Biomedical Engineering

Introduction to control system

(Chapter 1)

Introduction to Control Systems

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 1. Introduction

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 Introduction(…)
Control system engineering:
 is the branch of engineering which deals with the
principles of control theory, to design a system which
gives yields the desired behavior in a controlled manner.
 Tasks of Control engineers
 Determining the process variable
 Determining the measurement site
 Assessing the disturbance
 Selecting the manipulator
 Selecting/installing a suitable controller
2  Installation of the controller
 Introduction (…)
a) System:– is a combination of components that act together and
perform a certain objective.
b) Control:- The meaning of control is to regulate, direct or command
a system so that a desired objective is obtained.
c) Plant:-a set of machine parts that function together to perform a
particular operation.
d) Process:-A progressively continuing operation.

e) Controller:- It is the element of the system itself, or may be external

to the system
Act as the brain of the system. It controls the plant or the process.
Controller can be a computer program, electrical or mechanical
3
device, etc.
 Introduction (…)
f) Input(reference):-The applied signal or excitation signal that is
applied to a control system to get a specified output.
g) Output:-The actual response that is obtained from a control
system due to the application of the input. It is also known as
controlled variable.
h) Manipulated Variable(Actuator)– It is the quantity or the
condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of
controlled variable.

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 Introduction (…)
i) Disturbances:– A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely
affect the value of the system. It is an unwanted input of the
system.
 If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called
internal disturbance. While an external disturbance is generated
outside the system.
j) Control systems:-An interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that will provide a desired response..

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Control System

Is a system where the output of the system is controlled to

be at some specific value or to change in some prescribed
way as determined by the input to the system.
Example:
Speed Control of DC motor by varying the Supply voltage

Types of Control Systems

1. Open-loop Control Systems
2. Closed-loop Control Systems (Automatic)
 Open-loop Control System

System which doesn’t automatically correct for variations in

its output
No information is feedback to the system to adjust itself and
maintain a constant output
An input is chosen on the basis of experience of such a system
to give the value of the required output.
Examples:
1. An electric heater with a selection switch
2. Systems which operate by preset timing mechanisms like
Traffic Lights, Washing Machine

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 Features of an open loop Control System

 Positive feature
 Relativelysimple hence low cost with generally
good reliability
 Inherently Stable

 Negative feature
 Often inaccurate since there is no error correction
 More sensitive to changes in component characteristics
 More sensitive to disturbances

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 Closed-loop Control System
A feedback signal to the input from the output will be sent
and used to modify the input so that the output is maintained
constant regardless of any changes in conditions.

Input e Actual Output

System

Feedback
Comparison
element

Example:

The open-loop heating system could be made a closed-loop if

some one with a thermometer monitors the temperature in the
room and switches the selection switch on and off .
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Ex: Weather Station:

INPUT:
The heat from the sun causes OUTPUT:
the temperature sensor to The temperature levels
produce data and this is sent are printed out. This is
to the computer. one form of output.

PROCESS: Feedback
Data is received by the The temperature is continuously
computer and it is processed. monitored and this is called feedback.
The processed data is As long as the sensor works, the
displayed on the monitor as a computer processes and the printer
graph. prints out - feed back is taking place.
 Input + e Output
Electric
Required - Heater Temperature
Temp. Signal
Temp.
Measurement

Features of Closed-loop Control Systems

 Positive features
 Ability to match the actual to the required value since there is
continuous error correction
 Less sensitivity to disturbances
 Increased speed of response and hence increased band width

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 Features of closed-loop Control System
 Negative features
 Instability because of time delays when transferring
corrective action
 More complex than open-loop and so more costly with a
greater chance of break down as a result of greater
number of components

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Basic Components

Any Control System consists of a number of basic sub-

systems or elements
Those elements could appear separate or integrated as a
single entity
The basic elements are:
1. Comparison Element
2. Control Element
3. Correction Element
4. Process Element (plant)
5. Measurement Element (Transducers)
 Open-Loop

Input Output
Control Correction Process
Signal Element Element Controlled
Variable
Controller

Closed-Loop
Controller

Input + e Control Correction Output

Process
Reference - Element Element Controlled
Value Variable
Comparison Measurement
element feedback Element
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 Terminology:

1. Comparison Element: compares the reference value of

the variable being controlled with the measured value of
the actual output and produces an error signal.
2. Control Element: decides what action to be taken after it
gets an error signal.
3. Correction Element (actuator): used to produce a
change in the process in order to avoid the error.
4. Process Element (Plant): is the system of which a
variable is being controlled
5. Measurement Element: Produces a Signal related to the
actual output and provides a feedback signal to the
comparison element.

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 Examples of open-loop Control System
An electric switch in which a man-made control system controls
the flow of electricity. The apparatus or person flipping the
switch is not part of this control system.
Flipping the switch on or off may be considered as the input, i.e.
the input can be in one of the two states, on or off. The output is
the flow or non-flow of electricity. This becomes an open-loop
control system because the control action is independent of the
output.

The operation of ordinary traffic signals which control traffic at

roadway intersections is another example of an open-loop control
systems wherein all control signals are pre-set by timing
mechanisms.
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 A thermostatically controlled heater or furnace automatically
regulating the temperature of a room or enclosure is an example
of a closed-loop control system.

When the thermostat detects that the output temperature is less

than the desired temperature input, the furnace provides heat until
the temperature of the enclosure becomes equal to the reference
input.

Then the furnace is automatically turned off as soon as the

temperature reaches the desired value.

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Difference between Open Loop and Closed Loop System
 Manually controlled closed-loop system for regulating the
level of fluid in a tank

In this control system:

 The reference is a desired level of fluid that operator is instructed
to maintain.
 The actuator is the valve that opens or closes the fluid flow out.
 The sensor is visual.
24 The controller is the operator
 Automobile steering control system

The driver uses the difference

between the actual and the
desired direction of travel to
generate a controlled adjustment
of the steering wheel.

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 Advantage of Control systems

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 Brain storming questions
#Identify whether it is open or closed loop control system
1. A man driving an automobile.
2. A person searching for a book on the table.
3. A blind man searching for a book on the table.
4. A man walking in prescribed direction.
5. Inserting thread into a needle.
6. A traffic man regulating car traffic flow from Addis to
Gondar with the aid of mobile with his colleague.
7. Students’ Cafeteria ticker allowing the student to enter
through without checking the capacity of sits.

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 Examples of Closed-loop control systems
The student teacher learning process

 There are two types of feedback:

1. Positive feedback
16 2. Negative feedback
 Positive Feedback

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 Negative Feedback

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 Effects of Feedback

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So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as
the reciprocal of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending
on the value of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
'GH' value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this
case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
 In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will
increase the sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and
decrease in the other frequency range.
Example 1 Find the sensitivity of the overall transfer function of the
system shown in Fig. with respect to

(i) forward path transfer function and

(ii) feedback path transfer function. The value of ω is 1.2 rad/sec.

 Effect of Feedback on stability

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Effect of Feedback on Noise
2. Mathematical Modeling Of Physical Systems
Introduction
Mathematical models of physical systems are key elements in the
design and analysis of control systems. The dynamic behavior is
generally described by ordinary differential equations.
We will consider a wide range of systems, including mechanical,
hydraulic, and electrical. Since most physical systems are nonlinear,
we will discuss linearization approximations, which allow us to use
Laplace transform methods.

We will then proceed to obtain the input-output relationship for

components and subsystems in the form of transfer functions.
The transfer function blocks can be organized into block diagrams or
signal-flow graphs to graphically depict the interconnections.
Block diagrams and signal-flow graphs are very convenient and
natural tools for designing and analyzing complicated control
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18 systems.
 Generally, the elements of physical systems have characteristics that
are non-linear in some degree and the analysis of non-linear systems
is usually difficult.
However in majority of practical situations, good prediction system
behavior and reliable design can be obtained using linearized
models.

A property common to all basic laws of physical systems is that

certain fundamental quantities can be defined by numerical values.
The physical laws define relationships between these fundamental
quantities and are usually represented by mathematical equations
and functions.
These mathematical models are then combined to produce a
composite mathematical model of the system which usually takes
the form of differential equations with time as independent variable.
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Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Mechanical Translational Systems
The mass, spring and damper are the there basic elements of a
mechanical translational system.
The mass is an inertial element and if a force is applied to the
mass, a reaction force is produced which acts in a direction
opposite to that of acceleration and this force is given by
Newton’s third law

Where f(t) is the force in Newtons, M is the mass in

Kilograms, v(t) is the velocity of the mass in m/s, x(t) is the
displacement of the mass in m.
 Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Mechanical Translational Systems
The spring provides a restoring force and if a force is
applied to a spring, a reaction force is produced which tries
to bring it back to its free length.
For small deformation, the force equation for the spring is

Where f(t) is the spring force in Newtons

K is the spring constant called stiffness in N/m
5 x(t) is the deformation of the spring in meters
Differential Equations of Physical Systems

Mechanical Translational Systems

In control systems viscous friction is linear in nature.

Where f v is viscosity in N-s/m

𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot
Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Example 2
For a given mechanical system consisting of M, K and fv as
shown in the fig, the differential equation can be written as

We assume the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus, only

the applied force points to the right; all other forces
impedance the motion and act to oppose it. Hence, the
spring, viscous damper, and the force due to acceleration
point to the left.
Differential Equations of Physical Systems
We now write the differential equation of motion using
Newton’s law to sum to zero all of the forces shown on
the mass in F
Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Mechanical Rotational Systems
Moment of inertia , a torsion spring and viscous friction are the
three basic elements of mechanical rotational system.
Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Where
T(t)- torque in Nm
ω(t)- angular velocity in rad/sec
θ(t)- angular displacement in rad
J- moment of inertia in kg/m2
D- coefficient of viscous friction in Nm/rad/sec
K- torsion stiffness in Nm/rad
Differential Equations of Physical Systems

Electrical Systems
Three electrical system building blocks – resistors,
capacitors and inductors
System inputs and outputs will tend be voltages, v, and
currents, i.
Input-output relationship of three electrical components can
be specified as voltage current or current-voltage
Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Electrical Systems
Resistor is an energy dissipation device (electrical energy
converted into thermal energy)

vR
Resistor : v R  iR , i 
R

Total resistance from combining resistors:

Resistors in series : R  R1  R2  ...Rn

1 1 1
Resistors in Parallel :    ...
1
R R1 R2 Rn
Differential Equations of Physical Systems
Electrical Systems
Capacitor can be regarded as an electricity reservoir that
can store electrical charge which can later be discharged.
Potential difference across capacitor plates dependent upon
charge at the time:
t
q 1 dvC
vc    idt , i  C
C C0 dt

Capacitors in parallel : C  C1  C2  ...Cn

1 1 1
Capacitors in series :    ...
1
C C1 C2 Cn
Differential Equations of Physical Systems

Electrical Systems
Electric current creates a magnetic field and energy can be
stored in the inductor by virtue of magnetic field. Voltage
induced across inductor is dependent upon rate of change of
current:
t
di 1
vL  L , i   vLdt
dt L0

Inductors in series : L  L1  L2  ...Ln

1 1 1 1
Inductors in Parallel :    ...
L L1 L2 Ln
 Differential Equations of Physical Systems

Electrical Systems
Newton’s laws used to build mechanical systems from
components. For electrical systems, we use Kirchhoff’s laws
to form differential equations for the systems.
These two laws can be very simply stated:
Law 1 – The total current flowing into a node in the circuit is
equal to the total current flowing from that node. (i.e. there is
no residual current at nodes)
Law 2 – In a closed loop of the network, the algebraic sum of
the potential differences across each part of the circuit is equal
to the applied voltage within that loop
Example: Obtain the transfer function of the electrical network
shown in fig.

Solution:
The required transfer function is E0(s)/Ei(s)
Loop equation is
1
𝑒𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 −−−−−−− − 1
𝐶
Output equation is

1
𝑒0 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 −−−−−−− − 2
𝐶

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial condition

1 𝐼(𝑠) 1 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐼 𝑠 + and 𝐸0 𝑠 =
𝐶 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠

1 𝐼(𝑠) 1
𝐸0 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠
= = 𝐶𝑠
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 1 𝐼(𝑠) 1
𝑅𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅+
𝐶 𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝐸0 𝑠 1
=
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
 ANALOGOUS SYSTEMS
a) Force-voltage analogy
b) Force-current analogy

a) Force-voltage
 ANALOGOUS SYSTEMS
b) Force-current analogy
Translational Electrical Rotational

Force(f) Current(i) Torque(T)

Mass (M) Capacitance(C) Inertia(J)

Damper(D or B) Conductance(1/R) Damper(D)

Spring(K) Reciprocal of inductance(1/L) Spring(K)

Displacement(x) Flux linkage(ψ) Displacement(θ)

Velocity(u) Voltage (v) Velocity(ω)

 Transfer Function Model
Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of
control systems.

“The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is

defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace
transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.”

If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the
corresponding Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).

Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of

𝐘(𝐬)
Y(s) and X(s). i. e. , Transfer function =
𝐗(𝐬)
Problem:

Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in

fig. and determine the transfer function.

Solution:
Here force f(t) is input and displacement x(t) is assumed as output.

𝑋(𝑠)
Hence the required transfer function is
𝐹(𝑠)

Here two mass M1 and M2 are available, therefore we get two differential
equations. At mass M1, there is no force applied
Force Balance equation is

𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑 𝑥1 − 𝑥
𝑀1 + 𝐵1 +𝐵 + 𝐾1 𝑥1 + 𝐾 𝑥1 − 𝑥 = 0 −−−−− −(1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At Mass M2, force applied is f(t)

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑀2 2 + 𝐵2 +𝐵 + 𝐾 𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝑓 𝑡 −−−−−−−− −(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Eqn 1& 2 are called DE, Taking LT of Eqn 1 with zero initial conditions we get,

𝑀1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐵1 𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐾1 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝑋 𝑠 =0

𝑋1 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾 − 𝑋 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0

𝑋1 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾 = 𝑋 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾

𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑋1 𝑠 = 2
𝑋 𝑠 −−−−−−−−−−−−− −(3)
𝑀1 𝑠 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾
Taking LT of Eqn 2 with zero initial conditions we get,

𝑀2 𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐵2 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑋1 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)

𝑋 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝑋1 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 = 𝐹 𝑠

Substitute X1(s)

2
𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑋 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝑋 𝑠 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 = 𝐹 𝑠
𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾

𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 2
𝑋 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 − =𝐹 𝑠
𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾

𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾 − 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 2
𝑋 𝑠 =𝐹 𝑠
𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾

𝑋 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾
=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵1 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾 − 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾 2

X(s)/F(s) called transfer function of the system.

Problem:- Determine Y2(s)/F(s) of the system shown in fig.

Solution:
Force balance equation at node M1 is
𝑑 2 𝑦1 𝑑𝑦1
𝑀1 2
+𝐵 + 𝐾1 𝑦1 + 𝐾2 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑓 𝑡 −−−−− − 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Force balance equation at node M2 is
𝑑 2 𝑦2
𝑀2 + 𝐾2 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 0 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −(2)
𝑑𝑡 2
Taking Laplace transform of equation 1 with zero initial conditions we get,
𝑀1 𝑠 2 𝑌1 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠𝑌1 𝑠 + 𝐾1 𝑌1 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑌1 𝑠 − 𝑌2 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠
𝑌1 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 − 𝑌2 𝑠 𝐾2 = 𝐹 𝑠 −−−−−−− − 3
Taking Laplace transform of equation 2 with zero initial conditions we get,
𝑀2 𝑠 2 𝑌2 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑌2 𝑠 − 𝑌1 𝑠 = 0
𝑌2 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐾2 − 𝑌1 𝑠 𝐾2 = 0
𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐾2
𝑌1 𝑠 = 𝑌2 𝑠
𝐾2
Substitute Y1(s) in eq. 3 we get
𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐾2
𝑌2 𝑠 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 − 𝑌2 𝑠 𝐾2 = 𝐹 𝑠
𝐾2
𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐾2 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 − 𝐾2 2
𝑌2 𝑠 =𝐹 𝑠
𝐾2
𝑌2 𝑠 𝐾2
=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝐾2 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 − 𝐾2 2
3. Block Diagrams
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the
functions performed by each component and of the flow of
signals. The block diagram gives an overview of the system.
Block diagram items:

Arrows are used to represent the directions of signal flow.

A summing point is where signals are algebraically added together.
Takeoff point is junction where signal is taken off.
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18 The block is usually drawn with its transfer function written inside it.
Block Diagram Terminology

Forward path – elements through which signal passes in input-

output direction – transfer functions usually designated G(s)
Feedback path – elements through which signal is being fed back
in output-input direction – transfer functions usually designated
H(s)

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18
Feedforward path – elements in parallel with forward path –
signal in input-output direction
Block Diagram Reduction
The following block diagram reduction algebra is used
4. Signal Flow Graphs
For complicated systems, Block diagram reduction method
becomes tedious & time consuming.
An alternate method is that signal flow graphs developed by S.J.
Mason.
In these graphs, each node represents a system variable & each
branch connected between two nodes acts as Signal Multiplier.
The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow.
Definitions:
1. Node: A node is a point representing a variable.
2. Transmittance: A transmittance is a gain between two nodes.
3. Branch: A branch is a line joining two nodes. The signal
travels along a branch
4. Input node [Source]: It is a node which has only out going
39
signals.
 Signal Flow Graphs
1. Output node [Sink]: It is a node which is having only incoming
signals.
2. Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing
branches (signals).
3. Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction of
branch arrows. Such that no node is traversed more than once.
4. Loop: It is a closed path.
5. Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch transmittances of a loop.
6. Non-Touching Loops: Loops are Non-Touching, if they do not
possess any common node.
7. Forward Path: It is a path from i/p node to the o/p node which
doesn’t cross any node m ore than once.
8. Forward Path Gain: It is the product of branch transmittances of a
forward path.
Mason’s Gain Formula:
The relation between the i/p variable & the o/p variable of a
signal flow graphs is given by the net gain between the i/p & the
o/p nodes and is known as Overall gain of the system.
Mason’s gain formula for the determination of overall
system gain is given by,

Where,
 PK– Forward Path gain of
 Kth forward path.
 Δ = Determinant of the graph.
 Mason’s Gain Formula:

 ΔK →The value of the Δ for that part of the graph not

touching the Kth forward path.
 T → Overall gain of the system.
 Conversion of Block Diagrams
into Signal Flow Graphs
Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent
signal flow graph.

 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off

points of block diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow
graph.
 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block
diagram as gains of the branches in signal flow graph.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection
between two nodes (but there is no block in between), then
represent the gain of the branch as one.
For example, between summing points, between summing point and
takeoff point, between input and summing point, between take-off
point and output.
Block diagram convert into Signal Flow Graph
Signal Flow Graph convert into Block diagram
Quiz #1
Convert into signal flow graph and Using Mason's
Formula Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s)