The Data and the

Data Collection
By: Meryl Janzen G. Arsalin, LPT
There are two classifications of data
based on their use and source.

● Primary Data
● Secondary Data
Primary Data refers to first-hand information based on actual
experiences or observations. This kind of data is more
reliable to use because it is gathered by the actual
researchers. Say you want to ask people in the community
if they agree to a certain law that is being implemented by
the local government. Their answers can be considered as
primary data.

Examples of primary data includes: data taken personally

through interview, personally observing people to get
visual data.
Secondary Data are data that are gathered from secondary
sources; meaning it is not you that have obtained the
information but rather, it comes from previous research,
audio recordings or books. One advantage of secondary
data is that it is readily available to use, comparing it to
primary data where you have to gather the information
yourself.

Examples of secondary data includes: information from your

barangay census on the number of population in the area
Data Collection Instruments
These are the tools that you need to use so that you can gather
your primary data when you conduct your research. You can
even choose one or more instruments to use.

The important thing is that you are knowledgeable to use these

in such a way that it will not become a hindrance in
completing your research.

These are interviews, observations, questionnaires, and focus

group discussion.
01 Interview
In qualitative research, doing interviews
is the most common type of instrument
that is being used. Interviews are done
by having a set of questions to your
respondents and letting them answer as
truthfully as possible. There are mainly
three types of interview, and these are
structured interview, unstructured
interview, and semi-structured interview.
 Structured Interview- This type of interview has a
set of predetermined questions that are ready to
use. If you are using a structured interview as your
instrument to gather data, take note that you should
not ask beyond what is written in your interview
questions.
 Unstructured Interview- This type of interview is the
opposite of structured interview. You are not required to make
a set of pre-made questions, but rather make an OUTLINE or
what kind of questions you want to ask your respondents.
Dawson (2002) calls this type of interview as life history
interview. That is because you want to understand the point of
view of your respondents, hence it is not advisable to use a
pre-made questions. You want them to tell you a story, your
respondents are free to talk about what they want to share
with a little guide question from you as a researcher.
 Semi-structured Interview- This type of interview is a mix of
structured and unstructured interview. It may be one of the
most common types of interviews. You have to prepare a set
of questions; however, you are also free to ask to follow up
questions to your respondents if you want to clarify something
or add information that is not available to you. This type of
interview is also flexible that is why it is preferred to be used
by most researchers.
Processes in Data Collection
through an Interview

Data collection through an interview can

be done in various processes and steps.
Ahmad (2012) and Fox (2000) argue that
these steps are included before, during
and after the interview.
 Before the Interview
• Identify your participants of your interview.
• Consider whether you conduct an individual or group
interviews.
• Seek and secure the informed consent of the participants in
the study. Informed consent should be done in writing. It purely
explains that the participation is entirely voluntary.
• Secure and assure the confidentiality and anonymity of the
participants. You have to inform them that their identities will not
be revealed during the course of the study.
• Prepare for your interview guide that can enable you to cover
important areas. This should be based on the research
questions.
 Before the Interview
• Arrange for a meeting place for an interview.
• Make an agreement for the duration of the interview so that you are
able to have enough time to complete it satisfactorily.
• Secure the appropriate recording devices in advance such as voice
recorder, tape recorder, camera, paper and pen.
• If interview is done over the phone, these are important:
a. Make sure to record both sides of the conversation using appropriate
recording technology;
b. Agree for the time of an interview so that your participant is not
interrupted; and
c. Make sure that the phone bill is yours, not your participant’s.
• Interview guide questions should be subjected to content validity by
the field experts.
 During the Interview
• Establish rapport or trust with the participant. This would make
the participant open to the researcher.
• Listen intently to the participant while s/he is talking in order to
get the data needed.
• Do not be judgmental. In some cases, participants tends to be
opened about one’s personal life. Just listen and if possible, try to
be neutral.
• Let the participants talk. In most cases, 90 percent of the
talking is done by the participants while the remaining 10 percent
is allotted for the interviewer. Open-ended questions are
designed to keep the participants talking. This would give you
some cues for the next questions.
 During the Interview
• Be attentive to the words and gestures of the participants. Non-verbal
behaviors are often indicators if the participants are telling the truth or not.
• In the group interviews, these are the needed steps:
a. Let the participants feel relaxed and let them talk freely;
b. Introduce the participants with one another and explain to them the
purpose of the interview so as ensure them their confidentiality;
c. Encourage them to talk and avoid direct questions that would make the
participants feel confronted in front of others;
d. Neutrality should be sustained and you have to avoid biased statements;
e. Ensure the dynamics of the group as the moderator by facilitating the
discussion without allowing one or two individuals to dominate; and
f. Have an over-all idea on how the interview proceeds and its expected time
to finish.
 After the Interview
• Transcribe the recorded interview immediately.
• Examine your transcripts of all your interviews. Using
transcripts allows you to pick details that you might
forge.
• Secure your data. You can use safe data banks and
emails or google drives. Only the members of the
research can access the data.
• As much as possible, the transcribed data should be
returned to the participants for confirmation.
02 Observation
Another data gathering instrument that is
being used most in ethnography is
observations. This happens when a
researcher observes and takes notes of
the behavior of people that they want to
be a part of their research. There are
three types of observations: naturalistic
observation, participative observation,
and non-naturalistic observation.
 Naturalistic Observation- This happens when a
researcher observes the behavior of a group of
people in their natural setting. For example, you
want to observe the behavior of students inside a
classroom without putting any external
disturbances on them then you are using
naturalistic observation.
 Participative Observation- This observation happens when
a researcher takes part on the activities of the group of
people that they are observing. Say for example you want to
study the daily routine of a Lumad community. To have a
better understanding of what their everyday activities are, you
as a researcher decided to join a community so that you can
immerse yourself in their daily life. This is utilizing
participative observation.
 Non-naturalistic Observation- This type of observation
happens when you take your respondents out of their natural
environment and put them in an environment of your choice.
You observe how people behave when they are not in their
usual settings. One situation for this is taking a group of high
school students and letting them attend one or two college
classes where you must observe their learning behaviors.
Non-naturalistic observation is where you as a researcher
decides what is the “ideal” environment for you to complete
your research.
Observation is one of the tools for collecting data in a variety of
situations. It collects information using your senses to examine
people and situations in natural settings. Hence, it requires a good
memory and extensive note-taking.

Observation could be accomplished either as the complete

participant, the participant as observer, the observer as participant,
and the complete observer.

Observation notes may be useful in documenting what is

observed. Consider the following guidelines before, during, and
after conducting an observation.
Before Observation

o Determine what you want to observe and why.

o Determine whether you are conducting an informal

(unstructured) or a formal (structured) observation.

o Establish recording method such as observation notes.

o Make sure that you are allowed or you have permission to

conduct an observation otherwise you need to secure a
consent form
During Observation

o Observe and take notes

▪ Visit the place you want to get information from
▪ Be as unobtrusive or not noticeable as
possible
▪ Take note of certain behaviors, actions, words,
visuals, and other observed data
▪ Date all observations
After Observation

o Analyze and interpret the collected data and

inferences

▪ Make connections between interactions,

responses, behaviors, and other phenomena.
03 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are also one of the most
common types of instruments that is
being used by qualitative researchers.
This is somewhat similar to interviews
based on the format of questions that is
being used. There are three types of
questionnaires: close-ended, open-
ended, and combination of both.
 Closed-ended questionnaires- This type of
questionnaire is similar to a structured interview.
This is mostly used when you want to conduct
surveys on your respondents. This is mostly for
statistical purposes and the questions are already
prepared for your respondents to answer. These
types of questionnaires usually have boxes for the
respondents to put a check mark.
 Open-ended questionnaires- Unlike close-ended
questionnaires, this type of questionnaire leaves a blank
space for the respondents to give their point of view about a
specific question.

 Combination of both- This type of questionnaire combines

both the close-ended and open-ended questionnaires. For
example, you may want to ask a yes or no question to your
respondents and also want them to explain why they have
answered yes or no.
04 Focus Group Discussion
Questionnaires are also one of the most
common types of instruments that is
being used by qualitative researchers.
This is somewhat similar to interviews
based on the format of questions that is
being used. There are three types of
questionnaires: close-ended, open-
ended, and combination of both.
Gathering your
Data
There are several steps in the observation process as discussed by
Creswell (2007).

 Select where you want to conduct your observation. This can be a

classroom, community or a home where you want to observe the different
behavior of the participants for your research. To do this, you need to make a
communication letter to the concern authorities so that you will be allowed to
have access to a particular place of observation.

Note: It is important to ask permission to who is in-charge of a particular place

where you will conduct your observation. Some place may not allow you to
take pictures or record videos, therefore, it is important to make a formal
letter to avoid unnecessary problems.
 Find the means to gather your observed data. This can include
recording devices like cameras or phones or the more traditional
recording devices like taking down notes on what you, as the
researcher, have observed first-hand.

 Take your time to write down the important details. You may be
overwhelmed the number of things that you will be observing. Try to
focus on the important details that relate to your research question.
Make sure that you have your field notes with you where you will
need to write the things that can be useful for your research.
 What kind of observation will you be using? Will
it be a naturalistic observation? Non-naturalistic?
Or participative observation? You need to have a
clear indication on what will be your role as an
observer.

 Politely thank the participants.

 What kind of observation will you be using? Will
it be a naturalistic observation? Non-naturalistic?
Or participative observation? You need to have a
clear indication on what will be your role as an
observer.

 Politely thank the participants.

How do we conduct a proper interview?

• Find out what type of interview you will be using. If you think that there is still
lacking data from your observation, try to find out if you may need to use
other interview methods so that you can gather more information for your
research. You may choose to use either structured, unstructured, or semi-
structured interview.

• Secure a letter of communication to the people that you want to interview. With
the same protocol for the observation method, you need to have a formal
letter asking for permission to conduct an interview with the participants.

• Make sure that you have your interview questions. Do not forget to prepare
your guide questions before conducting a proper interview. These guide
questions should be based on your research questions so that you can get all
the information that you will need for your study.
How do we conduct a proper interview?

• Have the right equipment. Make sure that you have audio recording
devices that are fully charged. You cannot take note of every answer
of the participants so it’s better to have devices that can record the
exact answer of your participant.

• Let the participant choose where they want the interview to be

conducted.

• Politely thank the participants afterwards.

How to establish a good relationship and communication
with your participants?

• Treat your participants with respect.

• Wear proper and formal outfit during the interview.
• Maintain eye contact and do not be afraid to engage in a
conversation with your participant.
• Do not ask personal questions that are not related to your
research.
• Do not forget to thank them for their time and participation.