s2 + ar s + br )
Transfer function as overall of series
Leading component particular to the system Nij (s)
Remaining: first or second order

Impulse Response

Initially quiescient
Single impulsive input at time 0

cj (t) = δ(t) ⇒ x̄i (s) = Gij (s)δ̄(s) = Gij (s)

Response to unit impulse: impulse response or impulsive

admittance

h̄ij= Gij (s)

Z
1
hij (t) = Gij (s) exp(st)ds
2πi C

Impulse Response. 1st Order System

First order system

ẋ − λx = c ⇒
1
G(s) = h̄(s) =
s−λ
Impulse response

t
h(t) = exp λt = exp −
T
Time constant T Admittance. First order system

Impulse Response. 2nd Order System

Second order system

ẍ + 2ζωn ẋ + ωn2 = c ⇒
1
G(s) = h̄(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
Impulse response
1
h̄(s) = ⇒
(s − n)2 + ω 2
1
h(t) = exp (nt) sin ωt
ω
Coefficient ζ ≥ 1? Admittance. Second order system

Step Function Response

Input: unit step function

1
I(t) → Ī(s) =
s
Response: step response or indicial admittance.

Gij (s) h̄ij (s)

A¯ij = Gij Ī(s) = =
s s
From Laplace transform properties
Z t
dAij
Aij (t) = hij (τ )dτ ⇒ hij (t) =
0 dt

Step Response. 1st Order System

t
A (t) = T 1 − exp −
T

Indicial Admittance. First order system

Step Response. 2nd Order System

1 h n i
A (t) = 2
1 − exp (nt) cos ωt + sin ωt
ωn ω

Indicial Admittance. Second order system

Static Gain

Asymptotic value of step response

Final value theorem

lim A (t) = lim sA¯(s) = lim G(s)

t→∞ s→0 s→0

Static gain
K = lim G(s)
s→0

Frequency Response

Sinusoid input + Stable linear / time-invariant system →

Sinusoid output (after transient)
Change in amplitude and/or phase
Input c = A1 exp iωt A1 ∈ C
A1
⇒ c̄ =
s − iω
Output x = A2 exp iωt A2 ∈ C

A2 G(s) N (s)
x̄ = = A1 = A1
s − iω s − iω (s − iω)f (s)

Frequency Response (II)

Expansion theorem
Generalization of the method of partial fractions
n+1
X
(s − λr )N (s)
x(t) = A1 exp λr
(s − iω)f (s) s=λr
r=1

Stable system. Solution after transient

x(t) = A1 G(iω) exp iωt

Frequency response function G(iω) = KM exp iϕ

Frequency response described by
Phase ϕ
Dynamic gain M (function of the frequency)
Static gain K

Frequency Response. Representations

Bode

Nyquist

Effects of poles and zeros

Transfer function: ratio of two
polynomials in s G(s) = Nf (s)
(s)

Roots of numerator: zeros

Roots of denominator: poles

(s − z1 )(s − z2 )...(s − zm )
G(s) =
(s − λ1 )(s − λ2 )...(s − λn )

In polar form:

(s − zk ) = ρk exp iαk

(s − λk ) = rk exp iβk
Qm m n
ρk X X
|G(s)| = Qk=1
n ϕ = αk − βk
k=1 rk k=1 k=1

Effects of poles and zeros (II)

When poles close to imaginary axis

Peak/valley in amplitude
Rapid change in phase

Frequency Response. 1st Order System

Transfer function and static gain

1
G(s) = 1 K = lim G(s) = T
s+ T
s→0

Frequency response function

T
G(iω) = KM exp (iω) =
1 + iωT
Phase and dynamic gain
1
M = √
1 + ω2T 2
ϕ = − arctan (ωT )

Frequency Response. 1st Order System

Bode 1st order system Nyquist 1st order system

Frequency Response. 2nd Order System

Transfer function
1
G(iω) =
(ωn2 − ω2) + 2iζωωn
Frequency response vector
ωn2
M exp (iϕ) =
(ωn2 − ω 2 ) + 2iζωωn
Modulus and argument
1
M = r 2
1 − (ω/ωn )2 + 4ζ 2 (ω/ωn )2
2ζω/ωn
ϕ = − arctan
1 − (ω/ωn )2
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Frequency Response. 2st Order System

Nyquist 2nd order system.

Damping ratio ζ = 0.4

Bode 2nd order system

Frequency Response. 2st Order System. Remarks

Importance of damping ratio

Controls resonance peak
No influence in phase
Low frequency: quasistatic
Linear dependance of phase with ζ = 0.7
Chain concept
(
KM = nr=1 Kr Mr
X Q
G(iω) = Gi (iω) ⇒
ϕ = nr=1 ϕr
P

Longitudinal Response
To compute the transfer function: system matrix A and
control matrix B
From linear EoM:
 ∆X

c
m
 ∆Zc 
B∆c =  ∆Mc m−Z ẇ
 
Mẇ ∆Zc 
 Iy + Iy m−Zẇ 
0
Longitudinal controls: elevator and throttle
c = [δe δp ]T
Incremental aerodynamic actions given by control derivatives
   
∆Xc Xδe Xδp
 ∆Zc  =  Zδe ∆δe
Z δp 
∆δp
∆Mc Mδ e Mδ p
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Longitudinal Response (II)

Limits of linear aerodynamics approach

Constant control derivatives do not allow for time lag
Build-up of the thrust in jets
To allow for these and other effects → control transfer
functions instead of control derivatives (Xδp → Gxδp (s))
Resulting control matrix
Xδp
 
Xδe
m m
 Zδe Zδp 
B=
 m−Zẇ m−Zẇ


Mδe M Z Mδ p Mẇ Zδp
Iy + I ẇ δe Iy + Iy (m−Zẇ )
y(m−Zẇ )

Response to Elevator
Input: only elevator
   
∆ū b11
 w̄  b21 
(sI − A)   =   ∆δ̄
b31  e
  
q̄
∆θ̄ 0

Four transfer functions (e.g., those of B747 in English units)

Nuδe (s) −1.88 · 10−4 s3 − 0.2491s2 + 24.68s + 11.16

Guδe = =
f (s) f (s)
Nwδe (s) −17.85s3 − 904s2 − 6.208s − 3.445
Gwδe = =
f (s) f (s)
Nqδe (s) −1.158s3 − 0.3545s2 − 3.873 · 10−3 s
Gqδe = =
f (s) f (s)
Nθδe (s) −1.158s2 − 0.3545s − 3.873 · 10−3
Gθδe = =
f (s) f (s)

Response to Elevator (II)

Other interesting response quantities

Flight path angle, γ

(θ0 = 0)∆γ = ∆θ − ∆α ⇒ Gγδe = Gθδe − Gαδe

Load factor, nz
Z ∆Z
nz = − ⇒ (nz0 = 1)∆nz = − =
W W
Zu ∆u + Zw w + Zq q + Zẇ ẇ + Zδe ∆δe
−
W

Response to Elevator. Frequency Response u

Frequency response functions, elevator angle input. Speed.

Response to Elevator. Frequency Response w

Frequency response functions, elevator angle input. Angle of attack.

Response to Elevator. Frequency Response nz

Frequency response functions, elevator angle input. Load factor.

Response to Elevator. Step-function

Time domain vs. frequency domain

Invert transfer function: Heavyside expansion theorem
Down movement of the elevator
Quick decrease in angle of attack (short period)
Increase in velocity (phugoid)
Increase in flight path angle (in this case) (phugoid)
Successful to establish a new steady state?

Response to Elevator. Step-function (II)

Response to elevator (∆δe = 1o )

Response to Elevator. Phugoid Approximation

Same approach as in previous lesson adding control terms
   Xu Xw     Xδe 
∆u̇ m m 0 −g ∆u m
 ẇ   Zu Zw u0 0   w   Zδe 
 = m m   +   m  ∆δe

 0  Mu Mw 0 0   q  Mδe 
∆θ̇ 0 0 1 0 ∆θ 0
Resulting transfer functions
a1 s + a0
Guδe =
f (s)
b2 s2 + b1 s + b0
Gwδe =
f (s)
2
c2 s + c1 s + c0
Gθδe =
f (s)
2
f (s) = As + Bs + C
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Response to Elevator. Short-Period Approximation

Same approach as in previous lesson adding control terms

" #! " Zδe
#
Zu
u0 w̄
sI − Mw mMẇ Zw Mq Mw u0 = Mδe mMẇ Zδe ∆δe
Iy + Iy m Iy + Iy q̄ I + I m y y

Resulting transfer functions

a1 s + a0
Gwδe =
f (s)
b1 s + b0 Gqδe
Gθδe = =
sf (s) f (s)
2
f (s) = s + c1 s + c0

Response to Throttle. Step-response

Thrust through CG
Xδp
6= 0 Zδp = 0 Mδp = 0
m
Otherwise
Initial change in angle of attack
New steady angle of attack and
velocity

Lateral Response
Same procedure as in longitudinal
Lateral controls: aileron and rudder
c = [δa δr ]T
Incremental aerodynamic actions given by control derivatives
   
∆Yc Yδa Yδr
 ∆Lc  =  Lδa ∆δa
Lδr 
∆δr
∆Nc Nδa Nδr
Resulting control matrix
 Y Yδr

δa

 Lδa m 0 Lδr 0
m
+ Izx Nδa + Izx Nδr 

B=
 Ix0 Ix0 
Nδa 0 Nδr 0

I0
+ Izx Lδa Iz0
+ Izx Lδr
z

Response to Rudder. Frequency Response v

Frequency response functions, rudder angle input. Side-slip.

Response to Rudder. Frequency Response φ

Frequency response functions, rudder angle input. Bank angle.

Response to Rudder. Frequency Response r

Frequency response functions, rudder angle input. Yaw rate.

Response to Aileron. Frequency Response v

Frequency response functions, aileron angle input. Side-slip.

Response to Aileron. Frequency Response φ

Frequency response functions, aileron angle input. Bank angle.

Response to Aileron. Frequency Response r

Frequency response functions, aileron angle input. Yaw rate.

Approximate Lateral Transfer Function. Spiral / Roll

Same approach as in dynamical analysis including control
terms
Yδa Yδr
    
0 0 u0 −g v̄
−Lv (s − Lp ) −Lr 0  p̄  = Lδa Lδr  δa
   
(s − Nr ) 0 Nδa Nδr  δr

−Nv −Np   r̄  
0 −1 0s φ̄ 0 0
Resulting transfer functions

f (s) = Cs2 + Ds + E
Nvδ = a3 s3 + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
Nφδ = b1 s + b0
Nrδ = d2 s2 + d1 s + d0
Npδ = sNφδ

Approximate Lateral Transfer Function. Spiral / Roll

Same approach as in dynamical analysis including control
terms
v̇ = Yv v − u0 r + ∆Yc
ṙ = Nv v + Nr r + ∆Nc

In canonical form
Yv −u0 v Yδr

v̇ 0 δa
= +
ṙ Nv Nr r N δa N δr δr
Resulting transfer functions
f (s) = s2 − (Yv + Nr )s + (Yv Nr + u0 Nv )
Nvδa = −u0 Nδa
Nrδa = Nδa s − Yv Nδa
Nvδr = Y s − (Yδr Nr + u0 Nδr )
δr
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Lateral Steady States

Basic flight condition: steady symmetric flight (β, p, r, φ = 0)

Aileron and rudder not used individually
Two lateral states of interest
Steady side-slip: flight path rectilinear
Steady turn: vertical angular velocity vector

Steady Side-slip
Condition of non-symmetric rectilinear translation
Used for
Correcting cross-wind on landing approaches (light aircraft)
Steepen descent glide path (gliders)
From linearization, steady state

∆Y + mgφ cos θ = 0
∆L = 0
∆N = 0

Representation of aerodynamic forces

∆Y = Yv v + ∆Yc
∆L = Lv v + ∆Lc
∆N = Nv v + ∆Nc
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Steady Side-slip (II)

Representation of control forces

   
∆Yc Yδr 0
δ
 ∆Lc  =  Lδr Lδa  r
δa
∆Nc Nδr Nδa

If θ0 1, resulting three algebraic equations

    
Yδr 0 mg δr Yv
 Lδr Lδa 0  δa  = −  Lv  v
Nδr Nδa 0 φ Nv

v arbitrary input

Steady Side-slip. Numerical Example

General Aviation aircraft

30 ft span, 160ft2 Using
Weight 2400 lb β = v/u0
Sea level
Speed 112.3 fps δr
= 0.303
β
δa
= −2.96
β
φ
= 0.104
β

Steady Turn

“Truly banked” turn

Vehicle angular velocity is
constant and vertical
Resultant of centrifugal
and gravity in the plane of
symmetry
“Turn on the
turn-and-bank indicator”

Steady Turn (II)

Large bank angle
No longer valid sin φ ≈ φ, cos φ ≈ 1
Coupling lateral and longitudinal equations
Conditions steady turn
Angular velocity (small θ)

p = −θω
q = sin φω
r = cos φω

Aerodynamic forces
Y =0
Load factor
1
nz = ∆CL = (nz − 1)CW
cos φ

Steady Turn (III)

Control equations

Cl = Cm = Cn = Cy = 0

Expanding with usual aerodynamic derivatives

Clβ β + Clp p̂ + Clr r̂ + Clδr δr + Clδa δa = 0

Cmα ∆α + Cmq q̂ + Cmδe ∆δe = 0
Cnβ β + Cnp p̂ + Cnr r̂ + Cnδr δr + Cnδa δa = 0
Cyβ β + Cyp p̂ + Cyr r̂ + Cyδr δr = 0
CLα ∆α + CLq q̂ + CLδe ∆δe = (n − 1)CW

Five equations, five unknowns: β, δr , δa , ∆α, ∆δe

Steady Turn. Numerical Example

Small side-slip angle

Large variations in CL →
large changes in stability
derivatives

Transient Response to Aileron and Rudder

Steady states: combination of rudder and aileron deflections
Transient response when controls are actuated?
In equation of motion, only terms proportional to δ
v̇ = Yδr δr
ṗ = Lδa δa + Lδr δr
ṙ = Nδa δa + Nδr δr
Sideslip governed only by rudder
Angular acceleration in the plane of symmetry
Initial axis of rotation tan ξ = ṗṙ
If “pure” controls (Lδr = Nδa = 0)
Ixp cos2 + Izp sin2
tan ξR =
Izp − Ixp sin cos

Izp − Ixp sin cos
tan ξA =
Izp cos2 + Ixp sin2
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Control Theory Impulse Res. Step Function Res. Frequency Res. Long. Res. Lat. Res. Lat. Steady States

Transient Response to Aileron and Rudder (II)

Previous analysis, how
lateral response starts
Control responses build up
large angle variations
Approach
Linear aerodynamic and
inertial terms
Non linear gravity
Range of validity of linear
approximations
Aerodynamic: change in
magnitude of linear
velocity
Inertial: magnitude of
angular velocity

Inertial Coupling in Rapid Maneuvers

Other non-linearities (apart from gravity)

Aerodynamics: little can be said in general
Non linear inertial effects
Due to qr and pr terms
Roll resonance, spin-yaw coupling, inertial coupling
Conclusions
Aircraft unstable within band of roll rates
At lower rates, usual stability criteria
At higher rates, gyrostabilitation
Approximation lower critical rate
Mα Nβ
p2 = − or
Iz − Ix Iy − Ix

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Sanjurjo Advanced Flight Mechanics - Open Loop
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Closed Loop Control
Introduction and stability analysis

Manuel Soler

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Outline

1 Introduction
Motivation
Autopilot and Stability Augmentation System
Sensors

2 Closed-loop control
A general linear invariant flight control system

3 Stability of closed-loop systems

Introduction to stability of closed-loop systems
Review of Laplace transform
Nyquist criterion

4 Exercise

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Motivation

Why closed-loop control?

To meet flight requirements, we might need to
artificially augment the stability of the aircraft
follow a desired state

Feedback control → also referred to as Closed-Loop control.

Figure: Open Vs.Advanced

ClosedFlight
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler loop.
Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Motivation

Block diagram of a typical Flight Control System (FCS)

Figure: Flight Control System block diagram.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Motivation

Block diagram of a typical Flight Control System (FCS)

Figure: Flight Control System Diagram.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Motivation

Block diagram of a typical Flight Control System (FCS)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Autopilot and Stability Augmentation System

Autopilot
An autopilot is used to control the trajectory of a vehicle without constant
’hands-on’ control by a pilot being required. It can be commanded, for
instance, to maintain heading and altitude or navigation course and altitude

Figure: Flight Gear Autopilot Modes.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Autopilot and Stability Augmentation System

Stability Augmentation System

Instead of maintaining the aircraft on a predetermined attitude

or flight path, the SAS will actuate the aircraft flight controls to
dampen out aircraft buffeting regardless of the attitude or flight
path. The SAS can be integrated into the autopilot or can be
stand-alone systems,

The fundamental role of the SAS is to minimize response transients following

an upset from equilibrium.

One of the most common types of SAS is the yaw damper which is used to
eliminate the Dutch roll tendency of swept-wing aircraft.

Issues
Main damping derivative too small (Lp , Mq , Nr )
Main stiffness not the desired (Mα , Nβ )
Displacement of a control surface (∆δ = k∆x → ∆Cax = kCaδ )

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Autopilot and Stability Augmentation System

Stability Augmentation System

Arquitecture

Figure: Arquitecture of a typical SAS.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Autopilot and Stability Augmentation System

Stability Augmentation System

Fly-by-Wire Arquitecture

Figure: Typical fly-by-wire SAS.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Sensors

Sensors
Sensors are fundamental to ascertain the state of the vehicle
Types
Pilot → eyes and kinesthetic senses (aided by PFD)
Physical devices:
Pitot Tube
Barometric Altimeter
IMU (Gyros and accelerometers)
Angle of attack and sideslip vanes

Figure: Barometric altimeter Figure: Pitot Tube

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

A general linear invariant flight control system

Block diagram

Figure: A general linear invariant flight control system

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

A general linear invariant flight control system

Notation

r : reference, input or command signal → dim. (p × 1)

z: feddback signal → dim. (p × 1)
e: error or actuating signal → dim. (p × 1)
c: control signal → dim. (m × 1)
g : gust vector for atmospheric disturbances → dim. (l × 1)
x: airplane state vector → dim. (n × 1)
y : output vector → dim. (q × 1)
n: sense noise vector → dim. (q × 1)

Let’s deduce the closed-loop transfer function.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Introduction to stability of closed-loop systems

A linear invariant feedback controller

The methods available for assessing stability include those used with open loop:
Formulate the governing differential equations, find the characteristic
equation, and solve for its roots.
Find the transfer function from input to output and determine its poles
Let us consider the following block diagram of feedback controller:

Figure: A linear invariant feedback controller

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Introduction to stability of closed-loop systems

Analysis of stability

Diagrammatic tools
Nyquist
Bode
Nichols
Root Locus

We’ll go back to this later.

Let’s briefly review Laplace transform and time response.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Review of Laplace transform

Z ∞
F (s) = f (t) · e −s·t · dt
0

Relevant transforms

L[f ′ (t)] = s · F (s) − f (0)

R F (s) f (0)
L[ 0t f (t)dt] = s − s
Step function (f (t) = k, t ≥ 0) → L[k] = ks
Ramp function (f (t) = k · t, t ≥ 0) → L[k · t] = k2
s
k
Exponential function (f (t) = k · e −α·t , t ≥ 0) → L[k · e −α·t ] = s+α
r −1 r −1 1
f (t) = (rt −1)! · e −α·t → L[ (rt −1)! · e −α·t ] = (s+α)r
r −1 r −1
f (t) = (rt −1)! → L[ (rt −1)! ] = s1r
f (t) = sin(at) → L[sin(at)] = 2 a 2
s +a
f (t) = cos(at) → L[cos(at)] = 2 s 2
s +a
f (t) = e a cot sin(bt) → L[e a cot sin(bt)] = b
(s−a)2 +b 2
s−a
f (t) = e a cot cos(bt) → L[e a cot cos(bt)] =
(s−a)2 +b 2

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Review of Laplace transform

Transfer function (s) to time response (t)

Consider a simple real poles case

N(s) N(s) N(s)
F (s) = = = Qn
D(s) (s + p1 )(s + p2 ) . . . (s + pn ) i (s + pi )
One can always decompose the above function as follows:

A1 A2 An
F (s) = + + ... + ,
s + p1 s + p2 s + pn
where Ai represent the residual i and pi the pole i, and
Ai = F (s)(s + pi )|s=−pi ,
Since Laplace transform presents linearity:
A1 A2 An
f (t) = L−1 [F (s)] = L−1 [ ] + L−1 [ ] + . . . + L−1 [ ]
s + p1 s + p2 s + pn

10(s+2)
Let’s analyze an example → F (s) = (s+1)(s+3)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Review of Laplace transform

Transfer function (s) to time response (t)

Consider a Muliple real poles case
N(s) N(s)
F (s) =
=
D(s) (s + p1 )(s + p2 ) . . . (s + pi )r
One can always decompose the above function as follows:
A1 An a1 a2 ar
F (s) = + ... + + + + ,
s + p1 s + pn s + pi (s + pi )2 (s + pi )r
where Ai can be calculated as before and ar can be calculated as follows:
N(s)
ar = (s + pi )r |s=−pi (1)
D(s)
d N(s)
a(r−1) = (s + pi )r |s=−pi (2)
ds D(s)
... (3)
r−1
1 d N(s)
a(1) = (s + pi )r |s=−pi (4)
(r − 1)! ds r−1 D(s)
s+1
Let’s analyze an example → F (s) = (s+2)2 (s+4)(s+3)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Review of Laplace transform

Transfer function (s) to time response (t)

Consider a pair of complex conjugate poles case

N(s) N(s)
F (s) =
= 2
D(s) (s + 2δn wn · s + wn2 )
One can always decompose the above function as follows:
N(s) A·s +B
F (s) = =
D(s) (a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0 )
The process is as follows:
Obtain values of A and B
Decompose and transform in Laplace functions which anti transform can
be found in the tables.

3
Let’s analyze an example → F (s) = s(s 2 +2s+5)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Nyquist criterion

Nyquist plot

A Nyquist plot is a parametric plot of a frequency response.

The most common use of Nyquist plots is for assessing the stability of a
closed-loop negative feedback system (restricted to linear, time-invariant (LTI)
systems).

(s+2)
Let’s see an example → KF (s) = K (s+1)(s−3)

1 Change transfer function from s domain to jw domain.

2 Find the gain & phase angle.
3 Evaluate at point 0+ and +∞ points.
4 Find the positions of 0+ and +∞ on the plot and connect them

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Nyquist criterion

Nyquist stability criterion

Assessment of the stability is done by applying the Nyquist stability criterion:
The necessary and sufficient condition for a closed-loop negative
feedback system to be stable is that, when transiting the Nyquist
contorn from w = −∞ to w = +∞, the number of turns of
function over point -1 counterclockwise must be equal to the
number of investable poles of function KF(s)
Nyquist Diagram

1
K=1
K=3
0.8 K=6

0.6

0.4
Imaginary Axis

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
Real Axis

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Closed-loop control Stability of closed-loop systems Exercise

Exercise

Please, try to assess the proposed exercise

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Closed Loop Control:
Pitch Attitude Controller and Speed Controller

Manuel Soler

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Outline

1 Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller

Motivation
Pitch Attitude Controller

2 Speed Controller
Motivation
Speed controller

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Motivation

Why Pitch Attitude Controller?

Phugoid mode (lightly damped, low frequency oscillations) lead large

undamped responses with long transients.

Variations in speed, height, and attitude

Figure: Speed response to δe = 1 for a Jet cruising Figure: Flight path angle response to δe = 1 for a
(Etkin, Fig. 7.20) Jet cruising (Etkin, Fig. 7.20)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

Suppression of Phugoid mode
Using feedback signals derived from measurements of, for instance, θ, h, u
A pitch-attitude-hold in the autopilot would be expected to suppress the
phugoid

Figure: Pitch attitude controller (Etkin, Fig. 8.5)

What do you think a reasonable expression for the controller J(s) could be?
k1
J(s) = + k2 + k3 · s
s
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

PID controller
Proportional, Integral and derivative (PID) controller

Figure: PID controller block diagram.

P depends on the present error,
I on the accumulation of past errors, and
D is a prediction of future errors (based on current rate of change)
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

Response characteristics

Figure: Response characteristics.

Delay time (td )

Rise time (tr )
Peak time (tp )
Maximum (percent) overshoot (Mp )
Settling tim (ts )
UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

B747 Example

Recall the longitudinal eq. of motion already studied:

   
∆u ∆u
d  w  w 
  = A   + B∆δe .
dt  q   q 
∆θ ∆θ

Given that θ = (sI − A)−1 B∆δe , the open loop transfer function would be:

−(1.158 · s 2 + 0.3545 · s + 0.003873)

Gθδe =
s 4 + 0.750468 · s 3 + 0.935494 · s 2 + 9.463020 · 10−3 · s + 4.195875 · 10−3
where
N(s) → eq. 7.7.2 (Etkin)
D(s) → eq. 6.2.2 (Etkin)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

Open-loop response
Open−loop Response to δe=1 step input

2
Pitch angle (θ) in rad

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
0 500 1000 1500
Time (sec)

Figure: Open-Loop response.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

P-Closed-Loop response
Propostional closed−loop Response to δe=1 step input

1.6
Kp=−0.5
Kp=−2
1.4 Kp=−4

1.2

1
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (sec)

Figure: P-Closed-Loop response.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

PI-Closed-Loop response
Propostional−Integral closed−loop Response to δe=1 step input

1.6
Kp=−0.5; Ki=−0.5
1.4

1.2

1
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (sec)

Figure: PI-Closed-Loop response.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Pitch Attitude Controller

PID-Closed-Loop response
Propostional−Derivative−Integral closed−loop Response to δe=1 step input

1.4
Kp=−0.5; Kd=−0.5; Ki=−0.5
Kp=−0.5; Kd=−2; Ki=−0.5
1.2 Kp=−0.5; Kd=−4; Ki=−0.5

1
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (sec)

Figure: PID-Closed-Loop response.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Motivation

Speed controller

Phugoid not only due to perturbations

also in maneuvers

Instance → changing from level flight to climbing by opening the throttle.

Figure: Flight path angle response to δp = 1/6 for a Figure: Velocity response to δp = 1/6 for a Jet

Jet cruising (Etkin, Fig. 7.21) cruising (Etkin, Fig. 7.21)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Speed controller

Figure: Speed controller (Etkin, Fig 8.8).

Guδe Guδp
G(s) = ,
Gγδe Gγδp

Expressions for G(s) → Eq. 7.7.7 (Etkin)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Speed controller

Closed-loop transfer functions

Deduction of closed-loop expressions

Guδp
Ĝuδp = (1)
1 + Guδe J

Ĝγδp = Gγδp − Gγδe J Ĝuδp (2)

N
Each of the transfer function can be expressed as D
:

Dj Nuδp
Ĝuδp = (3)
fDj + Nj Nuδe
fDj Nγδp + Nj (Nγδp Nuδe − Nγδe Nuδp )
Ĝγδp = (4)
f (fDj + Nj Nuδe )
We study the characteristic equation given by: (fDj + Nj Nuδe ), where:

f (s) = As 2 + Bs + C (Eq. 6.3.9, Etkin)

Nuδe = a1 s + a0 (Eq. 7.7.7, Etkin)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Speed controller

Example B747: speed controller

We could choose, for instance, a PD controller:

J(s) = k1 + k2 s (5)

Root Locus Root Locus

0.08 1.5

0.06
1

0.04

0.5
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0.02

0 0

−0.02
−0.5

−0.04

−1
−0.06

−0.08 −1.5
−0.14 −0.12 −0.1 −0.08 −0.06 −0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis Real Axis

Figure: Root locus for the Jet cruising open-loop Figure: Root locus for the Jet cruising closed-loop
transfer function transfer function

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Speed controller

Example B747: speed controller

Open−loop Response to δ =−1/6 step input Closed−loop Response to δ =−1/6 step input
p p

30 0.5

0
20

−0.5

10
speed (u) in m/s

speed (u) in m/s

−1

0 −1.5

−2
−10

−2.5

−20
−3

−30 −3.5
0 500 1000 1500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Figure: Open-loop response Jet cruising Figure: Closed-loop response Jet cruising

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Speed controller

Example B747: speed controller

Open−loop vs. Closed−loop Response to δp=−1/6 step input

20
open−loop
15 closed−loop

5
speed (u) in m/s

−5

−10

−15

−20

−25

−30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)

Figure: Open-loop Vs. closed-loop response Jet cruising

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Phugoid suppression - Pitch Attitude Controller Speed Controller

Speed controller

Example B747: speed controller

Closed−loop Response to δp=−1/6 step input

0.025

0.02
elevator (δe) in rad

0.015

0.01

0.005

−0.005
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)

Figure: Elevator deflection due to closed-loop response Jet cruising

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Closed Loop Control:
Altitude Controller & Exercise Solution

Manuel Soler

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Speed stability

3 Altitude Controller

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Introduction

Why Altitude Controller?

One of the most important problems in the control of flight path is that of
following a prescribed line in space
e.g., ILS glide slope

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Speed stability

Flight at constant altitude

Consider a horizontal flight in which an ideal (perfect) controller would control
the angle of attack in such a way as to keep the altitude error exactly zero.

m Wp
V T
cg
D
xe
mg

Figure: Aircraft horizontal motion

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Speed stability

Flight at constant altitude

Performance curve

Figure: Performance curve

Stability?
Corollary:
For speeds less than V it is not possible to lock exactly onto a
∗

straight-line path, and at the same time provide stability, using the
elevator control alone.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Altitude Controller

Altitude controller
Block diagram

Figure: Altitude hold block diagram

Physical meaning?

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Altitude Controller

Altitude controller
equations

ẋ = Ax + Bc ∗ (1)
T
x = ∆u, w , q, θ, ∆h (2)
T
c ∗ = δe , y5 (3)
A = [aij ] (4)
B = [bij ] (5)

A → Eq. 6.5.1 (Etkin) [notice that h = −ze ]

B → Eq. 7.6.4 (Etkin)

Expressions for the controllers?

Je (s) = (a0 /s + a1 + a2 s)/(1 + τe s)
Cp (s) = (b0 /s + b1 + b2 s)
Jp (s) = 1/(1 + τp s)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

Altitude Controller

Altitude controller
EDO system

∆u̇ = y1 (6)
ẇ = a21 ∆u + a22 w + a23 q + b21 ∆δe (7)
q̇ = a31 ∆u + a32 w + a33 q + b31 ∆δe (8)
θ̇ = q (9)
∆ḣ = y2 (10)
∆δ̇e = y3 (11)
y˙5 = (−y5 + ∆δp )/τp (12)
y˙1 = a11 y1 + a12 ẇ + a14 q + b11 y3 + b12 ẏ5 (13)
y˙2 = u0 q − ẇ (14)
y˙3 = −(a2 q̇ + ka2 y˙2 + a1 q + a0 θ + ka0 ∆h + ka1 y2 + y3 )/τe (15)
y˙4 = −(b2 y˙1 + b0 ∆u + b1 y1 ) (16)
∆δp = f (y4 ) (17)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

B747-Results

B747-Time response

Figure: Time responses: errors Vs time for altitude, speed and pitch angle

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Introduction Speed stability Altitude Controller

B747-Results

B747-Time response

Figure: Control inputs: δ and δp (y5 represented)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Closed Loop Control:
Lateral Control: Yaw Damper & Roll Controller

Manuel Soler

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Outline

1 Insight in Lateral Control

2 Yaw damper

3 Roll Controller

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

One can use readily 5 lateral state variables as a source of feedback signals

These are:
{v , p, r , φ, ψ}

Sensors
v → sideslip vane.
p and r → rate gyros.
φ and ψ → vertical and directional gyros.

There is a possibility of many feedback loops!

The implementation can be viewed simply a a synthetic modification of the

inherent stability derivatives:
p feedback to δa → modifies Lp (roll damper).
r feedback to δr → modifies Nr (yaw damper).
v feedback to δr → modifies Nv (yaw stiffness).

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

Block diagram

Considering perfect sensor and perfect actuator, the block diagram can be
sketched as follows:

Figure: Closed loop representative block diagram

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

φ → δa

Figure: Root loci: φ → δa

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

p → δa

Figure: Root loci: p → δa

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

ψ → δa

Figure: Root loci: ψ → δa

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

ν → δr

Figure: Root loci: ν → δr

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

p → δr

Figure: Root loci: p → δr

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

r → δr

Figure: Root loci: r → δr

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

φ → δr

Figure: Root loci: φ → δr

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Introduction

φ → δr

Figure: Root loci: ψ → δr

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Why yaw damper?

Yaw dampers are widely used as components of stability augmentation systems.

Reason?

Figure: Gravity and acceleration in turn

Figure: Steady Climbing Turn

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Why yaw damper?

b
   
p̂ −θ 2V
q̂  =  sin φ c̄  · w (Eq 7.8.12 (Etkin))
2V
b
rˆ cos φ 2V
     
Cy β C y δr 0 β Cyp Cyr
θ w ·b
 Clβ Clδr Clδa  · δr  =  Clp Clr  · · (Eq 7.8.13 (Etkin))
− cos φ 2V
Cnβ Cnδr Cnδa δa Cnp Cnr

Figure: Rudder angle in turn

Figure: Aileron angle in turn

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Yaw damper block diagram

Figure: Yaw damper block diagram

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Washout and Time Lag responses

Washout and Time−Lag response to impulse input Washout and Time−Lag response to step input

1.5 1.5
Washout Washout
Time−Lag Time−Lag
1

0.5
Amplitude

Amplitude
0 0.5

−0.5

−1

−1.5 −0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Figure: Impulse response Figure: Step response

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Yaw rate open-loop impulse response

Figure: Yaw damper initial response

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Yaw rate open-loop impulse response

Figure: Yaw damper long term response

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Yaw damper closed-loop response

Figure: Yaw damper long term response

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Yaw damper
System poles for varying washout time constant

Figure: System poles

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Yaw damper

Yaw damper
Effect of washout filter on yaw damper performance

Figure: Effect of washout filter on yaw damper performance

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Roll Controller

Why roll controller?

The roll controller is another common component of an AFCS

The maintain wings leveled or to maintain a specified roll angle in a

coordinated turn.

Z W

I
K

Figure: Symmetric flight into the vertical plane

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Roll Controller

Roll controller
Block diagram

Figure: Roll control block diagram. BUG: δr instead of δp

Physical meaning?

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Roll Controller

Roll controller
equations

ẋ = Ax + Bc (1)
x = [v , p, r , φ]T and c = [δa , δr ]T (2)
s
w (s) = (3)
s + τw1 0
Kr /τr
Jr (s) = (4)
s + τ1r
Jp (s) = Kp (5)
Ka /τa
Ja (s) = (6)
s + τ1a

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Roll Controller

Roll controller
ODE system

ż = Pz + Qφc
z = [v , p, r , φ, δa , δr , y ]T

a11 a12 a13 g b11 b12 0

 
 a21 a22 a23 0 b21 b22 0 
 a31 a32 a33 0 b31 b32 0
 

 
P= 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
Ka Kp
− Kτaa − τ1a
 
 0
 0 − τa
0 0 

 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 
Kr Kr Kr Kr Kr
a
τr 31
a
τr 32
a
τr 33
0 b
τr 31
b − τr τ1w 0
τr 32
−( τ1r + 1
τw 0
)
(Eq 8.8.12 (Etkin))
h i
Ka Kp
Q= 0 0 0 0 τa
0 0 (Eq 8.8.12 (Etkin))

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Example

Time response to initial (measured) φ = 15 deg

Figure: Time response to initial φ = 15 deg (φc = 0)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Example

Time response to initial (measured) φ = 15 deg

Figure: Time response to initial φ = 15 deg (φc = 0)

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Example

Time response to roll command of φc = 15 deg

Figure: Time response to roll command of φc = 15 deg

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Insight in Lateral Control Yaw damper Roll Controller

Example

Time response to roll command of φc = 15 deg

Figure: Time response to roll command of φc = 15 deg

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Advanced Flight Mechanics

Closed Loop Control:
Gust alleviation

Manuel Soler

Degree in Aerospace Engineering

Escuela Politécnica Superior
Área de Ingenierı́a Aeroespacial

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Outline

1 Gust alleviation

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Why is important?

Application of automatic controls to reduce the response of an airplane to

atmospheric turbulence.

Useful for
Increased passenger confort
Reduction of pilot workload
Reduction in structural loading and fatigue
Reduction in fuel consumption

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Why is important?

Application of automatic controls to reduce the response of an airplane to

atmospheric turbulence.

Useful for
Increased passenger confort
Reduction of pilot workload
Reduction in structural loading and fatigue
Reduction in fuel consumption

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Methodology

Random turbulences produce random forces

Random processes described by statistical functions → f (t) statistical function.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

General linear invariant flight control system

Figure: A general linear invariant flight control system

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

System Equations

ẋ = Ax + Bu + Tg (1)
with
g = vg pg r1g r2g
where: vg is the y-component of the turbulent velocity,
∂w
pg = ∂yg ;
∂ug
r1g = − ∂y
;
∂vg
and r2g = ∂x
 ∆Yg 
m
 ∆Lg + I ′ ∆N 
 Ix′ zx g
Tg =
 ∆Izx′ + ∆N g
 
Iz′

0

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

System Equations

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Lateral Equations

Figure: Lateral equation

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Gust alleviation system

Figure: Gust alleviation system

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

RECALL: Roll controller

Block diagram

Figure: Roll control block diagram. BUG: δr instead of δp

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Controller Equations

" 1/τa
#
s+1/τa
0
J= 1/τr
0 s+1/τr

Doing some algebra:

δ˙a = (ea − δa )/τa

δ˙r = (er − δr )/τr
ċ = −Pc + Pe

ẋ A B x T
= · + g
ċ PKx −P c PKg

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Controller Equations

" 1/τa
#
s+1/τa
0
J= 1/τr
0 s+1/τr

Doing some algebra:

δ˙a = (ea − δa )/τa

δ˙r = (er − δr )/τr
ċ = −Pc + Pe

ẋ A B x T
= · + g
ċ PKx −P c PKg

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Controller Equations

" 1/τa
#
s+1/τa
0
J= 1/τr
0 s+1/τr

Doing some algebra:

δ˙a = (ea − δa )/τa

δ˙r = (er − δr )/τr
ċ = −Pc + Pe

ẋ A B x T
= · + g
ċ PKx −P c PKg

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Gust alleviation

Time response

Figure: Lateral acceleration spectra.

UC3M - Degree in Aerospace Engineering - Manuel Soler Advanced Flight Mechanics - Closed Loop Control
Handling Qualities
Outline
Introduction
Rating of handling qualities
Longitudinal handling qualities
Lateral-directional handling qualities
Handling qualities requirements
– Representation on the s-plane

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 2

Introduction
Flying and handling qualities. A definition:
– “Properties which describe the ease and
effectiveness with which the aircraft
responds to pilot commands in the
execution of a flight task (mission task
element, MTE)”

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 3

Introduction
Assessment of flying or handling qualities
→ opinion of the pilot
Early requirements
– “During this trial flight of one hour the
airplane must be steered in all direction
without difficulty and at all times be under
perfect control and equilibrium”
From this qualitative requirement to
quantitative criteria
11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 4
Introduction
Parameters influencing pilot assessment
– Aircraft stability (response to disturbance)
– Aircraft controllability
– Cockpit design
– View from the cockpit
– Mission
– Pilot's background and emotional and
physical state
– External environment
11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 5
Introduction
Parameters influencing pilot assessment
– Aircraft stability (response to disturbance)
– Aircraft controllability
– Cockpit design
– View from the cockpit
– Mission
– Pilot's background and emotional and
physical state
– External environment
11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 6
Rating of handling qualities
Firsts steps in avoiding ambiguities
– Rating scales
Cooper-Harper scale
– Definition of flight test evaluation, post-
flight reduction of interpretation of pilot
comments

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 7

Rating of handling qualities

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 8

Rating of handling qualities

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 9

Rating of handling qualities
Other techniques
– Overall system performance as rating
parameter
• Not good (depends on pilot
capability/workload)
– Measurement of pilot physiological state
Investigation to study which parameters
influence pilot acceptance

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 10

Longitudinal Handling Qualities
Separate phugoid and short period
– Which parameters correlate with pilot
opinion
Phugoid
– Period: long
→ not significant factor
– Damping
• Under instrument
• Not in visual
11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 11
Longitudinal Handling Qualities
Short period less relaxed requirements
Approximate dynamic model
Cues (how pilot senses changes)
– Short term normal acceleration
– Angular acceleration
– Others: angular rate, attitude, ...

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 12

Thumb print criterion
Established tool in the 50s
Other factors play
a role

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 13

Incidence lag
For classic subsonic airplanes → nearly
constant within envelope
Lag can vary from 0.5 (high speed SL) to
4s
(low speed
at high alt.)

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 14

Control anticipation parameter (CAP)
Precise adjustment of flight path
Instantaneous angular pitching
acceleration per unit of steady-state
normal acceleration

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 15

CAP

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 16

Control system characteristics (“feel”)
Longitudinal control:
column inputs
Aircraft can be rated poor
due to control system (not
“feel” right to the pilot)
Importance of control
system selection

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 17

Lateral-directional handling qualities
More complex than longitudinal
– Cross-coupling effects
Which are the parameters that influence
pilot rating?
Analysis of important lateral-directional
task: control of bank angle using ailerons

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 18

Lateral-directional handling qualities
Spiral mode
– Unstable is admitted
– Time constant greater than 20 s (satisfactory)
Roll mode
– Short term lateral dynamics → important
– Cases:
• Continuous monitoring (formation flying)
• Respond to particular flight situation (obstacle
avoidance)

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 19

Lateral-directional handling qualities
Roll mode
– One parameter:
maximum roll
acceleration

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 20

Lateral-directional handling qualities
Dutch roll mode
– Nuisance
• no related to any
maneuver
• hinder precise
flight path control

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 21

Lateral-directional handling qualities
Numerator
– If numerator matches frequency and
damping of Dutch roll → non-oscillatory
– Cancellation depends mainly in
frequencies

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 22

Lateral-directional control system
Requirements
– Roll stick and rudder pedal forces
– Force gradients: correct sense and within
limits
– Trim and roll-yaw coupling (harmonized)
– Asymmetric conditions
• Steady sideslip
• Flight in cross-wind
• Engine out
• Steep dive ...
11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 23
Handling qualities requirements
Minimum acceptable standards of flying
qualities (FARs, JARs, BCARs)
– Issued by aeronautical agencies
– Requirements for civil aircraft: safety
– Manufacturer: demonstration of
compliance
– Military aircraft (MIL): complex
• most demanding

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 24

Handling qualities requirements
Depend on
– Airplane type
– Flight phase
– Level of flying qualities
– Flight envelope
Relates to
– Control power
– Control forces
– Static stability
– Dynamic stability
– Stalling and spinning
11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 25
Representation on the s-plane
Longitudinal

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 26

Representation on the s-plane
Lateral-directional

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 27

Handling Qualities
Requirements
References
Department of Defence (1980) Military specifications: Flying qualities of
piloted airplanes. MIL-F-8785C. Washington DC: Department of Defence

Department of Defence (1987) Military standard: Flying qualities of

piloted airplanes. MIL-STD-1797A (USAF). Washington DC:
Department of Defence

Federal Aviation Administration. Federal aviation regulations-Part 25,

subpart B-Flight. Federal Aviation Administration, US Department of
Transportation

Joint Aviation Authority (1994) Joint aviation requiremets-JAR 15-large

aeroplanes, section 1-requirements, subpart B-Flight. The Netherlands:
Joint Aviation Authority, Hoofddorp.

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 2

Airplane Role
Aircraft type

Flight phase

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 3

Airplane Role
Level of flying qualities

Flight envelope
– Permissible
– Service
– Operational

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 4

Airplane Role

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 5

Short period requirements

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 6

Phugoid requirements

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 7

Lateral-directional requirements

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 8

Lateral-directional requirements

11/12/14 Advanced Flight Mechanics. Fall 14 9

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