ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Dr. Fozia Batool

 Analytical Chemistry
• Branch of science which deals with analysis of
chemical substances.
• Analysis is used here in broad sense which
include
• Qualitative Analysis
• Quantitative Analysis
Analytical Chemistry
Qualitative Analysis
 Gravimetric Method
• “Gravi” mean weight and “metry” mean to
measure.
• In this method we measure weight of
compound to determine its quantity.
Types of Gravimetric Analysis
There are 4 fundamental types of gravimetric analysis. Of which, there are 2
common types involving changes in the phase of the analyte to separate it
from the rest of a mixture, resulting in a change in mass.
Volatilization gravimetry
Volatilization Gravimetry involves separating components of our mixture by
heating or chemically decomposing the sample.
Precipitation gravimetry
Precipitation Gravimetry uses a precipitation reaction to separate one or more
parts of a solution by incorporating it into a solid.
• CaCO3---------------
CaO + CO2
 Types
Electrogravimetry
Electrogravimetry is a method used to separate
and quantify ions of a substance, usually a
metal.
Thermogravimetric
Thermogravimetric is a method of thermal
analysis in which changes in physical and
chemical properties of materials are measured
as a function of increasing temperature or as a
function of time.
 Volumetric methods
• Volumetric analysis is a quantitative analytical
method which is used widely. As the name
suggests, this method involves measurement
of the volume of a solution whose
concentration is known and applied to
determine the concentration of the analyte.
• These methods involve titrations.
 Volumetric methods
• Acid-Base Titration
• Redox Titration
• Complexometric Titration
• Precipitation Titration
• M1V1/n1 = M2V2/n2
 Electroanalytical Methods
• These methods involve electric properties of
the substance to measure the quantity.
• E.g. Voltammetry, Potentiometric methods
etc.
 Spectroscopic Methods
• In these methods interaction of light with
sample is used to measure its quantity.
• IR Spectroscopy
• UV-Visible Spectroscopy
CONCENTRATION UNITS &
THEIR INTERCONVERSION
 solution
• Moles = Given weight/Molecular weight
• Moles = 58.44/58.44
• Moles= 1
• M=½
• M = 0.5M
 MOLARITY
• Required Molarity x Molecular Weight = X g/L
• NaCI
• 1 X 58.5 = 58.5g/L
• 58.5g/1000mL = 58.5 X 5 = 1000X 5= 292.5g/5000mL
• 5.85g/100mL
• 2.925g/50mL
 Molarity
• Required M = 0.75M of NaCI
• M = 0.05M of NaOH
• 1.5M of NaCI
 NORMALITY
• No of gram equivalent of solute per liter of
solution.

• N = Gram equivalent of solute/ Liter of

solution
 Equivalent Weight
• EW = Molecular Weight/n
• n= No of equivalent
• For acids and basis n = No of replaceable H or
OH ions
• For salts is total charge on cation or anion
 Normality
• HCI
• H2SO4
• CH3COOH
• NH4OH
 EW
• EW of HCI = 36.5/1 = 36.5
• EW of H2SO4= 98/2 = 49
• EW of CH3COOH = 60.05/1= 60.05
• EW of H3PO4 = 98/3 = 32.6
 EW
• EW of NaCI = 58.5/1= 58.5
• EW of CaCI2 = 110/2 = 55
• EW of AICI3 = 133/3=
 Normality
• No of gram equivalent = given weight /
Equivalent weight
• Moles = given weight / molecular weight
 NORMALITY
• Required Normality x Equivalent
Weight Weight = X g/L
 NORMALITY
• 0.5N NaCI= 58.5/1= 58.5 x 0.5 =
• 0.5 N H2SO4= 98/2= 49X0.5= 24.5g/L
• 0.5 N CH3COOH= 60.05x0.5= 30.5g/L
• 0.5 N HCI = 0.5x36.5= 18.25g/L
• 0.5N CaCI2 = 110/2 = 55 x 0.5 =
 N
• Mass of solute in g/100mL of Solution
 MOLALITY
• No of moles of solute per Kg of the solvent.
• m = No of moles of solute / Kg of solvent
Required m x Molecular wt. = x g / Kg of
solvent
1m NaCI
1m X 58.5 = 58.5g / 1Kg solvent
 Percent solutions
• w/v %
• v/w%
• w/w%
• v/v%
 w/v %

• w/v% =Amount of solute in

gram/amount of solution in mL x 100
 w/v %
• Prepare 5 % sugar solution
• If we dissolve 30 g NaCI in 500 Ml. what is %
of solution
• You have 50% solution of CaCI2 in 250mL.
What is amount of CaCI2 in gm in that
solution.
 Part per million (ppm)
• 1ppm = 1mg/L
• 2ppm NaCI = 2mg/L
• 20ppm NaCI = 20mg/L
 Part per million (ppm)

• Molecular mass of compound/ atomic

mass of the element = Xg/L
• This will give 1000ppm of that element.
Stock solution
• By diluting we got required concentration
 PPM
• NaCI = 58.5
• 23g of Na present in NaCI = 58.5g
• 1g of Na present in NaCI = 58.5/23
• 1g Na present in NaCI = 2.5 g
• 2.5g /1L solution = 1000ppm for Na
• 1g = 1000mg = so 1000mg Na in 1L =
1000ppm
 PPM
• 1000ppm of Fe from FeSO4.5H2O
• 1000ppm of CI from NaCI
• 1000ppm of Cu fro CuSO4.5H2O
 Part per million (ppm)
• 1000ppm
• 100ppm
 C1V1=C2V2

• Dilution Equation

• C1 is the concentration of the stock solution.

• V1 is the volume to be removed (i.e., aliquoted)
from the concentrated stock solution.
• C2 is the final concentration of the diluted
solution.
• V2 is the final volume of the diluted solution. This
is the volume that results after V1 from the stock
solution has been diluted with diluent to achieve
a total diluted volume of V2.
• C1V1=C2V2
• 100ppm x V1 = 5ppm x 100mL
• V1 = C2V2/C1
• V1 = 5 X 100/100
• V1 = 5mL
• C1V1= C2V2
• C1= 1000ppm
• V1=
• C2 = 28 ppm
• V2 = 50mL
• V1 =28 x 50/1000 =1.4 mL
 PPB
• 1ppb = 1 micrograme /L of solution
• 1ppm = 1000 ppb
 For individual metal
• Molecular mass of compound/Atomic mass of
element =
• X mg/L of solution
• This will give 1000ppb solution
 CONVERSION
• w/V % to M
• (Given % Solution x 10) /Molecular Wt.
• Given 25 % NaCI
• Given % g/100mL solution
• Given % g/Molecular Wt. x 100mL
• Mol/L or mol / 1000mL
 M to %
• Given M x Molecular wt. / 10
 Ppm to M
• Given ppm / 1000 x Molecular Weight

• Given M x 1000 x Molecular Weight

• Ppm
• mg/L
• mg/1000 = g
• Given wt in g /Molecular wt. = mole
• 1g = 1000 mg
• 500 ppm NaCI
• 500/58.5 x 1000
• 0.00584 M
 CONVERSIONS
• M to ppm
• Given M x Molecular Wt. x 1000
• Given ppp/Molecular wt. x 1000
 N to M
• N=Mxn
• M = N/n
 CONVERSION
• 5M to % H3PO4
• 40% to M
• 70% to N
• 2.5 N to M
• 1.6 M to ppm
• 400ppm to M
• Given M x molecular wt/10
• 5 x 58.5 /10
• 29.25%
 Median
• 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7
• 1.4 +1.5/2
Standard deviation
Standard deviation
 SD

Readingd Individual Xi-X (Xi-X)2

value (Xi)
1 9.5 -0.05 0.0025
2 9.0 -0.55 0.3025
3 10 0.45 0.2025
4 9.7 0.15 0.0225
Mean (X) 38.2/4 = 0.53
9.55
 SD
• SD = 0.53 /4-1
• SD = 0.53/3
• SD = ±0.1767
 VARIANCE
• Variance is simply square of standard
deviation.
• V = (S.D)2
 NUMERICAL
• Calculate standard deviation for data,
• 9.5, 10.1, 10.5, 10.9, 11
 Solution

Sr No Xi Xi-X (Xi-X)2
1 9.5 -0.9 0.81
2 10.1 -0.3 0.09
3 10.5 0.1 0.01
4 10.9 0.5 0.25
5 11 0.6 0.36
Mean= Σ(Xi-X)2 1.52
10.4
 Relative Error
• Relative error = (Xi-Xt/Xt) x100
 Instrumental error
• These errors arise due to faulty construction
of instrument.
• These can be removed by calibrating
instrument.
 ERROR OF METHOD
• These errors are due to incomplete or wrong
method.
• These can also be minimized or removed.
 Indeterminate errors
• These errors cannot be determined. These are
random and suddenly arise in results.
• E.g Sudden change in temperature, moisture
or wind direction
 Significant figures
• All certain digits in a number and first
uncertain digit are called significant figures.
• 3.45
• 3.4 are certain digits
• 5 is first uncertain number
 Rules for addition & subtraction
• All figures must contain as many significant
figures as in least accurately known value.
• e. g. In a weight balance following results are
obtained,
• 10.85 +9.345 + 8.2 + 6.7574
• Least accurately known digit is 8.2 which have
one significant figure after decimal point.
 Rules
• So all digits should be according to this least
accurately known digit before addition and
subtraction.
• So
• 10.85 +9.345 + 8.2 + 6.7574 will become
• 10.9 + 9.4 + 8.2 + 6.8
• 35.3
 Rules for division and multiplication
• Answer must contain as many significant
figures as in least accurately known digit
contain.
• 12.156 x 5.2 x 2.75
• 173.8308
• 173.8
 Practice
• 8.54 + 3.5 – 9.5123 / 2.124
• 8.54 +3.5 – 4.479
• 8.5 +3.5 -4.479
• 12.0 - 4.479
• 12.0 – 4.5
• 7.5
• 9.354 x 5.5 – 5.6 +9.3654 / 8.1
• 47.1
• 9.354 x 5.5 – 5.6 +9.3654 / 8.1
• 9.354 x 5.5 -5.6 + 1.156222
• 9.354 x 5.5 -5.6 +1.2
• 51.447 – 5.6 +1.2
• 51.5 -5.6 +1.2
• 52.7-5.6
• 47.1
 Chemical equilibria
• Chemical equilibrium refers to the state of a
system in which the concentration of the
reactant and the concentration of the
products do not change with time and the
system does not display any further change in
properties.
• When the rate of the forward reaction is equal
to the rate of the reverse reaction, the state of
chemical equilibrium is achieved by the
system.
 Types of Chemical
•There are two Equilibrium
types of chemical equilibrium:
• Homogeneous Equilibrium
• Heterogeneous Equilibrium