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10 views25 pagesComputer Graphics
Computer Graphics Bca s3 notes
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DurgaCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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/ 25
(a
c. SUBJECT: COMPUT
tte value 4, @ ptchre,
teen that holds a set of intensity values. It is also
ressable unit of scresa. More will be the number
QL. “Whatis% pier? 27 S09
// Ans. — Apixel or picture clemgntis anoint ou ihe s
‘\éalled a pel, 1 is also defined ¢s smalle
of pixels beter wil be the resolution
Q2. “What is a frame buffer?
Aniiy icture definition is stored in a memory area calle
that holds the set of intensity values for
represented by bit value 1
refsGh butfer
Q3._ Befine persistence. Why
ed frame buffer. It is a temporary memory
all the screen points. In frame buffer, a used pixel is
lunused pixel is represented by bit value O.ft is also called
meit American systems use persistence of 1/30 seconds.
It is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its
“NN orginal intensity. For intraced systems beam has to scan whole serees So te nee
such persistence was used. This is average persistence. The range of persistence is between 10
10 60 misroseconds. High pessistence is used for static and complex pictures. Low persistence
is used for animation,
Qk. Y Define resolution.
Ans. “It is defined as the
‘number of
Yertiallys More willbe pixels, mre wil
as. aspect ratio? What isthe ben
Ani Wis defined as the ratio of vertical et
‘J length lines in both dirediohs en tne
ine ploted with 4 points By usi
Bremer aepect ratio we can raw images und polygons showing o
QE. Whotis image Processing? 32> ~ *
An Ki adie al bite creas oa pspaps Teng
‘applications of image procsssng ar:
1. Improving picture quality
2._-Machine perception of visual information.
Q7. What are the disadvantages of direct view storage tube?
1. They. do not display color, =< ne tube?
peepee a
os emanate a ae
Ans“ Emissive flat panel displays: are. devices that convert le
*ctrical energy into lig 3
Plasma panels, light-emitting diodes. There is use of emiuces See
sive el ii are devices that use optical ‘effects to yert li
light ftom some other source into ar seal Gaels
or
Srephic pattems, eg, LCD (Liquid Crystal display No. *
ters are used in non emissive display, s vrs.
Ke s
include a colour monitor, Keyboard, graphics tablet in eduite to
storage & telecommunication servies,
an
10 What is meant by horizontal & vertical retrace?
At the end of each sean lin
inadequate. If we have a number of
: then we can select symbol by simp:
Pointing .s0 for faster selection pointing devices are used Pointing device is ted
ee SE ted Se . 2/28
for_new items.
selecting already existing symbols whereas positioning devices are. used fF tee rye
SFacy aT input devices Gan be used for positioning and pointing. Light p
‘fpointing device whereas trackball, spaceball, joystick are positioning devices
12. ogoarentinte between impact nonmpact prin er ante
KE “impact printers press formed character faces against an inked ribbon conto the pap
rari an crane ofan inpest eve ,
thermal methods to get images onto paper,
. What is Beam Penetration method?
SiS BENS ehod two ayers of phosphor, wlually red green are created inside the CRT sereen
7 & the displayed colors depends on how farithe eleclgon beam penetrates into the phosphor
& the splay ole ecnrone exter daly therputer red layer, A beam of Very fast
rerone penetrates through the red layer & excites the ier green layer.
14, What are the basie methods for recording the inputjn touch:panels:
Xnk 1. Optical
2 Electronic
3 Acoustical method
15” Define use of display adapters. Name any two commonly used display adapters?
Gee Display adapter ts output device. It is wed fo diplay data. EGA, VGA, SVGA are
commonly used graphic adapters aa
Q16. What isthe difference between interlacing and non-iaterlacing?
Ras. In interlaced systems scanning each horizopial ine traced from top to bottom. Due to which
fading of display of object may occur, [This problem can be solved by non interlaced
Scanning. In this fist of all odd numbered lines are traced by electron beam, then in next
cycle even number of lines are traced. In npn-interlaced system refresh rate of 30 frames per
Second is used For interlaced system reffesh ate of 60 frames per second is used.
Q17._/ What is flickering? w i a
e persistence of phosphor do not match! with refresh rate, then flicker said to occur Due
© to flicker some part of picture appear dull as compared to another part.
Q at are various positioning methods?
Coordinate values supplied by locater input are often used with positioning ‘methods to
specify a location for displaying an object or a character string. We interactively sclect
coordinate position with a pointing device, usually by pysitioning the screen cursor Just how
the objector text string positioning is performed depends on selected options. For positioning,
2 string we can select center point or start or end point of screen. For lines, stright line
can be displayed between two selgtted screen positions.
“What are rubberband methods?.~
‘Ans. It is used to draw straight lines. The-rubber bend-methgd stretch out a line from a starting
position as the screen cursor is moved. First of all screen position for one end point .€ start
point is selected. Then another end point ig selected. This method can draw other objects apart
‘What are the advantage of LCD over CRT? .
1, Itis light in weight.
2.Power requirements are very less.
3.11 is used for manufacturing of portable devices.
4.No refreshing is required
‘5.It has long life as compared to CRT.
Q2i, On which part of computer a mouse is ponnected?
‘Ans. Mouse is connected to CPU .CPU has two types of ports serial and parallel . Mouse is
‘connected to serial port. The connection is using a cable,
22, Abxplain why double buffering is needed to maintain display files?
‘Two butfers are needed in high quality systems. One buffer is used for refreshing, while other
is used to store intensity value. The role of two buffers can be interchanged. This method
provides fast mechanism for generating ‘cal time animation. Fast changing of intensity values
is also possible. : :
a
” SUBJECT: COMPUTER GRAPHICS (MCA)
3/28
1, What is interactive computer graphics? List the applications of computer graphics
OW arecoaponnah of 130 ene pects?
‘Ans, Interactive computer graphics(ICG): It is study of techniques to improve communication
between man and computer. ICG provide ficlity of pictorial representation of data
‘Components: It should provide user with < variety of functions for creating and manipulating
pictures. These functions are used for ifpui, ‘output, viewing transformation. The basic
building blocks are called as output primitives. These are line, point, curve, polygon, circle
ce. GKS and PHIGS are graphics software packages. Using package viewing transformation
fare be possible. Using package clipping of objects is possible. We can rotate object in
Clockwise and anticlockwise direction using packages. We can translate, scale objects.
«22 Computer Aided Design(CAD)
2-Presentation graphics
ater Art
[B-Entetainment
SS. Btuestion & Training
Se Nisualization
he vale epg a ete eh bole -
“scan displays: Its based Bwitelevision technology. In this system an electron beam
is swept across the screen, one row at a time form top to bottom. As the electron beams moves —
across each row, the beam intensity is turned on & off to create a pattem of illuminated spots.
Picture defiaition is stored in a memory area called frame buffer. This memory area holds the
set of intensity values forall the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from
the buffer & plotted on the screen one row at a time. e.g. printers
z 2. Random Scan displays: Here a CRT has the electron beam directed only to the pars of the
‘sereen where a picture is tobe drawn Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at time.
eg: pen plotter. §
3.. Color CRT monitors: They display color pictures by using a combination of phosphors i
that emit different colored light. By combining the emitted light form the different phosphors, 4
‘range of colors'can be generated.” q
4. A direct view storage tube stores picture infSrmaticn as a Gharge distribution just behind
T. They are divided into two categories: aJEmissive
displays: are devices that convert electrical energy into light. e.g. Plasma panels.
>) Non-emissive displays: are devices that convert sunlight or light from some other source .
ino graphics panerns. Eg :LCD.
ar ‘are the various input devices? Explain the working principle of each of them.
a : c
: 1. Keyboards: js used primarily as a device for eftering text strings. Functions keys allow
- °° + users to enter frequently used Operations & cursor contol keys can be used to select
displayed objects or coordinate positions by positioning the screen cursor.
2, Mouse: isa small hand-held box used to position the screen cursor. Wheels or rollers on
the bottom of the mouse can be used to record the amount and direction of movement.
3. Trackball: is a ball that can be rotated with fingers or palm. or the hand, to produce
‘sereen-cursor movement. Potentiometers, attached to the ball, measure the amount &
irection of rotation. 4/28
oer the
tons tha is
siached 10 0 bs
pick: 1h eons of a ks ee with actual stick movement,
4 oy omit of sons ot vers postions wh
screen cus joa me
Srhers respond to pressure 0th | ae
5 ne eats used to.gyasp a vctal objec, The glove is
pensos that detect hand & finger motions ae
4, Diginiers: ia device for drawing, panting, o selecting coe
1 to input a set of discrete coordinate positions,
Sie acon ver raving of ajet rancor is
Te uae opm one srg lie segments 0 proximate th
1, Pm scans: Dining, oie text can be sass for compete, procenieg
mechanism over the information to
with an image seanner by passing an optical scanning, mechanism
ier 104 with the touch of
or. alow displayed objet ce sxeen postions to be see ‘
Tevch tn aoc can De reordered wing opel, lecrel or acoustical methods,
Se os penllahaped devie ae aes (0 select seen postions by detecting
«coming om points on the CRT sree.
10. Voice ar Speech recognizers are used in some graphics workstations as input
Joie mere voice commands. The voloesystem input can be used to initiate
see apcnans ot enter da, These stems operat DY maching an inp against a
%. Ahadow-mask methods are commonly used in Raster-scan systems because they produce a
ze
predefined dictionary of words & phrases,
04 Exptain the working of shadow mask CRT.
much wider range of colors than the beam penetration method. A shadow mask CRT has three
‘phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a
green light, and the third emits a blue light. This type of CRT bias three electron guns, one for
‘each color dot, & a shadow mask grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen. The three
electron beams are deflected & faguted BF" grem onto the shadow mask, which contains a
series of holes aligned with the phésphor-dot pattems. When the three beams pass through a
hole inthe shadow mask, they activate a dot
the screen. The
7 : hard copy devices are printers
locas, rises posure opel Cy bet ager merino ne ies
‘press formed characters faces against an inked ribbon onto the paper. A line primer i an
‘example of an impact device Non-ifnpkct printers & plotters use laser techniques, ink-jet
sprays, xerographic process is, electrostatic methods, & electro thermal methods to get images
‘onto paper. In a laser device, a laser beam creates 4 charge distribution on a rotating drum
coated with a photoelectric material, such as selenium. Tones is applied to the drum & then
transferred on papet. Ink-jet methods produce output by blotting ink in horizontals rows
across a roll of paper wrapped on 1 drum, An electrostatic device process a negative charge
‘on the paper ,.one complete row at time along the lengsh of the paper. Then. the paper is
caper es Ble ier tds at hat 1 a Par on aberaive
paper. ings are typically generated with ink-jet or pen-plotters.
‘crossbar, that spans a sheet of paper. *
td ctrat shadow mish and beam pendrition method?
‘methods are used in color CRT monitors. Beam penetration method is used for random
“can monitors. In beam penetration two layers of phosphor red and gréen are coated inside
CRT sereen, the display of color depead on how far electron excites outer red layer, then
‘green layer, This method can produce four colors i.¢ red green, orange, yellow. This is less Qn.
5/28
Seuly method as compared to shadow mask. But it can produce less colors as compared
shadow mask. The quality of pictire is alko poor as compared to shadow mask. Shadow mask
is used for raster scan systems, It can produce wide variety of colors Ther is three phosphor
‘olor dots at each-fixel potion. One phorghor dat emit red light, another emit gren light
third emit blue ight. Three guns one foreach color are used. Thee beams passthrough holes
in shadgw‘mask, and a small color spot on screen i appeared. Shadow masks are used so
spla¥ device for home computers, color ty set ete
Plan the role & working ofa video controller in Raster Sean systems.
Interactive raster graphics systems typically employ several processing units. {n addition to
the CPU, 8 special-purpose, processor, called the video controller is used to control the
‘operation of the display device.
eS Neary tee [laos
' q
aa
VO Devices t
A fixed area of memory is reserved forthe frame
access to the frame buifer memory.
Pattions are referenced in Cartesian
Figinis defined at the lower leffighimer. The
quadrant of the 2-D system. Sean lings are then
At the bottom Along each scan line, screen pinch positions ate labeled fom o to cen
reifesh operations of the video contoller are programmed ss below.
Two registers are used to store the coordinates ofthe sereen pixels. Initially the x register ic
Sel to zero de they register i Se 10 Yau. The value stored in the frame buffer for tee rock
Pesition is then renieved & used to set the intensity ofthe CRT beam. Then the x egies
looremented by 1, & the process repeated for the next pixel on the top seas Ine The
vrocedure isthe last pixel‘on the top scan line has been processed, the x register is raat va
aro do the y register is deeemented by 1.
buffer & the video controller is given direct
Frame buffer locations & the corresponding screen
r ‘many graphics monitors, the coordinate
scteen surface is represented as the first
labeled fFOm Yau. af the top ofthe s
QS. Why electron beam is allowed to oversean? Also di
iscuss about the technique which
os a
‘Ans.
Roster lines extend beyond the visible edge of the CRT. This is beeause there isa limit to how
pidly the sweep generator can alter the magnetic or electic field created by deflection yoke.
£5 deflection yoke changes the electroncheam direction, it also tend to create annoying
bbarders and_distons picture. Soin order to,avoid creating border and distortion the lecron
cam is allowed to nin some distance beyond the viewable edge of CRT.
‘hat is the mechanism of showing text on graphics screen?
oR f
nics characters are generated? .
Charters on be psc! vac of sl on oe: The ol ign rasa
characters Is called as typeface, Today there are hundreds of typefaces available for computer
applicat ons. Examples of typefaces ure courier, Helvetica, New York, Palatino. The tera feat
referre toa set of cast metal characters forms particular size and format.
Functioas available in PHIGHS software for generating text
1. tex(wepoint string)
2 setlentFonttt)
3. se femtColurindex(te)
4
5
se CharacterHeighi(ch)
se:CharacterExpansionF actor(ew) Quo,
6/28
6. setCharactef’pacing(cs)
1. setChafacterUpVector(upvect)
NWhatae the different types of user interfaces?
Ans. 1,Keyboard
A Mouse
3. Light Pen
4, Digitizer
5. Scanner
6, Touch screen jo
According to phigs dnd gks input devices arg’bf following type: ‘
Locator: used to specify coordinate position stroke: device used to specify series of coordinate
position
STRING: used to specify tex« input
VALUATOR: device used for specify scalar values
CHOICE: device of selecting menu
, PICK: used for selecting picture components
Q11./ Difigreftiate between raster scan and random scan displays,
s// Tr€ most common form of graphics monitor employing a CRT is the raster scan display,
ay
‘based on television technology. In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the
sereen, one row at a time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row,
the beam intensity is tumed on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spéts. Picture
definition is stored in a memory area called te refresh buffer or frame buffer. This memory
area holds intensity values for all the screen points, Stored intensity values are then retrieved
from the refresh buffer and pointed on the screen one row at a time. Each screen point is
referred to as a pixel
When operated as a'random scan display ynft, the.CRT has the electron beam directed only to
the parts of the screen where a picturedg-to be drawn. Random scan monitors draw a picture
one line at a time and for this reason are also knownas vector displays. ‘The component lines
of a picture can b and refreshed by a random scan system. A pen plotter operates in a
an example of a random scan, hard copy device.
‘of most video monitors is based on the standard cathode ray tibe(CRT). In a
‘a beam of electrons emitted by an electron gun, passcs through focising and deflection
“systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on the phosphor coated screen. The”
. phosphor then emits a small spot Position contacted ‘by the electron beam.
Because the light emitted by the pl very rapidly, some method is needed for
4 maintaining the screen picture. One way.to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture
‘called a refresh CRT.
jin the operation of electron gun in thé working of a CRT.
primary compotients of an electron CRT are the heated metal cathode and a
‘control. grid. Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire,
called the filament, inside the cylindrical ‘cathode structure. This causes electrons to be
“boiled off the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, the free,
negatively charged electrons are then accelerated towards the phosphor coating by a high
positive voltage. The accelerating voltage outs ‘generated with a positively charged metal
‘coating of the inside of the CRT envelope, near the phosphor screen, of an accelerating anode
| can be used. Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting voltage levels on. the
‘control grid, ‘which is @ metal cylinder that fits over the cathode: A tigh negative voltage
applied to the coatrol grid will shut off the beam by repelling electrons and stopping them
from passing through the small hole at the ‘end of the control grid structure, A smaller
negative voltage on the control. grid simply decreases the number of electrons pfassign
through. Since the amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends oi the number of
electrons striking the screen, we control the ightness of a display by varying the voltage on
the control grid. ont
a
xpidin the working of LCDs.
Ups we i nd portable, laptop
ized light from the
Leds are commonly used in small systems, such as calculator
domputers. These non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing pe
«_/ samrvnding or from an intemal light source through a liquid crystal material that can be
signed we iter Block or transmit he light. The trm liquid erytal refers othe fet hat these
compounds have a crystalline arrangement of mTecutes, yet they flow like aliquid. Flat panel
is.
Ans.
gus.
Ans.
between pixels is provided by the lectric field-of the conductors: One disadvantage of plasm
panels have been that they were strictly monochromatic devices, but systems have been
qu.
Ans.
shaped molecules aligned a a Mat panel. display two. glass plates, each containing a Tigh
Tarizer at right angles «9 the other plats, sandwich the liquid crystal material, Rows o
peleiast]rarapavemt conduitors are built nfo one glass pate and columns of veal
Ronductors are put iato the other plate. The intersection of two conductors defines a pixcl
fontion Polarized light passing through the material is twisted so that tc wit pass through the
Spposite polarizer. The Tight is then reflected back to the viewed To turn off the pixel, we
Sbply a voltage to two intersecting conductors to align the molecules s0-that-the light is not
vite} =
displays commonly we Tau etal compounds that tend to keep the long axes of the rod
‘What are the different components of a workstation?
Graphics systems range from small general-purpose computer systems with graphics
capabilities to sophisticated full-color systems that are designed specifically for graphics
applications, A workstation is not a single cémputer. It consists of various other components
for devices that are attached. The components attached depend on the pufpose and the
application being used. Many graphics workstations are configured with two monitors. One
monitor can be used to show all the features of an object or scene, while the second monitor
displays the detail in some part of the picture, For example, a specific setup for CAD
applications may contain various Keyboards, button boxes, tablets and mice attached to the
‘video monitors for use in the design ‘an artist's workstation may contain a
color rster-sean moniter, es tibet with hand cursor and a light table, in
Addition to storage and tlecommuntettion = =
How are plasma panels constructed? Explain.
Plasma panels also called gas discharge displays are constructed by filling the region between.
‘two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually contain neon. A series of vertical
conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal ribbons is built into the
other glass panel. Firing voltages applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors cause
the gas at the intersection of the two conductors to break down into glowing plasma of
electrons. Picture definition is stored in a refresh, buffer and the firing voltages are applied to
reffesh the pixel positions 60 times per sucond) Alternating current methods are used to
fide faster applications of the firing voltages and thus brighter displays. Separation
‘developed that are now capable of displaying color and grayscale
‘What are the different techniques used for representing three-dimensional objects?
“The various techniques used are:
1) Graphics monitors for the display of three-dimensional scenes have been devised using a
technique that reflects a CRT image from a vibrating, flexible mirror. In this system, as the
mirror vibrates, it changes focal length. These vibrations are synchronized with the display of
an object on a CRT so that each point on the object is reflecting from the mifror into a spatial
position corresponding to the distance of that point from a specified viewing position. ‘This
allows us to walk around an objet or scene and view i fom dies sides,
2) Atiother technique for representing three-dimensional objects is displaying ‘stereoscopic
iow This method does ot produce tre thiee-dmensional images, wt i des provide
three dimensional effect by presenting a different view to each eye of an observer $0 that
scenes do appear 10 have depth, To obiain a stereoscopic projection, we first need to obtain
‘two views of a scene generated from a viewing direction corresponding to each eye. We can
construct the two views as computer-generatyd scenes with different viewing positions, or we
‘can use a stereo camera pair 12 photograph. some object or scene. When we simultaneously
look atthe left view withy the left eye and the right view with the right eye, the two images Qu
An
SUBJECT: COMPUTER GRAPHICS (MCA)
9/28
What are output primitives?
The basic building blocks for pictures, are known as outpst primitives. They include
Characters sirings Se geometric entities such as points, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas
etc
02, Whi is shearing?
‘Anss A transformation thal distorts the shape of olffet such that the transferred shape appears as if
the object were composed of intemal Inyers.that had been caused to slide over each other is
called shearing.
Q3. Write the general principle behind DDA algorithm,
Ans,
Qs.
the digital differential analyzer is a scan-coniversion line algorithm based on calculating
cither Wy-or dx. We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate & determine
comespdsding integer Values nearest othe line path for the other coordinate.
€ ved,
Where the rotation matrix is R= cos -sin@ mectctsteatie SOW
sin® _c0s0
3, Sealing: A scaling transformation alters the size of an object. This operation can be
3 Seu out for polygons by multiplying the coordinate values (xy) of each vertex by scaling
factors sx & sy to produce the transformed coordinates (x" ¥"):
xL=xsx ,y1=ys¥
a at ocedure that identifies those portions of picture that are either inside or ouside of 8
“Spevified region or space is known as clipping.
aaa cchcrand ine ping Algor:
eae ae i performing inital tests
that reduce the ae Hf ene
ool,
0101 | 0100 on10
ach bit positon in the region code is used to indicate one ofthe four relative coordinate
auton ofthe point with respect the ep window: the lef Fight, top or Paso. BY 4. / Weitethe steps for bresenham's
Ans
so Nang,
a a
ie rent
weVey
bs 4,
QS. Write the steps for midpoint circle
Ans,
en
3. Caleulate constants dx, dy,
Others, them point to plain,
12/28
‘numbering the bit positions in the region code as 1 through 4 from right to le, the coordinate
Fegions can be correlated with the bit position as
Bitl: lef
Bit2: right
Bit3: below
Bit4: above
A value of 1 in any bit postion indicated thatthe point i in that relative position, otherwise,
the bit position is set to 0, 1f point is within the clipping rectangle, the region code is 0000,
A point that is below &to.he lef of he rectane has a region code of 0101
Bit values inthe region code are detertined By tomparing endpoint coordinate values (x,y)
to the clip boundaries. Bit 1 is set 1 ifx 0, the next point along the ellipse is (xk , yx — 1) & P2se1 = p2x — 2r2y ney +
Otherwise the next point is (xeer, yer 1) & Panes = P2p + 2ty7 xaos — 200 yee +E
6, Decne som pis 3 gua
7. Move each calculated pixel position (x,y) onto-the elliptical path centered on (xc, yc) &
pit de coordinate values: x= x sony rye ae
8, Repeat the steps for region 1 until 2r°yx > 2r’xy.
{aus Gerke « 5 dares reicion as GOSUaeT Seeder
a) ,About origin re
) "About polnt p11) Ss
(Ase angio cen be syressenl cal pam eer SSer TSC
D The matrix ofrotationis == 2
“J
cos 45
Sin 4
| 0
AYB'C’= R45 DEGREE (ABC}= : 15/28
So A'=(0,0), B'=(0,2) C'=(2.121,4949)
ii) R45 DEGREE* T INVERSE*(R4S DEGREE)*T
Jr o 707 vor o| fio 1 707-707 A
ot al * [7077070 | + Joi ot |= |707 707.414
000 00 AL Wey Ogata
A’B'C R 45 DEGREE (ABC)
701-707 +1 o1s
- 707.707 ata | Jot 2
07-04 Pe
Am 1414) :
Bim(1, 1828,)
ome
2336)
QUE’ Writ he DDA or slope method algorithm for line drawing.
NS siol craps cece at
Ses coment
Sia decries eT eT The I reeds
‘Step 5S: set(xy) equal to lower lef hand endpoint Be set, nin value
seaynyaand oa
Pers ay a ei
est to determine ifthe entire circle has been san converted. Ifx>=y,
Sept :Compute the location of next pixel. $fd<0 then d=4*x+6 shila Lif then
— Dad*Qcy040, xextl and y=y-L
© Step 5: Plot the eight poins, ound symmetry with respect to center (bk) atthe curent, 3) 13/28
display area of an output device. Also by varying the sie of wewport, we can change the size
& proportions of dsplayed objec. We achieve rooming eects by successively meosing
different-sized windows on & fxed-sized viewpon. Ar the windos
are made smaller, we
zoom in som€part of a scene {0 view deals hat are not soven with larger windows,
Q7. /How 46%
Ans.
a perform window. to- viewpsint coordinate transformation?
_Drice object descriptions have been transferred othe viewing reference frame, we choote the
‘window extends in. viewing coordinates & select the ‘viewport limite in’ normative’
“oordinates, Object descriptions are then transfered to horinallzed device coordiwtes We do
this using a transformation thal majlaing hp hime rclaive placement of objects in
normalized space. A point a position ( xh NH ih the window is mapped into positon avy
0) inthe associated Viewpor. To maintain the same relative placement inthe viewport a
the window, we require that,
ON = hs, te wp,
Nine PHN OES adn
au ee
oWing tail eepsloes forth ewpon palin), weve. 414 Yiign 4 C
relents ieee
Y= Wee +=
te In 2d transformations?
‘design & picture construction appli
ns, we perform translations, rotations& scaling to
fit the picture components into their proper positions.
‘As we know that each of the basic transfogmations can be expressed in the general matrix
form.
P= My P+ M2—
‘With coordinate positions P & P' représented as column vectors. Matrix My is a 2 by 2 array
containing multiplying factors & My i a to ~element matrix containing trnslaional. terms.
To produce a sequence of transforma ‘hese equations, such as scaling fellowed by
rotation, then translation, we mish ‘transformed coordinates ohe step at atime.
First, coordinate positions are scaled , then these scaled coordinates are rotated & finally the
rotated coordinates are translated. -A more efficient approach would be to combine the
transformations 30 that the final coordinate positions are obtained directly from the initial
‘coordinates, thereby eliminating the need to calculate the intermediate values.
‘We cap cémbine the ‘multiplicative & translational terms for 2-D geometric
"etic (Wes al angio tan ipeeealed "Vy ‘copiniting the! baleg ba tears
representations 10 3 by 3 matrices. This,4llows us to express all transformation equations a¢
‘matrix multiplications, To express any” 2-D transformation as a matrix multiplication, we
Tepresent each coordinate position (x,y) with the homogeneous coordinate tiple (xh yb,
where
Expressing positions in homogeneous vow ieqinp>
earrmation equations as matrix muliplicaions
sto Fepresent all geometric 16/28
‘coordinates
Plot(ath , y+k)
Plot(-x+h, -y+k)
Plot(y+h .x+k)
Plot(x+hyy+k),
PlotGth.-y+k)
Plot(-y+h,-x+k)
Plot(y+hxth)
Plot(xth-y+k)
Step 6: goto step 2
Qi. SAlgorithm using trigonometric method of circle drawing.
Ans. “Step I: Set The initial value ofthe varabs(y )= center ef circle, x=0,jmr radius of dice
I=step size, angle=0;
‘Step 2: Test to determine ifthe
tote circle has been san converted, fangle>anglel
stop.
Step 3:Compute the value of x and y coordinates
wort ecos(angle) — yrr*sinfangle)
Step 4: Plot the eight
Points, found symmetry Tespect to center (h, Kk) at the
current(x .y) coordinates
Plotocth, y+k) @
Plot(-x+h, -y-+k)
Plot(yth.x+k)
Plotexthayt)
Plot@xthiey+i)
Plotcythiexsh)
glee hcexek)
“© Plot(xth-y+k)
2 entice yest Suiherlandodgeman payee sipping
‘polygon clipping, algorithm that generates one or more closed areas that are then
= ms converted for Peppa we cur ot Eee accent
sequence of vertices that define the cli polygon ics. depth (xy) = Z, refesh (x,y) = lane (3)
Where Inns isthe value of the backgrounc intensity, & lau (x,y) is the projected intensity
value forthe surface at pixel potion (xy). Afterall the valucs have been procescea i
depth buffer sontains depth values forthe visible surface & the refresh buffer cone ee
Determine the average unit normal vectors at each polygon vertex.
inearly interpolate the vertex normal over the surface ofthe polygon.
(ApEIy on jllumination model along each scan line 10 calculate projected pixel
intensities for the surface points
Interpolation of surface normal along a polygon
N,
f,between two vertices is shown below.
Ae wed to evaluate norinas between san lines & along each individual
ch pixel poston along a scan line, this model is applied 46 deen at
intensity at that point.
Esch Polgon surfice is tendered with Gouraud and shading by erfting the fllowicg
calculations:
1, Determine the average unit
2. Apply an iluminatons mode! to each vertex to calculate the vertex intensity.
3. Lineal interpolate the vertex intensities over the surface ofthe polygon 23/28
averaging the surface normals of all
‘At each polygon vertex, we obtain a normal vector by averaging t
polygons sharing that vertex. Thus for any vertex position 'V, we obtain the unit vertex
normal with the calculation,
rN
eI
Nae ea
# 3
1
ean tine
4 s
Bi
[__.__? ______, x
sl en
For each line, the intensity atthe infw(Section-of the scan Tine with a polygon edge is linearly
Foc eGated fom the intensities at the edge endpoints. For example, inthe fig above; the
arcige ittrendpoint vertices at positions | & 2 is intersected by the sean line at point
polygon edge 0
‘Dewharate parallel & perspective projections? Explain with a diagram,
TS NECTION:Cnce a world-coordinate descriptions of the objects in scene are converted to
eine coordinates, we can projet. 3-D objects onto the 2-D view plane. This is called as
pajertion, Projection i also defined as transformation of objet in projewion plane or view
Flane There are fwo basic pojestion methods. Fs
Ee a‘paralel projection, coordinte positions are transformed to the view plane long parallel
lines as shown below.
View
Fig; Parallel Projection of an object tothe view plane,
For a perspective projection, objec positions cre transformed to the view plane slong lines that
‘converge 1o a point called the projection reference point. ‘The projected view of an object is
determined by calculating the intersection on the projection lines with the view plane, 24/28
View
plane
Frojection
Reference point
Perspective projection of an objection to the view plane,
{A parallel projection preserves relative proportions of ebjects, & this is the method used in
drafting to produce scale drawings of -D objects. Accurate views of the various sides of an
object are obtained with a parallel projection, but this does not give us a realistic
fon of the appearance of a 3D‘object on the other hand, a perspective projection
realistic views but does not preserve relative proportions,
Aine polygon All algorithm,
crossing a polygon, the area-fil algorithm locates the intersection points of
the sean line with the polygon edges. These intersection points are then sorted from left to
right & the corresponding frame-buffer positions between each intersection pair are set 10 the
Specified fill color, In the example shown, the four pixel
polygon boundaries define two stretches of inketion pixels from x= 10 t0 X= 14 & from x=
these ze ‘
= pa,imoneuiscsahpstienn
‘od, el ee
on, pelymesh, visible ine detain moe 1
fetedtnan vn happenin te
rag oc Th wd ew ie a
- ‘ody vty agent eS 27/28
fins Ths tecanigue fr biden surface removal i an image spce method. It takes advange of
weacoberere inva soso ty lcang there slew see tat represent pat of © sige
Serie, We sply ts method by yucsvely Siding the eal Vewing aren ino salir
f and smaller rectangles until each small arcy is the projection of part of a single visible surface
I Gevoswfesi sit Tolmplemen tis othe, we ted to eabiah tet at ean quickly
Semity the area a profs ge succor fll tht the ares ow compe to Snalyee
Shy. Tere to determine te iy of singe srtce within sapecied wes are made by
Sparing recs ota brung oft
Csiscation Scheme It evdes ols polygons in four xtegoris
ieee
2 Ouvigesurce
3. Ovetappingsrace
4 Sirounding suet
QE. What ishtach band eect? Whereis ound, How rit reducea?
Sans. When sures are tobe ender eo, th inten of ech esr components calculated
tthe veces, Gourad shading can be Combined wih adden surcraiartins fl fo
the isle polygons along each scan ne Gourd shading removes the, ite
Scenes aocated with be constant sang mode, but as sme ther sete
Fiplgas onthe saree ae sometimes splayed ih anomalous tapes and he tee
imenstyinepoation cn cayee bah or cark intensity Soeas called Mach bands ane
ce he sre, Thefts canbe reduced by dividing the surface ios es montero
pobygon fags by wing her mcthods, sich as Pong shading, eat eau one
\. aos
7 ory, matey representations foram transformations.
a S/Aaaon ina vey dimer tomeecttos corn repreenon, 2 poi
; eased Rom poston PH, #) Wpeton =o te eerie
pales on ogre
Re] - Jot om fe
ze} joo i
Fi, jew |
3) Reflection: The matrix representation for ihe reflection of points relative to the xy plane is :
10 0 oO
Pe lot 0 9
oo 1
lo 0
o 4 .
seit A 65 (SETS
\ 20/28 ;
face detect.
" aitying the bsek ices of a potghedron is based
'z.) is inside a polygon swface with plane
220. When an iside point ia along the fine of
‘ve method of |
2 and simple abject-space method
The “inside-ouside™ tests. A point Cte
parameters A. B,C and DIFAX + By + C24
Dre re, te pelnaon rst be bck ae. We cn sini NS HASTE
¥ Sah to the sures Pa polygon sruce nich fas Cartesir component (A, B,C). fe
the comet ge wero inthe ewig eon rom th ye pao, the Ht poe 0
Fee aE VIN OFurhermore, if objuctdescriptions have been conver '@ puag oS .
fal to the viewing Zv axis, then V=( 0; 0, Vz)
Y ties ad ut oe Girton is pas
V.Ne V2C
so thats woly need to consider the sign of, the x Gomponent of the normal veer
— Fig: Vector ¥ in the viewing direction
ieee ‘a back-fice normal vector N of a
N=(A,B,O)
Polyhedron
3
Myc Each srface of 5
ina view plane tl
y value at (xy is saved. 25/28
ADVANTAGE:
Iris simple and easy to create
2. erequite litte computer time for creation.
3. It equisefiftle computer time, so cost is reduced.
a. ppt information about deficiencies of surface
tts necessary for 3d clipping algorithm? Explain any 3d clipping algorithm.
SECESSARY CONDITION.An aigorithn for three dimensional clipping identify and save all
vnrface segments within the view volume for display on output device. All parts of objects
Sithin the view volume for display on output device. All parts of objects that are outside the
View volume are discarded. Clipping in shree dimensions can be accomplished using
Catensions of two dimensional clipping methods. Instead of clipping against straight line
‘window boundries, we now clip objects agains the boundary planes of the view volume.
ALGORITHMTo clip a line segment against the view volume, we would need to test the
‘lative position of line using the view volume boundary plane equation. By substituting the
{ine endpoint coordinate into plane equation of each boundary in turn, we could determine
‘whether the end point is inside or outside that boundry. An endpoint (x,y,z) of a line segment is
‘outside a boundary plane if AxtBy+Cz+>0, where A.B,Cand d are the plane parameters for
that boundry. Similarly the point is inside the boundary if Ax*By+C2+d0, Lines with both
Wary plane are discarded and those with both endpaints inside all
“re saved. The intersection of line with a boundary is found using the line
‘with the plane equation. Intersection coordinates (xl,yl,21) are values that
line and that satisfy the plane equation Ax1+By1+Cz1=0
@. fain the method of constant intensity shading.
_ ‘ans. A fast and simple method for rendering an object with polygon surfaces is constant intensity
‘shading, also called flat shading. single intensity is calculated for each -
‘polygon= All points over the 5 “the polygon are then displayed with the same intensity
Value Constant shading can be useful for quickly displaying the genera! appearance of < === 4
Carved surface. In general fat shading of polygon facets provides an accurate rendering for an
Sbjex fall the following assumptions are vai
1) The object is a polyhedron and is not an approximation of an object with a curved surface.
illuminating the object are sufficiently far fom the surface so that NLL 4
and the ition function are constant over the surface.
“The viewing position is sufficiently far from the surface so that V.R is Constant over
the
Qs.
Ans
jn'the method of general 3D Rotations. *
ion metrix for any axis that does not coincide with a coordinate
fag. combinations of translations. and the coordinate axes
tolations. We oblain the required: composite matrix by first setting up the transformation
‘equence that moves the selected rotation axis onto one of the coordinate axis. Then We set up
the rotation matrix about that coordinate axis for the specified rotation angle. The last step is
to obtain the inverse transformation sequence that returns the rotation axis to its original
position. In the special case where an object is rotated about an axis that is parallel to one of
. the coordinate axis, we can attain the desired rotation with the following transformation
sequence: 2
‘with the parallel coordinate xis,
1) Translate the object so that the rotation axis coinci
2) Perform the specified rotation about that axis. *. Teas
3) Translate the object 6 that she rotation avis is moved back to the original position,”
‘Whea an object is to be rotated about an axis that is not parallel to one of the coordinate axis,
wwe need to perform some additional transformations. In this case, we also need rotations to
‘align the axis with a selecied coordinate axis and to bring the axis back to its original
Grientation Given the specifications for the rotation axis and the rotation angle,
scrunch tc ended Siaea E Ce
1) Tranelate the abject so thatthe rotation axis passes trough the coordinate origin
2) Rotate the object so that the axis of rotaticu coincides with one inate
3} Peroem te spc elas sou at cordnate nig nf comin a ae
26/28
) Apply inverse rotations to bring the rotation axis back to its original orientation
4) Applythe inverse translation to bring the rotation back to its original position.
Disedss the elassiication of visible surface detection algorithms.
.Misiblesurface detection algorithms are broadly classified according to whether they deal
\~ with object definitions directly ot with their projected images. These two approaches are
called objeat-space methods and image spice methods. An object space method compares
Stjess and pes of object to each otter within the scene definition to determine which
suru at atwhole, we should label as vate tn an magespace algorithm, sbi i
cided point by poi a each pixel penton on the projeion plane. Most visible surace
Siperthms use image space metfods atiezchebjct space mehods can be wed effectively 0
teste ght curhers i some caves. On the fhe hand line-ispay algorithms generally use
higg-sface methods to Went visible ines in wireframe daplays,
iz. putea tousvantares of hive disenstovsl graphics sppbestions ero dimecrlona
Vicaiais vevtcstione
Airs” In 0wo dimensional graphics applications, viewing operations transfer positions from the
esd coerfnns plone to pias! poslons in te plane of tbs oliget dence Using the
slat lee hal eg vegan peepee tines metic 2 a A
SEeotnooa peckage maps the World scene 1 device cowtietes and elipe the stene apna
Pee eee is tesco eecia scl rei meee ce
ital ore lioproved slace ue wow hevelmore choices au hail va are tbe fenesed
feat ofall we tan view an obj fer any spatial posits ary ihe oat tam Bove ot
Pe Nor aon escapade eee ees ce
Bes cha ceen pi coiecere (ea ageniceage etna Jan ORR eee
a ee eee ries: Meet Cea es ug tc Bu cece toe
voundastow enone a vlimect sae, whet sap depend
x :
“line segment against the view volume, we would need to test the relat
|iine using the view volume’s boundary plane equations. By substituting the line endpoint
~ Coordinates into the plane equation of each boundary in tum, we could determine whether the
SSapoint is inside of outside that bound:ry. Ans endpoint (x9,2) of a line segment is outside
ountary plane if Ax + By + Cz + D>0, where A, B, C and D are the plane parameters for
‘har bowodary. Similarly, the point is inside the boundary if Ax + By + C2.#.D
