GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Basic Electrical
Engineering
THEORY & PRACTICAL

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

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 Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

Revised Edition - 2019
Published under New Syllabus

NOT FOR SALE

Content Creation

The wise
possess all

State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2018

Printing & Publishing

Tamil Nadu Textbook and

Educational Services Corporation
in

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 Preface

W
e are living in a modern world where all the systems are interconnected and in-
terdependent with electrical sciences. By the year 2050, the demand of electri-
cal energy is double or even become triple due to the advancement in modern
technology. Now-a-days, affordable knowledge is essential in the field of electrical sciences for
better understanding of electrical appliances.

This book has been written primarily as a text book for the students and is designed to
serve the introductory part of the subject, electrical engineering in school education under
vocational stream. The basic concepts of electrical sciences are explained with neat diagrams
for better understanding to the learners.

This Electrical Machines and Appliances (EMA) book has been written with the inspira-
tion and interaction of scholars in electrical fields in India and abroad. The resource materials
and ideas for making this book is obtained from experts in the field of electrical engineering
in around the country to meet the curriculum to international standards. The design of this
book is based on bloom’s taxonomy which is a learning tool for all students. The theory and
problems available in this text book obviously motivates the students for better understand-
ing. The contents of this book are mainly confined to the content of syllabus fulfilling the
objectives.

I along with team members originally undertook the task of writing the text book for
the vocational group students as basic subject in the field of electrical engineering due to the
knowledge which have experienced in three decades. My experience in teaching taught me

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 two things about students; need for better understanding of concepts and relating the con-
cepts to the real life cycle. This intention forced me in making this book as effective one as a
learning material for the vocational group students. As a result, the students will definitely
follow along with the subject teacher in demonstrating an example in handling classes. I
hope this book will definitely satisfy the primary needs of the student’s community to pur-
sue secondary level courses.

Myself with our subject experts’ team have provided this text book a more knowledge-
able and readable one fulfilling the needs of students. Consequently, the teacher will feel
more comfortable using the book because it reflects the electrical engineering concepts in
a pedagogy way.

I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to the faculty from various academic
institutions for the improvement of this text book writing.

Finally, it is an immense pleasure to express the gratitude and sincere thanks to all of
them who has given this opportunity to take part in writing the book for vocational stream
students.

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 How to Use the Textbook

Learning objectives are brief statements that describe what

Learning Objectives: students will be expected to learn by the end of school year,
course, unit, lesson or class period.

Chapter Outline Illustrate the complete overview of chapter

Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

to biological inquiry

Activity Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

in order to explore, enrich the concept.

Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning .

Evaluation Assess students to pause, think and check their understanding

To motivate the students to further explore the content

digitally and take them in to virtual world

Career corner List of professions related to the subject

References List of related books for further details of the topic

Web links List of digital resources

Glossary Explanation of scientific terms

Competitive Model questions to face various competitive exams

Exam Questions

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 Career Guidance

VOCATIONAL STREAM
After completion of Higher Secondary course (+2), Vocational stream
students undergo the following courses as detailed below:

LATERAL ENTRY FOR DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING: (FOR +2

STUDENTS)
The Vocational stream students, on completion of Higher Secondary, are
eligible to continue their educational career to Polytechnic colleges by lateral
entry.

(i.e.) They can directly join in the SECOND YEAR of the concerned
Diploma course.

After that, they can register their names in the “Board of Apprenticeship
training, No. 4th Cross street, CIT Campus, Taramani, Chennai – 13” for
employment opportunities.

LATERAL ENTRY FOR BE / B.TECH : (FOR DIPLOMA HOLDERS)

On completion of Diploma courses of any trade, the students can directly
join in the SECOND YEAR of the Engineering course (BE / B.TECH) in Anna
University and Affiliated colleges, by lateral entry.

Then, they can register their names in the “Board of Apprenticeship

training, No. 4th Cross street, CIT Campus, Taramani, Chennai – 13” for
employment opportunities.

NATIONAL CAREER SERVICE

The students who need for employment opportunities and career
guidance, including counselling both in Government, Private and Public
sector can see the website for further details.

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 Contents

Basic Electrical Engineering

Serial Unit Page

Chapter Title Month
No. No. No.
1. 1 Introduction to Electrical Engineering 1-12 June
2. 2 Electrical Fundamental Terms 13-37 July
3. 3 Electro Magnetism 38-53 July
4. 4 Batteries 54-70 August
5. 5 AC Circuits 71-89 August
6. 6 Transformer 90-104 September
7. 7 DC Generator and DC Motor 105-121 October
8. 8 Alternators and AC Motors 122-139 October
9 Engineering Materials 140-152 November
10 Electronics 153-168 December
Model Question Paper 169-171
Basic Electrical Engineering Practical 172-239
Case Studies 240-242

E-book Assessment DIGI links

Lets use the QR code in the text books ! How ?
• Download the QR code scanner from the Google PlayStore/ Apple App Store into your smartphone
• Open the QR code scanner application
• Once the scanner button in the application is clicked, camera opens and then bring it closer to the QR code in the text book.
• Once the camera detects the QR code, a url appears in the screen.Click the url and goto the content page.

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 Basic Electrical
Engineering
THEORY

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 Introduction To Electrical Engineering

If you want to shine like a sun, first

burn like a sun.
—Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

T
he objective of this lesson is to know about Electricity, the methods of power generation.
Beyond this, about the safety precautionary measures of electricity and also what are the
first aids to be given to a person who is affected by electric shock.

1.1 Introduction about Electricity, Methods of Power Generation

1.2 Introduction of LT/HT Line
1.3 Electrical Safety and Precautions
1.4 Electric Shock
1.5 Preventive measures of Electrical Shock
1.6 First Aid

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 one is known as proton and carries positive
charge. The other is neutron, which is
INTRODUCTION ABOUT electrically neutral. i.e. it carries no charge.
Around the nucleus, in an elliptical orbit,
ELECTRICITY, METHODS
the electrons are revolving. Electrons
OF POWER GENERATION
carry the negative charge. The number
This subject is introduced in the of electrons and number of protons in an
higher secondary level. In this subject, atom are equal. So the atom is electrically
students are taught how to maintain and neutral. The number of protons in the
repair electrical appliances and electrical nucleus of atom gives the atomic number.
machines and how to connect electrical The total number of neutron and proton
circuits and repairing minor or major are known as atomic weight, because
faults in the circuits and motor, rewinding negligible weight of the electron is not
of electrical machines both theoretically taken to calculate atomic weight.
and practically. So, by learning this
subject, students are able to learn on their
own by practicing such learning. 1.1.2 Methods Of Electricity
Production
We know that the Earth consists Electricity is produced by extraction
of five big natural element such as water, of electrons from an atom. The energies
land, air, fire and sky. The sixth important which are used to produce electricity are:
energy developed by human is called
“Electricity”. In this modern world, in a) Friction
our day today life, electricity plays a vital b) Light
role. Simply to say, a man can live without c) Pressure
food but cannot live without electricity. d) Heat
Thus in our life, the electrical goods play e) Chemical Action
an important role. Hence the students f) Magnetism
must know about this source and how it
is applied. a) Electricity due to Friction
Due to the friction of two materials,
All matters whether solid, liquid electrons come out from one material
or gaseous consist of minute particles to join with the other material. The
known as atom. According to modern material which loses the electron gets
research, electric current means electrons (+)ve charge and the material which
movement only. So we need to know about attracted the electron gets (–)ve charge.
atom. This type of electricity is called Static
Electricity.

1.1.1 Atom Example :- Materials like glass, rubber,

It has a hard-central core known as wax, silk, reyon, nylon etc.
nucleus. It contains two types of particles;

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 c) Electricity due to Pressure
Electrons in the outermost orbit of an
atom is extracted due to the pressure
applied to an atom and thus electricity
is produced. This is called “Piezo
Electricity”. In a telephone, diaphragm
is pressured by the sound waves.
Because of this, electric waves are
produced depending upon the pressure
B E N JA M I N F R A N K L I N of sound waves.

Born: January 17, 1706

Died: April 17, 1790

F
ranklin started exploring the
phenomenon of electricity in
1746.
He was the first to label as
positive and negative respectively and
also the first to discover the principle A solar power plant in Kamuthi, Tamil
of conservation of charge. In 1748, he Nadu has just became the world’s largest
constructed a multiple plate capacitor, plant. With a capacity to produce 648 MW
that he called as “electrical battery”. of electricity, this plant comprises of
He made important contribu­ 2.5 million individual solar modules and
tions to science, especially in the covers an area of 10 sq km.
understanding of electricity, and is
remembered for the wit, wisdom, and
elegance of his writing d) Electricity due to Heat
If the ends of two dissimilar metal rods
are joined together to form a junction
and is heated, voltage is developed at
b) Electricity due to Light the other ends and this effect is known
When the light falls on the photo as thermo electric effect.
sensitive materials, the electrons from
the surface produce the flow of current. In the above four methods, sufficient
The material which emits electrons electricity is not produced and the
due to the light fallen on the surface is energy of electricity is also less. The
called “photo sensitive material”. other two following methods are used
to produce sufficient electricity with
Example :- S odium, Potassium, high energy.
Lithium and Caesium.

3 Introduction to Electrical Engineering

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 e) Electricity due to Chemical Action b) Thermal Power Plant
By using chemical action method, Chemical energy is converted into
electrons are extracted from an atom heat energy by burning coal or lignite
and electricity is produced. The voltage in boiler plant. Water in the boiler is
developed in storage battery is due to converted into steam by heat energy.
this chemical action only. This steam is flowing through the
steam turbine which is connected to the
f) Electricity due to Magnetism generator and this energy is converted
In this method, electrons are extracted into mechanical energy by the rotation
from an atom due to magnetism. In of turbine. The mechanical energy is
generators, conductors are moving again converted into electrical energy
within the magnetic field to generate by the use of generator.
electricity.
This type of plant is placed in Tamil
Nadu at Ennore (Chennai), Neyveli,
1.1.3 Power Generating Plants Tuticorin and Mettur.
Today, approximately seven electric
power generating stations are available in Thermal power plants play a major
our country. role for the requirement of electricity
in Tamil Nadu.
TYPES OF POWER GENERATING
PLANTS c) Atomic Power Plant
a) Hydroelectric Power Plant By the diffusion of an atom of Uranium
b) Thermal Power Plant or Thorium, more heat is produced.
c) Atomic Power Plant The atomic power plant is working
d) Gas Power Plant based on this principle. The heat energy
e) Diesel Power Plant produced is used to rotate the steam
f) Solar Power Plant turbine and this energy is converted
g) Wind Power Plant into mechanical energy. The generator
converts the mechanical energy into
a) Hydroelectric Power Plant electrical energy.
From the water reservoir, the water
is taken through the joint tubes to This plant is placed in Kalpakkam near
the water turbine. For the rotation of Chennai,Koodangulam in Tirunelveli
turbine, the kinetic energy of water is District and Tharapur in Rajasthan.
converted into mechanical energy and Leakage of radiation by this plant may
is converted into electrical energy by cause pollution and affect the health of
using generator. the people.

This type of plant is placed in Tamil d) Gas Power Plant

Nadu at Mettur, Kunda, Pykara, The process of generating electrical energy
Suruliyaru and Kadamparai. with the help of gas turbine (which acts
as a prime motor) is known as Gas power
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 plant. It is available in Ramanathapuram f) Solar Power Plant
and Nagapattinam districts. For the purpose of minimum production
of electricity, this type of plant is placed
e) Diesel Power Plant on the roof of the buildings. In this
This type of plant is used in places plant, electricity is produced by using
where continuous supply of electricity sun-rays. This is used in houses, hotels,
is needed i.e. in big factories. Electricity hospitals, traffic signal lights, etc.
is produced by the generator which is
connected to a big diesel engine. g) Wind Power Plant
The Wind mill is rotated by heavy speed
Depending upon the requirements, of wind. Electricity is produced by the
different capacities of small or large generator which is operated by wind-
diesel generators are used in hotels, mill. This plant is placed at Kayathar
hospitals, jewellery shops, cinema in Thirunelveli and Aralvaimozhi in
theatres, shipyards, etc. kanniyakumari District.

Hydro Power Plant (Mettur) Thermal Power Plant (Neyveli)

Atomic Power Plant (Kalpakkam) Gas Power Plant (Chennai)

Diesel Power Plant (Chennai) Solar and Wind Plant (Kamuthi)

Fig 1.1 Types of Power Plants
5 Introduction to Electrical Engineering

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 INTRODUCTION OF LT/
HT LINE

Generated power from power station is

transmitted and is distributed through
transformers, overhead lines and cables to
Fig 1.3 HT Lines
the end users.

1.2.1 LT Lines
In India, low 1.3
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Tension (LT) supply is
440 volts for three-phase
AND PRECAUTIONS
connections and 230 A man who works in the electrical
volts for single-phase appliances must handle the work carefully
connection. Consumer of without any damage to the equipment
electricity like individual houses, shops, and workers. They must know all the
small offices and smaller manufacturing operations of electrical equipment clearly.
units get their electricity on LT connection. Electrical accident may occur only due to
carelessness. Due to this, workers will get
injured and cause damages. To avoid this,
electrical workers must follow the rules
and regulations while working.

1.3.1 Steps to be followed while

handling Electrical Equipments
1. Before the use of equipment, one must
know about the complete operation of
the equipment. Electrical connections
are made properly according to the
connection diagram.
2. Only the skilled person is allowed to
Fig 1.2 LT Line operate, testing and repairing machines.
3. A person who works in the electric post and
tower post must wear safety belt and gloves.
4. After earthing, the overhead lines can be
1.2.2 HT Line voltage discharged by discharge rod.
High tension (HT) supply is 5. Check the condition of all hand tools.
applicable for bulk power purchase which 6. While changing the fuse wire, keep the
needs 11 Kv or above. Major industries are main switch ‘OFF’. Use proper rating of
operating at High Tension supply only. fuse wire for replacement.
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 7. Under faulty conditions, the appliances To prevent such electrical shocks,
in houses must be checked and ensure we must know about the preventive
that the equipment is disconnected from measures and protective measures for
the supply. safety precautions.
Example:- Fan, Grinder, Mixie etc.
8. If fire occurs in the electrical circuit, the
main switch is turned OFF immediately.
1.5
For extinguishing electric fire, use of PREVENTIVE MEASURES
carbon-di-oxide extinguisher or dry TO AVOID ELECTRIC
powder extinguisher is advised. SHOCK
(Water should not be used to extinguish
electric fire because it conducts electricity Some of the methods employed to
and will cause severe accident.) avoid electric shock are listed below:
9. If any person gets electric shock by • The operation of electrical equipment
touching the electric wire, the supply must be clearly known.
should be disconnected immediately. The • Damaged wire should not be used for
person must be removed from the wire wiring or electrical connection.
using dry stick, drywooden plank or dry • The electrical instruments used for
cloth. connection (i.e switch, plug, pushing
10. Sweating hand should not be used to etc). It should not have any scratch or
switch ON or work on the electric supply. break.
If the person has sweating on the hand • The hand tools should be properly insulated.
continuously, he must wear gloves. • Proper earthing should be provided.
• For any reason, do not operate by
overcoming the safety rules.
1.4
ELECTRIC SHOCK
Human body has a electrical
1.6
conducting property. Without sweating FIRST AID
the resistance of human body is
When a man gets affected by
approximately 80000Ω (ohm) and during
an electrical shock in an unavoidable
sweating, resistance of the human body is
condition, he must be given first aid before
approximately 1000Ω (ohm). If we touch
taking to the hospital.
any current carrying conductor, the current
is conducted through our body to earth and When a person is affected by current
we get electric shock more over nervous shock, the circuit should be disconnected
structure, heart, lungs, and brain can also first. If the main switch is nearer, put off the
be affected. If the current is heavy, even switch. Using any wooden stick, we could
death may occur. Therefore, we must know, disconnect the person from the circuit.
even though current is essential, if it is used Then immediately take him to hospital.
wrongly, it will cause heavy loss i.e death and If the affected person loses
economical loss. consciousness, but breathes normally, then

7 Introduction to Electrical Engineering

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 mouth. By closing his nose, the air is filled
in lungs
A tall thun-
derstorm cloud
can hold over
100 million volts
of potential. The
voltage potential in a lightning bolt is
proportional to its length, and varies
Fig 1.5 Mouth to Mouth Method
depending on the diameter of the bolt,
air density and impurities of the air.
Activities

loosen his clothes and apply cold water on

his face and keep him in open air.
If the person does not breathe, then
immediately arrange artificial method of
respiration for breathing.
There are two methods of artificial
breathing. Students are asked to do the con-
cept of static electricity by seeing
1.6.1 Holger Nelson Method
the picture shown.

Fig 1.4 Holger Nelson Method

In this method, the victim should
be kept in the bed facing the ground. The When was electricity first used in
helper sitting at his head should massage homes?
his back using both hands. This is done Edison’s light bulb was one of the first ap-
within two seconds. plications of electricity to modern life. He
initially worked with J. P. Morgan and a few
1.6.2 Mouth to Mouth Method privileged customers in New York City in the
In this method, the helper pushes 1880s to light their homes, pairing his new
air by keeping his mouth on the victim’s incandescent bulbs with small generators.

Basic Electrical Engineering — Theory 8

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 1. Produce electricity by any two materials applying friction method.
2. How the supply leakage electric shock can be eradicated?

Hydroelectric Power Plant - நீர் மின் நிலையம்

Thermal Power Plant - அன மின் நிலையம்

Gas Power Plant - வாயு மின் நிலையம்

Diesel Power Plant - டீசல் மின் நிலையம்

Solar Power Plant - சூரிய ஒளி மின் நிலையம்

Wind Power Plant - காற்றாலை மின் நிலையம்

L.T – Low Tension Line - குறைவழுத்த மின்சாரம்

H.T – High Tension Line - உயவழுத்த மின்சாரம்

9 Introduction to Electrical Engineering

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. The smallest particle of an ele-
ment is known as
a) Atom 6. The number of electrons in an atom
b) Molecule are
c) Nucleus a) Equal to the neutrons
d) Electron b) Equal to protons
2. The Atom is composed of c) Equal to the atomic structure
a) Electrons only d) None of these
b) Protons only 7. The supply voltage used for single
c) Neutrons only phase domestic purpose is
d) Electron, Proton and a) 110–120V
Neutron b) 120–130V
3. HT Line means c) 220–230V
a) 230V d) 400–440V
b) 440V 8. Switch should always be connected
c) Above 11 Kv with
d) Below 11 Kv a) Neutral wire
4. LT Lines means b) Earth wire
a) 230 volts or 440 volts c) Phase wire
b) 440 Kv d) None of these
c) Above 11 Kv 9. Without the sweating of human
d) Below 11 Kv body, the resistance is approxi-
5. In case of Electric fire, use mately.
a) Dry sand a) 80 kΩ
b) Wet sand b) 40 kΩ
c) Carbon powder c) 10 kΩ
d) Water d) None of these

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 3

Answer the Questions in Briefly

1. Define Atom.
2. What is electricity?
3. What are the methods used for production of electricity?
4. Define L.T Line.
5. Define H.T Line.
6. What are the precautions taken to avoid electric shock?
7. What are the different methods of artificial respiration?

Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page

1. Explain the method of preventing an electric shock.

2. Explain the different types of first aid given to electric shock.

11 Introduction to Electrical Engineering

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain the various methods adopted for power generation.

2. Write down the steps to be followed while handling electrical equipment.

Reference Book
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume I and Volume III by B.L. Theraja and
A.K. Theraja, S. Chand & Company Ltd

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 Electrical Fundamental Terms

“Black colour is sentimentally bad, but black

board makes the student’s life bright”
—Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

13 Electrical Fundamental Terms

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 F
undamental terms are mostly important for doing Electrical circuits. This chapter deals
about the properties, types of conductors and insulators. Basically each one should know
about current, voltage, resistance, laws, emf and potential difference. The objective of this
lesson is also to know about the types of electrical circuits.
Calculation of power consumption is easily explained in this chapter. It is used to
calculate the power consumed (unit) in home, factory, etc. and the cost of expenses is
also calculated. This is very much useful to the younger generation to learn how to min-
imize the usage of electricity. It is helpful to reduce the unwanted usage of electricity and
the expense is reduced. Thereby it induces individual saving habit.

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conductors – Properties – Types
2.3 Insulators – Properties – Types
2.4 Electrical Terms (Factors)
i) Current  iii) Resistance – Laws
ii) Voltage   iv) Electro Motive Force (EMF)
v) Potential Difference (PD)
2.5 OHM’s Law – Explanation
2.6 Types of Electrical Circuits
i) Series Circuit   
iii) Series-Parallel Circuit
ii) Parallel Circuit  iv) Kirchhoff ’s Law
v) Work, Power and Energy
2.7 Capacitor – Types – Uses

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 i) Solid Conductors
These conductors are converted into
2.1 thin wire, thin rod or strap for the pur-
INTRODUCTION
pose of conduction.
In this modern world, electricity
plays a major role in human life. This is Some of the examples of solid good
because, electrical appliances play an im- conductors are Silver, Copper, Brass,
portant role in our day to day life. Accord- Aluminium, Tungsten, etc.
ing to theory, the current flow is nothing
but flow of electrons. The force required ii) Liquid Conductors
to move electrons from higher level to The conductors in the form of liq-
lower level is called voltage. uids are called liquid conductors.
Liquid conductors are mostly used in
Hence conductors are required to batteries.
conduct the current from one place to an-
other place. They are classified in to three Example: Mercury, Sulphuric Acid,
types, namely solid conductors, liquid Nitrate etc.
conductors and gaseous conductors. The Mercury is used in high power
material which does not conduct current vapour lamp and automatic circuit
is called an insulator. Another one is a breakers.
semi-conductor, which has the property
in between the conductor and insulator. iii) Gas Conductors
Semi-conductors are used in making elec- The conductors in the form of gas are
tronic devices. called gas conductors. These are used
in gas discharge lamps at high tem-
First, let us study the types and perature which are used in big shops,
properties of conductors. malls, etc.

2.2.1 Properties of Conductors

So far we have studied about the
2.2 types of conductors. Let’s see the proper-
CONDUCTORS
ties of good conductors.
The wire which carries or conducts
the current from the supply to the load is • They conduct the current easily,
called conductors. The example of loads because they have low resistance
are fan, bulb, mixie, motors etc. Based on • Have high tensile stress
the state the conductors, they are classi- • They are more flexible
fied into three types: • They are not affected by corrosion
due to air, rain, heat, etc
i) Solid Conductors • They are not affected by heat pro-
ii) Liquid Conductors duced in conductor, when current
iii) Gas Conductors flow takes place
15 Electrical Fundamental Terms

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 • Easy to solder • High dielectric strength
• Cost of the conductor is low and is • Good mechanical strength
easily available to buy • It withstands high temperature
• May not get change in the shape due
to high temperature
• It does not absorb water
2.3
INSULATORS • It can be made to any shape
• It does not catch fire easily
Insulator is a non-conducting ma-
terial, i.e. it resists electricity. It has high
resistance value normally in mega ohms.
2.4
ELECTRICAL TERMS
Insulators should be good in condi-
tion, then only they prevent electric shock Here we study the electrical funda-
due to current leakage. Generally, insulators mental terms used in electrical e­ ngineering.
are classified into three types. Some exam-
ples of the three types of insulators are:
2.4.1 Current
i) Hard Insulators: Bakelite, porcelain, Flow of electron in a conductor is
wooden plank, glass, mica, etc. called as current. It is represented by the
ii) Soft Insulators: Rubber, poly-vinyl letter ‘I’ and the unit is called ampere(A).
chloride, varnish coated papers, etc. Current can be measured by ammeter.
iii) Liquid Insulators: Mineral oil,
shellac, varnish, etc. 1 Ampere: “One coulomb charge cross-
ing over the area of cross section of the con-
ductor in one second is called 1 ampere.

1 Coulomb: A collection of 2π × 1018

electrons has a charge of one coulomb.

Example :- For water to flow through

a pipe from one end to the required place,
some pressure is required. In the same way,
electric pressure is required to move the
electron from one end to another end. This
Fig 2.1 Hard Insulator flow of electron is called current and the
pressure required to move the electron is
Properties of Insulators called electric pressure or voltage.
The following are the important
properties of insulating materials. They are:
2.4.2 Voltage
• High resistance and specific The electric pressure which is used to
resistance move electrons from one end to another end

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 is called voltage. It is represented by the letter 2.4.3 Electric Power
‘V’ and the unit is volt. It is measured by volt- Power is rate of doing work.
meter. The other parameters termed as volts The power is obtained by the following
are EMF, Potential and Potential Difference. ­expressions.

i) Electro Motive Force (EMF) P = V × I. The unit is watt

It is the force which causes the flow P = Power
of electrons in any closed circuit. It is V = Applied Voltage
represented by volt. I = Current

ii) Potential and Potential Difference 2.4.4 Resistance

The work done in bringing unit positive Resistance may be defined as the
charge from infinity to that point against property of a substance to oppose the
the application of electric field is called flow of current flowing through it. It is
potential. It is also represented as volt. represented by the letter R and the unit
is ohm(Ω). It is measured by ohm meter.
The difference of potential between Mega ohms value is measured by using
any two points in a electrical circuit megger
is called potential difference and is
expressed as volts only. 2.4.5 Laws of Resistance
The resistance of a conductor in a
The following table represents the circuit depends upon the following:
difference between electromotive force
(EMF) and Potential Difference (PD). • It depends upon the material used
and its properties
Electro Motive Potential • Resistance value of a conductor is
Force Difference directly proportional to the length of
(EMF) (PD) the conductor
i) EMF refers to PD exists between • It is inversely proportional to the area
source of any two points in a of cross section of a conductor
electricity only. circuit. • It also depends upon the temperature
of the conductor when the current is
ii) It is measured It is measured on a
when the circuit closed circuit. flowing through it
is open.
iii) It does not It depends upon
depend upon the the resistance of the 2.5
resistance of the circuit and is directly
OHM’S LAW
circuit. proportional to it.
In an electrical circuit the current,
iv) It is greater than It is less than the voltage, and resistance are related to one
the potential electromotive force. another. The relationship was derived by
difference in the the scientist Georg Simon Ohm. So it is
same circuit. called Ohm’s Law.
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 Ohm’s law states that, “At a constant tem- V= I × R
perature in any closed circuit, the current is
directly proportional to the voltage applied
and inversely proportional to the resistance V
of the circuit.˝

i.e IαV and I α 1/R from this I R

V
V = I R and R = V
I
I=
R R= V
I
Where, V = Voltage in volts. I =
­current in ampere and R = Resistance in Problems
ohm 1) Supply voltage of the circuit is 240V.
The resistance value is 60Ω. Calculate
the current flowing through this circuit.

Voltage (V) = 240V

Resistance (R) = 60Ω
Current (I) = ?
According to ohm’s law, I = V
R
240
Current I = = 4A
60
2) An electrical circuit has 1000W power
Georg Simon Ohm and the value of voltage is 240V. Find
the value of current flowing through it.
Born: 1789
Died: 1854 Power (P) = 1000W

G
eorg Simon Ohm (1789 – 1854) Voltage(V) = 240V
was a German physicist and Current(I) = ?
mathematician. As a school Power, P = V × I
teacher, Ohm began his research with
1000 = 240 × I
1000
the new electrochemical cell, invented I= = 4.16 A
240
by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.
Ohm found that there is a direct 3) Voltage of the circuit is 230V and
proportionality between the potential ­current 10A is flowing through it. Find
difference applied across a conductor the value of Resistance.
and the resultant electric current. This Voltage (V) = 230V
relationship is known as Ohm’s law. Current (I) = 10 A
Resistance (R) =?
According to ohm’s law, I = V
R

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 230
i.e 10 = R

230 Fuse Switch

R= = 23Ω
10
4) An electrical circuit is having 40Ω
resistance value. When 6A current
Globe
is following through this circuit, find
the voltage? Fig 2.2 Closed Circuit
Resistance (R)= 40Ω Example:- In our home, each room
Current (I) = 6A has different wiring circuit i.e lighting cir-
Voltage (V) = ? cuit, power circuit, etc.
According to ohm’s law, I = V
R
i.e 6 = V For example, if we switch ON the light
40 circuit, the light will glow, it is called a
Voltage (V) = 6 × 40 = 240V. closed circuit.

ii) Open Circuit

In this circuit, if there is no way to
2.6 the flow of current due to disconnection
TYPES OF CIRCUITS
of wire or the switch is in OFF condition,
The circuit is defined as the cur- then the circuit is called open circuit.
rent flowing from the supply points
through the load to complete the path. In
this chapter, we will study about the types
of the electrical circuits. There are three Fuse Switch
types of electrical circuit namely;

i) Closed circuit,
ii) Open circuit and Globe
iii) Short circuit.
Fig 2.3 Open Circuit
These are explained below
Ex: In lighting circuit, if the switch is
i) Closed Circuit in OFF condition or the wire is broken in
When loads are connected in series any place the lamp will not glow and it is
between two terminals of electric supply, called an open circuit.
in such a way that the current passing
through the load is to activate the circuit. iii) Short Circuit
It is called as closed circuit. In this circuit, the two terminals
of the supply is connected directly with-
out a load and the current flow is infinite

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 because of very low resistance. It causes According to Ohm’s law
heavy damage to the load.
V1 = I.R1, V2 = I.R2, V3 = I.R3

The sum of the three potential

drops in equal to the supply voltage
Fuse Switch

I = I1 = I2 = I3
Globe V = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Fig 2.4 Short Circuit V = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
V =R +R +R
I 1 2 3

Here we will study about the classifi-

Where R = R1 + R2 + R3
cation of the Electrical circuits. They are,
V = R.
I
i) Series circuit
ii) Parallel circuit  Important rules for series circuit
iii) Series-parallel circuit 1. In series circuit, the current flows
iv) Mesh (or) Network circuit through only one path.
2. If one more resistance is to be
2.6.1 Series Circuit added, the total value of resis-
tance is increased. Total resistance
is equal to the sum of all the resis-
tance connected to this circuit.

i.e R = R1 + R2 + R3 +……..

3. The current flows in all resistor is

same

Fig 2.5 Series Circuit i.e, I = I1 = I2 = I3

When three resistors are connect- 4. The sum of the potential drop
ed in series with each other as shown in across each resistor is equal to the
Figure 2.5, so that the same current passes supply voltage i.e V = V1 + V2 + V3
through all of them is called series circuit. 5. If there is a fault in any place of
the circuit, the total circuit will be
Here the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are inactive.
connected in series. The current flowing
in all three resistors is same as that of sup- Example:- In many of the plac-
ply current. But across each resistor, it has es like temple functions, malls, theatres
a potential drop depending on their resis- and marriage halls, serial sets are used
tance value. to make different decorative items using

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 serial bulbs. In serial circuit, the path of V V V
the current flow is only one. So if any fault =l1 = , l2 , l3 =
R1 R2 R3
(brake in wire connection) occurs in any
one place of the circuit, the total circuit
But I = I1 + I2 + I3
(serial set) is inactive.
V V V
I= + +
2.6.2 Parallel Circuit R1 R 2 R 3
When resistors are connected
across one another so that the same volt- 1 1 1 
age (supply voltage ) is applied between  + + 
 R1 R 2 R 3 
the end point of each resistor, then they
are said to be in parallel connection.
I 1 1 1
= + +
V R1 R 2 R 3

I 1
=
V R

1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R 2 R 3

R 2 R 3 + R1R 3 + R1R 2
=
R1R 2R 3

R1R 2R 3
R=
R 2 R 3 +R1R 3 +R1R 2

Important rules of a parallel circuit

Fig 2.6 Parallel Circuit i) In parallel circuit, the current flows

through two or more parallel paths at
In this circuit, the voltage across a junction.
each resistor is same as supply voltage but ii) Current varies in different resistances
the current in each resistor is different. In i.e The sum of the current is equal to
this circuit, the sum of the current I1, I2 supply current.
and I3 is equal to supply current I, i.e I =
I = I1 + I2 + I3 +…
I1 + I2 + I3
iii) The voltage is same in all resistors as
According to ohm’s law
supply voltage.
V
I= V = V1 = V2 = V3 =…
R

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 iv) The total value of the resistance is V
reduced by adding one more resistor in I=
R
the circuit. If resistances are connected 240
in parallel then the total resistance = = 4A
60
R1R 2R 3 Current I = 4A.
R=
R 2 R 3 +R1R 3 +R1R 2 2) Three resistances 5Ω, 15Ω and R3
are connected in series. Resistance
v) If there is a fault in any one resis- of this circuit is 60Ω. Find the value
tor, the other two resistors will work of R3.
because the current will flow through
these resistors. R = 60Ω, R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 15Ω, R3=?

Example: In our home or factories, When the resistance are connected in

different types of electrical appliances are series
used, i.e, fan, bulb, television, motor, heat-
er, etc. Each one has a separate circuit. For Then R = R1 + R2 + R3
example if there is a fault in fan circuit, the
fan circuit alone is inactive. Other circuits 60 = 5 + 15 + R3 and
like bulb, television etc will work contin- 60 = 20 + R3 R3 = 60–20 = 40Ω.
uously. So, in parallel circuits there are a
number of current paths available.
PROBLEMS – (Parallel Circuits)
PROBLEMS – (Series Circuit)
1) Two resistances 8Ω and 2Ω are
1) 10Ω, 20Ω and 30Ω resistances are ­connected in parallel. Voltage of this
connected in series. The circuit volt- circuit is 240V. Find the value of
age is 240V. Calculate the i) Total i) Total Resistance
resistance ii) current of this circuit. ii) Current.

R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω, R3 = 30Ω R1 = 8Ω, R2= Ω

V = 240V R =?
R=?
I=? In parallel circuit

When the resistors are connected in R1R 2

R=
series R1 + R 2
Then R = R1 + R2 + R3 8 × 2 16
=10 + 20 + 30 = 60Ω = = = 1. 6 Ω
8+2 10

Total Resistance R = 60Ω According to ohm’s law

According to ohm’s law

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 V 240
I= , I= =150A
R 1.6

2) Three resistors 6Ω, 3Ω and 2Ω are con-

nected in parallel. The current flow of
this circuit is 2A. Find out the value of
i) Total Resistance
ii) Voltage.

R1 = 6Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 2Ω, I = 2A

R = ? V= ?
Fig 2.7 Series - Parallel Circuit
When they are connected in parallel

R1R 2R 3 Hence the total resistance of the

R= circuit is
R 2 R 3 +R1R 3 +R1R 2
Then
6×3×2
=
( 3 × 2 ) + ( 6 × 2 ) +(6 × 3) R R1 +R 2+
R3 R 4 R5
R 4 R 5 R 3R 5 R 3R 4
36 36
R= = = 1Ω
6 + 12 + 18 36

2.6.4 Kirchhoff ’s Laws

According to ohm’s law
Scientist Kirchhoff derived two
V more laws based on ohm’s law namely,
I=
R
V i) Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
=2 = , V 2V ii) Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
1

2.6.3 Series - Parallel Circuit Current law is based on the current

In series parallel circuit, one or and voltage law is based on the voltage.
more resistors are connected in series with These laws are explained as follows.
more resistors connected in parallel. This
Kirchhoff ’s Laws are used in deter-
is the combination of series parallel c­ ircuit.
mining the equivalent resistance of a com-
Fig 2.7 represent, five resistors con- plex network and the current flowing in
nected in series parallel circuit. Here R1, the various conductors.
R2 are connected in series and R3, R4, and
i) Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
R5 are connected in parallel. These paral-
The sum of the current flowing to-
lelly connected resistors are connected in
wards a point (i.e junction) is equal to the
series with R1 and R2.
sum of the current flowing away from the
point. In other words, the algebraic sum of

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 V1 = IR1
V2 = IR 2
V3 = IR 3
V = V1 + V2 + V3
IR = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3

Fig 2.8(i) Kirchhoff ’s Current Law

the currents at any junction of a network

is zero.

Fig 2.8(i) represents Kirchhoff ’s

Current Law. In this, I1, I2 and I3 represent
the current flowing towards the junction
G u s t av R o b e r t K i r c h h o f f
point I4 and I5 represent the current flow-
ing away from the junction point. Born: 1824
Died: 1887

G
I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
ustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-
I 1 + I 2 + I 3− I 4 − I 5 = 0 1887) was a German physicist
who contributed to the
ii) Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL) fundamental understanding of electrical
In any closed electric circuit, the al- circuits. Kirchhoff formulated his circuit
gebraic sum of the potential drop is equal
laws, which are now ubiquitous in
to the supply voltage.
electrical engineering.
Fig 2.8(ii) represents, loads R1, R2,
and R3 connected in series. Potential drop
across R1 is IR1, potential drop across R2 is Problems:
IR2 and potential drop across R3 is IR3.
Example: 1
Calculate the current in a 2Ω resis-
tor using Kirchoff ’s law in the following
circuit.

Fig 2.8(ii) Kirchoff ’s Voltage Law

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 In the closed Loop ABEFA. In the closed Loop ABEFA

3I1 + 2(I1 + I2 ) = 35 I1 + 3 (I1 + I2 ) = 10V

3I1 + 2I1 + 2I2 = 35 I1 + 3I1 + 3I2 = 10 (1)
5I1 + 2I2 = 35 (1) 4I1 + 3I2 = 10 

In the closed loop BCDEB In the closed Loop BCDEB

4I2 + 2(I1 + I2 ) = 40 2I2 + 3 (I1 + I2 ) = 20V

4I2 + 2I1 + 2I2 = 40 2I2 + 3I1 + 3I2 = 20 (2)
2I1 + 6I2 = 40 (2) 3I1 + 5I2 = 20 
(1) × 3, 15I1 + 6I2 = 105 (3)
(1) x 3 12I 1+9I2=30 ------- (3)
2I1 + 6I2 = 40
(2) 4 12I1 20I2 80
(3) − (2 ) , 13I1 = 65 3 4 11 I2 50 (4)
65 50
I2 4.545A 4.55A
I1 = = 5A. 11
13

Substituting the value of I1 in equa-
tion 2, we get Substituting the value of I2 is equal to

2I1 + 6I2 = 40 (2) 3I1 + 5I2 = 20

2 × 5 + 6I2 = 40 3I1 + 5 × 4.55 = 20
10 + 6I2 = 40 3I1 = 20 − 22.75
6I2 = 40 − 10 = 30 = −2.75
6I2 = 30 2.75
I1 = −
30 3
I2 = 5A = −0.916A
6
I1 = −0.916A
Then current in 2Ω resistor is I1 + I2
= 5 + 5 = 10A The value of current I1 is negative,
So the current flow in the curcuit, is in op-
Example: 2
posite direction.
Find the current in the 3Ω resistor
in the circuit as shown. The current in 3Ω resistor is I1 + I2
= −0.92 + 4.55 = 10A

2.6.5 Work, Power and Energy

We are going to study about the
work, power and energy their inter-relation

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 and calculation of power and energy in The energy spent for the appliances
electric circuit. in 1 kwh is called as one unit i.e

i) Work
1 unit = 1kWh
Work is said to be done by Force
‘F’ when the point of its application moves The power of iron box is 1000 watt.
through a distance ‘S’. when used for 1 hour, the energy
consumed is, 1000 watts × 1 hour =
Mathematically, Work = Force ×
1000Wh = 1kWh = 1unit.
distance = F × S =FS.

The unit of force is Newton (N). If

1 Newton force moves a body to a distance Example: 1
of 1 metre, then the work done is 1Nm The resistance of a lamp is 10Ω and
­(Newton - metre) 2A current is flowing through it. Calcu-
late the power of the lamp.
In an electric circuit, if 1 volt elec-
tric potential causes 1 coulomb of electric Solution:
charge to pass through it, then the work Resistance (R) = 10Ω
done is equal to 1 joule. Current (I) = 2A
Power = I2.R
1 joule = 1 volt × 1 coulomb =22 × 10 =40W

Coulomb = Ampere × time Example: 2

In a factory, the following appli-
i.e J = V × I × t ances are used

ii) Power a) 3hp motor works 5 hours per day.

Power is the rate of doing work. Its b) 100W capacity of 40 lamps glow
unit is watt (W). 8 hours per day.
c) 1500W capacity of heater works
work done Joule V × I × t
Power = = = 6 hours per day.
time time t
2
Power P = VI watt [V
V = IR , P = I R] Calculate the cost of energy con-
1 KW = 1000 watt sumed in 30 days. (1unit cost is Rs. 6.00)
1 HP = 746 watt Solution:
a) 3hp motor works 5 hours per day
iii) Energy
The amount of work done by an 3 × 746 × 5 11190
equipment during a time period of ‘t’ sec- Energy = = Wh
1000 1000
onds. The unit of energy is joule. = 11.190 kwh = 11.190 unit

Energy = power × time watt sec

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 b) 100w capacity of 40 lamps glow
8 hours per day

100 × 40 × 8 32000
Energy = = Wh
1000 1000
= 32kWh = 32 units per day

c) 1500w heater works 6 hours per day

Symbols of Capacitor
1500 × 6 9000
Energy = = Wh 2.7.1 Working Principle
1000 1000
= 9kWh = 9 units per day In Fig 2.9, a simple parallel plate
­capacitor is connected with a battery.
The total number of units consumed
in 30 days

= (11.190 + 32 + 9 ) × 30
= 52.19 × 30
= 1565.7 units

Cost of electricity by for 30 days (1

unit=Rs.6)

= 1565.7 × 6
= 9394.2
Cost = Rs. 9394

Fig 2.9 Parallel Plate Capacitor

2.7
CAPACITORS
Suppose plate ‘A’ is connected to the
Capacitor can be defined as, two +ve terminal and plate ‘B’ is connected to
electrodes are separated by an insulating –ve terminal of DC supply. On closing the
di-electric medium. It is a device to store switch there will be momentary flow of
electrical energy and to release it when re- electrons from positive to negative. Some
quired. electrons are withdrawn from the plate ‘A’,
leaving positively charged and transferred
The charge in the capacitor is de-
to plate ‘B’ giving it a negative charge. This
noted by capacitance (Q) and the unit is
flow of electrons gives charging current
farad (F). The Di-electric medium can be
which decreases and finally ceases when
air, mica, wax coated paper or oil etc.
the voltage across the capacitor plate has

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 become equal and opposite the applied 2π × 1018 number of electrons is
voltage. The charged capacitor is now full mentioned as one coulomb.
of stored energy. This stored energy can
be used again when needed. 2.7.3 Types Of Capacitor
Usually there are three types of ca-
The factors on which the capacity pacitor. They are
of capacitor depends are:
1) Fixed capacitor
a. Directly proportional to the area of 2) Variable capacitor and
the plate of the condenser. 3) Electrolytic capacitor
b. Inversely proportional to the dis-
tance between the plate.
c. The nature of di-electric insulating
material.

2.7.2 Capacitance(C)
Capacitance of capacitor is defined
as the ratio between the charge given to
the condenser and supply voltage. It is de-
noted by the letter C.

Suppose a charge +ve ‘q’ units is giv- Figure 2.10 Capacitors

en to condenser, the potential will then be
i) Fixed Capacitor
raised. The greater the charge given to the
condenser, the greater is the rise in its po- a) Mica Capacitor
tential.  ica capacitor is widely used in ra-
M
q tio circuit where fixed value con-
we have q α v (or) constant.
v densers are required. These have
q
C= farad metal foil sheets forming the coat-
v ing and separated by a flat mica
Hence, c is the capacity of the sheet as the dielectric medium
­condenser.
q is the charge given to the b) Paper Capacitor
­condenser  aper is rolled in the form of cyl-
P
v potential difference between the inder and dipper in wax solution
plates. in order to exhaust the air placed
The unit of capacity is ‘Farad’. A ca- in between two thin aluminium
pacitor is said to posses a capacity of one far- plates. This type of capacitor is
ad, when its potential is raised by one volt, and used in de-coupling circuits.
when one coulomb of charge is given to it.
c) Ceramic Capacitor
1 coloumb
1 Farad =  hese are the modern capacitors. In
T
1 volt
this, ceramic is used as di-electric
Basic Electrical Engineering — Theory 28

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 medium. The performance of this 2. In motors
capacitor may not be affected even When connected in series with
it get heated. starting winding of the single phase
motor, it splits one phase into two phases
ii) Variable Capacitor and gives starting torque to the motor.
These capacitors are used in radio

receivers for tuning the receiver to a Example: Table fan, ceiling fan, and small
particular transmitting station. In this one phase motors.
type, air is used as dielectric medium
3. In parallel with the supply lines
between Aluminium plates.
To improve the power factor be-
iii) Electrolytic Capacitor cause it takes leading current.
Another type of capacitors, which can
have a very large capacity of 10 to 100 4. In eliminators
μF in the electrolytic capacitor, is used (An appliance which reduces 230 v Ac
in Radio circuit and Electric circuit. to 3, 6, 9v Dc)
This is made by very thin Aluminium Capacitor is connected in parallel
sheets which are separated by a thin with Dc side to filter remaining A.C.
layer of Aluminium Borate as Dielec-
tric medium. 5. In petrol cars
It is connected in parallel with the two
2.7.4 Uses of Capacitors contacts of a distributor to avoid spark-
1. Capacitors in Fluorescent Tube ing due to opening of these contacts.
(i) When connected parallel with the These are the uses of capacitors in
supply, it improves power factor. various places.
(ii) When connected in series with
one of the two tube connected in Worked example:
parallel, it minimise the strobo- Example:1 In an unbalanced bridge
scopic effect. circuit, calculate the current flowing through
all resistors by using Kirchoff ’s Law.

(iii) It helps to avoid radio interfer-

ence when connected parallel
with the two contacts of tube
starter. Here, it eliminates the
sparkling due to the opening
of two contacts.

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 In Closed Loop ABDA,  1 −4 0 
 
∆ 3 =  2 −3 0 
I1 + 5I3 − 4I2 = 0
I1 − 4I2 + 5I3 = 0 (1)  4 1 −2 
= 1( −6 + 0 ) + ( 4 + 0 ) + 0 ( 2 + 12 )
Closed Loop BCDB = −6 + 16 = 10
2(I 1− I3) − 3(I2 + I3) −5I3 = 0 1 110
2I1 − 2I3 − 3I2 − 3I3 − 5I3 = 0 I1 0.4782A
230
2I1 − 3I2 − 10I3 = 0 (2) 2 40
I2 0.174 A
230
Closed Loop ABCA
3 10
I3 0.0434A
I1 + 2(I1 − I3) + (I1 + I2) − 2=0 230
I1 + 2I1−2I3 + I1 + I2=2
4I1 + I2 − 2I3 = 2 Current through 1Ω resistor I1 =
0.4782A
 1 −4 5   I1  0 
     Current through 2Ω resistor (I1 – I3) =
 2 −3 −10  I2  = 0  0.4782 – 0.043 = 0.4352A
 4 1 −2   I3  2 
Current through 3Ω resistor = (I2 + I3)
= 0.174 + 0.043 = 0.217A
 1 −4 5 
 
∆ =  2 −3 −10  Current through 4Ω resistor I2 =
 4 1 −2  0.174A

= 1( 6 + 10 ) + 4 ( −4 + 40 ) + 5 ( 2 + 12 )
Current through battery (I1 + I2) =
= 16 + 144 + 70 = 230.
0.4782 + 0.174 = 0.6522A

0 −4 5  Example.2
 
∆1 = 0 −3 −10 
2 1 −2  In a house, the following equip-
ment are used.
= 0 ( 6 + 10 ) + 4 ( 0 + 20 ) + 5 ( 0 + 6 )
= 80 + 30 = 110 1) 1HP motor works 3 hours per day.
2) 40w, 10 lamps glow 5 hours per day.
1 0 5  3 900w capacity of heater works
  2 hours per day.
∆ 2 =  2 0 −10 
Calculate the cost of energy con-
 4 2 −2 
sumed in 60 days.
= 1( 0 + 20 ) + 0 ( −4 + 40 ) + 5 ( 4 + 0 ) [For domestic purpose unit rate
= 20 + 20 = 40 is (1−100)-NIL,(101−200) Rs.3.50
(201−500) = Rs. 4.60, > 500 units =
Rs. 6.60
Basic Electrical Engineering — Theory 30

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 1) 1HP motor works 3 hours per day. Important note

1 × 746 × 3 2238 Current - I – Ampere

Energy = = Wh
1000 1000 Voltage – V – Volts
= 2.238 kwh Resistance – R – Ω(ohms)
= 2.238 unit per day Emf – Volts
P.D – Volts
2) 40w, 10 lamps glow 5 hours per day. Power – P – watts
Ohms Law I = V/R
40 × 10 × 5 2000 V = IR
Energy = = Wh
1000 1000 R = V/I
= 2 kwh Power P = I2R
= 2 units per day P=V×I

3) 900w heater works 2 hours per day. Series circuit I is common to all load,
V= V1+V2+V3+…., R=R1+R2+R3+……
900 × 2 1800
Energy = = Wh Parallel circuit V is common to all
1000 1000
= 1.8 kwh load.
= 1.8 units per day
I = I1 + I2 + I3….

4) Total number of units consumed in

R1R 2 R 3
60 days = 60 (2.238 + 2 + 1.8) Resistance R =
R 2 R 3 + R1R 3 + R1R 2
= 60 ( 2.238 + 2 + 1.8 ) (if 3 loads)
= 60 × 6.038
= 362.28 Kirchoff ’s

Total number of unit = 362 i) Current Law = I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5 (or)

I1 + I2 + I3 − I4 − I5 = 0
Unit Charge Usage Cost ii) Voltage Law V= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
limit per unit unit in Rs ie V= V1 + V2 + V3

1−100 NIL 100 NIL Power Calculation

101−200 3.50 3.50 × 100 350
Power consumed = KW × hour = Kwh
201−500 4.60 4.60 × 162 745.20
= 1unit.
Total 1095.20

Cost of electric charge for 60 days = Rs.

1095.20/-

31 Electrical Fundamental Terms

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 Current Tariff Calculation for Domestic Purpose
Tariff Charges Units Cost
Units Fixed Subsidy From To Rs.
Upto 100 0 150 1 100 1.50
Upto 200 20 150 1 200 1.50
Upto 500 30 150 1 100 1.50
101 200 2.00
More than
500 50 150 1 100 1.50
101 200 3.50
201 500 4.60
501 onwards 6.60

Some Animals use electricity to survive in nature. Many of these animals are
found in the ocean where some use electricity to detect objects around them and
others use electricity to fend off predators or even hunt for food. One of the most
famous of the electric animals is the electric eel. The electric eel can produce
large amounts of electricity, even enough to kill a human or stun a large horse.
The eels typically swim into a school of fish, discharge a large amount of electric-
ity, and then dinner is served!

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 1. Do the following by practice.

2. To make the simple wiring circuits

i) One bulb is controlled by one switch in parallel connection. One bulb is
controlled by 2 switches.
ii) In series connections, more than one lamp i.e series bulb connection is
controlled by single switch.

Conductors - மின் கடத்திகள்

Insulators - மின் கடத்தா ெபாட்கள்
EMF - மின்னியக் விைச
Resistor - மின் தைட
Capacitor - மின்ேதக்கி
Specific Resistance - இனத்தைட
Inductance - மின்ண்
Power - மின் திறன்
Energy - மின் ஆற்றல்

33 Electrical Fundamental Terms

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. The material that does not con-
duct current is
a) conductor 7. The unit of volt is
b) insulator a) watts
c) semiconductor b) volt
d) none of these c) ampere
2. Good conductor has a property of d) ohms
a) low resistance 8. The value of resistance is
b) high resistance measured by
c) medium of these two a) voltmeter
d) none of these b) wattmeter
3. Mineral oil is a c) ohm meter
a) solid conductor d) none of these
b) liquid conductor 9. The units of resistance is
c) soft Insulator a) ohms
d) liquid Insulator b) watts
4. The value of current is measured c) ampere
by d) volt
a) ammeter 10. EMF is measured in
b) voltmeter a) volt
c) wattmeter b) ohms
d) energy meter c) ampere
5. The unit of current is d) watts
a) voltage 11. Unit of power is
b) watts a) volt
c) ohms b) ampere
d) ampere c) watts
6. The value of voltage is measured by d) none of these
a) voltmeter 12. The power is measured by
b) ammeter a) wattmeter
c) wattmeter b) ampere
d) megger c) voltmeter
d) none of these

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 13. According to ohm’s law I is 17. The value of 1HP is
equal to a) 1000w
a) V2/R b) 750W
b) I2R c) 900w
c) V/I d) 746w
d) V/R 18. The unit of capacitance is
14. The value of resistance in short a) volt
circuit is b) ampere
a) low c) farad
b) very low d) watts
c) high 19. Copper is a good
d) medium a) conductor
15. Number of current path in a b) insulator
series circuit is c) semi conductor
a) two d) none of these
b) three 20. capacitor is denoted by the letter
c) one a) q
d none of these b) v
16. The unit of force is c) i
a) newton d) c
b) ampere
c) volts
d) joule

35 Electrical Fundamental Terms

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 3

Answer the Questions in Briefly:

1. What is called as a conductor?
2. What are the types of conductor?
3. What is called as an insulator?
4. What are the types of insulators?
5. Define current.
6. Define voltage.
7. Define Resistance.
8. What is called Electromotive force (EMF)?
9. What is called Potential Difference?
10. Explain the term ‘Electric power’.
11. Define ohm’s Law.
12. Voltage of circuit is 240v and 12 A current is flowing through it.
Find the value of Resistance.
13. Explain ‘open circuit’.
14. Two resistance 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel Voltage of the
circuit in 240v. Find the value of total resistance.
15. What is called Work?
16. Explain the factors on which the capacity of condenser depends.
17. Define ‘capacitance’ of a capacitor.

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page
1. Explain the properties of a conductor.
2. Explain the properties of insulators.
3. Explain the difference between Electromotive force and Potential
Difference.
4. What are the important rules for series circuit?
5. What are the important rules for parallel circuit?
6. Three resistors 3Ω,6Ω and 18Ω are connected in parallel. The current
flow of the circuit is 3A. Find the value of i)Total Resistance ii)voltage.
7. Explain the laws of Resistors.

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. What are the types of conductors Explain.
2. Explain the construction and working of series circuit.
3. Explain the construction and working of parallel circuit.
4. Explain the Kirchoff ’s Laws.
5. Explain the construction and working principle of condenser.
6. What are the types of capacitors? Explain.

Reference Book
1. A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume I by B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, S.
Chand & Company Ltd.

37 Electrical Fundamental Terms

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 Electro Magnetism

355

Knowledge is truth of things to find

in every case of every kind.
— Thiruvalluvar

T
o know the classification of properties of magnetic materials, terming it makes
it easy to read the concepts of magnet and also the types of electromagnetic
induction, Hysteresis and its laws are the scope and objective for learning.

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 3.1 Magnetism – Introduction.
3.2 Properties of Magnets
i) Classification of Magnets
ii) Comparison of Electro Magnet and Permanent Magnet.
3.3 Magnetic Materials, Magnetic Terms and Properties
3.4 Electro Magnetism
3.5 Electro Magnetic Induction
3.6 Hysteresis Loop
3.7 Rules and Laws Related to Magnetism.

magnetism and function of magnetism in

the electrical equipment are explained.
3.1
MAGNETISM -
INTRODUCTION
3.2
Magnetism is a force field that acts PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
on some materials. A physical device which
• Magnets attract magnetic substances
possesses this force is called as a magnet.
such as iron, nickel, cobalt and its
alloy.
The force to attract iron is known
• If a magnet is freely suspended, its
as Magnetism. The substance which pos-
pole will always tend to set themselves
sesses magnetism is called Magnet. The
in the direction of north and south.
materials attracted by a magnet are known
• Like poles repels and unlike poles
as Magnetic materials.
attracts each other.
Magnetism plays an important role
in electricity. Without the aid of magnet, it
is impossible to operate devices like gen-
erator, electric motors, transformers, elec-
trical instruments, etc. Magnetism is also
used in the functioning of radio, televi-
sion, phones and ignition system of auto
mobiles. In this chapter salient features of Fig 3.1 Like Poles
39 Electro Magnetism

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 • If a magnet is broken into number of Cylindrical magnet are some types based
pieces, each piece becomes an inde- on shapes.
pendent magnet which has North
and South.
• A magnet can impart its proper-
ties by induction to any magnetic
material.

Fig 3.3 Permanent Magnets

ALNICO (Aluminium-Nickel-­
Cobalt) is an alloy metal specifically
used as permanent magnet because it
can be lifted up to 50 times weight load
Fig 3.2 UnLike Poles
compared to its own weight. Permanent
• A magnet loses its properties when magnets can be formed by touch method,
it is heated, hammered or dropped electric current method and induction
from height. method.

3.2.1 Classification of Magnets b) Temporary Magnet (or) Electro

1. Natural Magnet Magnet
The magnet found in nature is When an electric current is passed
known as lodestone. The natural mag- through a coil of wire wrapped around a
net is one of the iron ore magnetite with soft iron core, a very strong magnetic field
chemical composition Fe3O4 is produced.

2. Artificial Magnet This is called as electro magnet.

The magnets prepared by artificial If the current is cut off, the core will
method are called artificial magnets. It be demagnetized, and hence known as
can be made in different shape, size and temporary magnet.
strength only in certain metals. There are
two types of artificial magnet.

a) Permanent Magnet
In a permanent magnet, the mag-
netic materials can retain magnetic prop-
erty permanently for a long time. Bar mag- Fig 3.4 Electro magnet
net, Horse Shoe magnet, Ring Magnet,

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 3.2.2 Comparison of Electromagnet & b) Para Magnetic Materials
Permanent Magnet.
• The materials which are not
strongly attracted by a magnet
ELECTRO PERMANENT
are known as paramagnetic mate-
MAGNET MAGNET
rials. Ex: (aluminium, tin, plati-
1. Polarity can be Polarity cannot
num, magnesium etc.).
changed easily. be changed easily.
• The permeability value of these
2. Strength can be varied. strength cannot
be varied. materials is just greater than one.
3. More cost. Less cost
c) Ferro -Magnetic Materials
4. Suitable for motor & Not suitable for
generator of large size. large size.
• The materials which are strongly
5. Used in electric bells, Not used in any
attracted by a magnet are known
signals, escalators, of these. as ferromagnetic materials. Ex:
cranes. (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, etc.)
6. Cannot be used in Mostly used in • The permeability value of these
navigation navigation as materials is very high (var-
magnetic needle ies from several hundreds to
7. Cannot be used in Used in cycle thousands).
cycle and Motor cycle and Motor cycle • Materials which are easily
dynamo. dynamo. magnetized with a high relative
permeability, low coercive force
(small hysteresis) are called soft
ferromagnetic materials.
3.3 • Materials which are difficult to
MAGNETIC MATRIALS magnetize, but retain magnetism
with great tenacity, with low rel-
Magnetic materials are classified
ative permeability, high coercive
based on permeability property by three
force are called hard ferromag-
types.
netic materials.
a) Dia-Magnetic Materials 3.3.1 Magnetic Terms and Properties
b) Para Magnetic Materials
c) Ferro Magnetic Materials a) Magnetic Field:

a) Dia – Magnetic Materials

• The materials which are repelled
by a magnet are known as dia-
magnetic materials. Ex: zinc,
mercury, lead, sulphur, copper,
silver, Bismuth, wood, etc.
• The permeability value of these
Fig 3.5 Magnetic Field Lines
materials is less than one.
41 Electro Magnetism

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 • The magnetic field around a magnet   The ratio between permea-
is represented by imaginary lines bility of material and permea-
called magnetic line of force. bility of air (μ0) is called relative
• The magnetic line of force permeability(μr)
emerges from north pole to south
μr =μ/μ0
pole and it continues through the
body of magnet to form a closed
 he relative permeability for air is
T
loop.
1 ( μr =μ0/μ0)
• Two magnetic lines of force will
not intersect each other.  he value of μᵣ for all non- magnetic
T
• If magnetic lines of force are rows material is also 1.
together, the field is strong. If they
 e relative permeability of magnetic
Th
are spaced out the magnetic field
materials is very high. For example,
is weak.
soft iron (i.e pure iron) has a relative
permeability of 8000, whereas its val-
b) Magnetic Flux
ue for perm alloy (22% Iron, +78%
• The amount of magnetic field
nickel) is as high as 50,000.
produced by a magnetic source is
called magnetic flux. e) Magneto Motive Force (MMF)
• It is denoted by Greek Letter ϕ It is a magnetic pressure which tends
and its unit is weber. to set up magnetic flux in a Magnetic circuit.

c) Magnetic Flux Density The work done in moving a unit

• The magnetic flux density is the magnetic pole once round the magnetic
flux per unit area at right angles circuit is called MMF. It is equal to the product
to the flux. of current and number of turns of the coil.
Magnetic flux density, B = ϕ/A wb/m² MMF = Number of turns × current.
Its unit is Ampere-turns
d) Permeability
• Permeability of a material means, the f) Reluctance
conductivity for magnetic flux. The The opposition that the magnetic
greater the permeability of material, circuit offers to magnetic flux is called
the greater is its conductivity of reluctance. Magnetic materials (eg iron, steel)
magnetic flux and vice-versa. Air or have low reluctance, on the other hand non-
Vacuum is the poorest conductor of magnetic materials have a high reluctance.
magnetic flux. The absolute (actual)
permeability µ0 (Greek Letter ‘mu’) Reluctance S = l/ μ0 μr A
of air is 4π × 10–7 Henry/metre.
The absolute (actual) permeability g) Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)
of magnetic material(μ) is much The imaginary line which is
greater than μ0. perpendicular to the magnetic axis and
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 passes through the centre of the magnet is withstand an external magnetic field with-
called magnetic neutral axis. There is no out becoming demagnetized.
magnetic influence along this line.

Magnetic Axis (MA) is the imagi-

nary straight line joining North to South 3.4
ELECTRO MAGNETISM
pole. There is maximum magnetic influ-
ence along this line. When current is passed through a
coil of wire, a magnetic field is set up around
i) Magnetic Saturation the coil. If soft iron bar is placed inside the
The limit beyond which the strength coil of wire carrying current, the iron bar
of magnet cannot be increased is called becomes magnetized. This process is known
magnetic saturation. as electro magnetism.

ii) Residual Magnetism The iron remains as a magnet as

It is the magnetism which remains in long as the current is flowing in the circuit.
a material when the effective magnetizing It looses its magnetism when current is
force has been reduced to zero. switched off.

iii) Magnetic Retentivity The polarity of an electromagnet

The property of retaining magnetism depends upon the direction of the current
by a magnetic material is called Magnetic flowing through it.
Retentivity.
If the direction of current is altered,
iv) Hysteresis the polarity of the magnetic field will also
The energy required to demagne- be changed.
tize the residual magnetism of material is
known as hysteresis.

v) Leakage Flux
Leakage flux is defined as the
magnetic flux which does not follow the
particularly intended path in a magnetic
circuit.

Taking the example, solenoid you

can explain the leakage flux and the fringing
Fig 3.6 Magnetic Field Lines
both. When a current is passed through
solenoid, magnetic flux is produced by it.
3.4.1 Electro Magnetism in a Current
vi) Coercivity Carrying Conductor
Coercivity is a measure of the A magnetic field is formed around a
ability of a ferro magnetic materials to conductor carrying current. The direction
43 Electro Magnetism

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 of the magnetic field depends on the di- i) Current in The Same Direction
rection of the current flow.

Fig 3.7 Right Hand Grip Rule

Fig 3.8 Currents in Same Direction
Right Hand Grip Rule
• It is used to determine the direction • If two wires (A, B) carrying current in
of the magnetic field in a current same direction are brought together,
carrying conductor. their magnetic fields will aid one
• If you wrap your fingers around another and attracts.
the wire with your thumb pointing • Since the flux lines around two
direction of current flow, your index conductors are going in the same
finger will point the direction of direction, the flux lines join and the
magnetic field. field brings the wire together.

Right Handed Cork Screw Rule ii) Current in The Opposite Direction
• Assume a right handed cork screw to
be along the wire to advance in the A B
direction of current.
• The motion of handle gives the
direction of magnetic lines around
the conductor.

Force Between Parallel Conductors Fig 3.9 Currents in Opposite Direction

When two current carrying • If two wires (A, B) carrying current
conductors are parallel to each other, a in opposite directions are brought
mechanical force act on each conductor. together their magnetic field will
This force is due to magnetic field produced oppose one another.
in the two conductors. If the currents are in • Since the flux lines around two con-
the same direction, the forces are attractive. ductors are going in the opposite
If the currents are in the opposite direction, direction, the flux lines cannot cross
the forces are repulsive. and the field moves the wires apart.

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 3.4.2 Solenoid conductors. Then the thumb indicates the
A current carrying wire is made direction of magnetic field (North) of the so-
to form a loop and a number of loops are lenoid.
wound in the same direction to form a coil.
More magnetic fields will add to make the
flux lines through the coil stronger and
dense.

A helically wound coil that is made to

produce a strong magnetic field is called
a solenoid. Fig 3.11 Helix Rule
Uses of Solenoid
The flux lines in a solenoid act in • Used for Circuit Breaking.
the same way as in a magnet. They leave • Voltage Regulating Device.
the north pole and go around to the south • Automatic Motor Starter.
pole. • Contactor, Elevator, Crane.

The directions of the magnetic field Toroid

in a solenoid is known by the following A helix bent into a circular form is
rules. known as Toroid ( i.e coiled coil)

End Rule
Look at the end of the solenoid of
the electromagnet. If the current in the coil
is clock wise the end is Southpole . If the
current in the coil is counter-clockwise the
end is North pole.
Fig 3.12 Toroid

3.5
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Fig 3.10 End Rule Electricity induced by the magnetic

field is known as Electro Magnetic
Helix Rule
Induction.
Hold the right hand palm over the
solenoid in such a way the fingers point
in the direction of current in the solenoid

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 3.4.3 Comparision Between Magnetic and Electric Circuits
S.NO PROPERTIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
1 Definition The closed path followed by magnetic The closed circuit followed by electric
flux is called magnetic circuit. current is called electric circuit.
2 Driving Force MMF is the pressure required to set EMF is the pressure required to
up the magnetic flux in magnetic set up the current in an Electric
circuit (Ampere-Turn) circuit (Volt).
3 Response MMF EMF
FLUX (Ø) = (weber ) CURRENT ( I) = ( Ampere )
Reluctance Resistance

4 Impendance RELUCTANCE(S)=l/(μ0μrA) RESISTANCE (R)=ρl/A(ohms)

[AT/Weber]
5 Admittance 1 1
PERMEANCE = [wb / AT ] CONDUCTANCE = (Siemens)
Reluctance Resistance

6 Proportionality 1 1
RELUCTIVITY= (M / H ) RESISTIVITY= (ohm – meter )
Permeability Conductivity

7 Density FLUX DENSITY B = μ H(wb/m2) CURRENT

DENSITY J=I/A(Amp/ m2)
8 Field Intensity MAGNETICFIELD ELECTRIC FIELD
INTENSITY(H)=NI/l(AT/m) INTENSITY=E/l(volt/m)

Whenever a conductor or coil is SECOND LAW: The magnitude of the

moved or rotated in a magnetic field and cut induced EMF is directly proportional to
the magnetic line of force (flux), an EMF will the rate of change of flux linked with the
be induced in that conductor or coil. conductor.

The two types of EMF induced are:

i) Dynamically induced EMF.

ii) Statically induced EMF.

3.5.2 Dynamically Induced EMF

3.5.1 Faraday’s Law of Moving a coil/conductor in a
Electromagnetic Induction uniform magnetic field will induce an EMF
FIRST LAW: Whenever a conductor cuts which is known as dynamically induced
magnetic flux, an EMF is induced in that EMF. Generators work on this principle.
conductor.
Consider a conductor of length l
(meters) placed in a uniform magnetic field
of density B(wb/m²), moved with a velocity
V(m/s) perpendicular to the direction of the
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  The north pole of a magnet points roughly toward Earth's north pole and vice-versa.
That's because Earth itself contains magnetic materials and behaves like a gigantic
magnet.
 If you cut a bar magnet in half, it's a bit like cutting an earthworm in half ! You get
two brand new, smaller magnets, each with its own north and south pole. (This is,
of course, a joke. You don't get two worms if you cut a worm in half. But you do get
two magnets.)
 If you run a magnet a few times over an unmagnetized piece of a magnetic material
(such as an iron nail), you can convert it into a magnet as well.

magnetic field. Then the flux is cut by the • The induced EMF is always opposite
conductor and an EMF is induced. in direction to the applied EMF.

The magnitude of EMF inducede is

e = BlV sinθ

3.5.3 Statically Induced Emf

By keeping a conductor or coil in
statically and varying the magnetic field
will induce an EMF in the conductor or
coil which is statically induced EMF. Fig 3.13 Self Induction
Statically induced EMF can be (b) Mutual Induction
classified as self inductance and mutual
inductance. It is the ability of one coil to produce
an EMF by induction. When the current in the
(a) Self Induction second coil changes, both coils are placed nearer.

• This is the EMF induced in a coil due to • When two coils are placed nearer and
the change of its own flux linked with it. current is passed through one of the
• If current through the coil is changed, coil, magnetic flux will be produced
then the flux linked with its own which is common to both coils.
turns will also change, which will • When current through first coil is var-
produce self induced EMF. ied, the magnetic flux will vary, which
will induce an emf in second coil.
47 Electro Magnetism

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 3.6
HYSTERESIS LOOP
Take a piece of iron bar AB and
magnetise the same by placing it within the
field of solenoid. The field H produced by the
Fig3.14 Mutual Induction solenoid is called the magnetising field. The
field (H) can be increased (or) decreased by
LENZ’S LAW increasing (or) decreasing the current through
it. Let ‘H’ be increased slowly from zero to a
A change in current produces an maximum value and the corresponding value
emf, whose direction is in such a way of flux density (B) be noted. If we plot the
that it opposes the change in current. relation between H and B, OA is obtained.
The material becomes magnetically saturated
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule at point A and has the maximum flux density
The direction of induced EMF in induced in it (H = OM).
generators and alternators (Dynamically
induced emf) is known by Fleming’s Right
hand rule.

Stretch the thumb, forefinger and

middle finger mutually at right angles [90°]
to each other.

If the thumb indicates the direction

of motion of the conductor, the forefinger
indicates direction of the magnetic flux, then Fig 3.16 Hysteresis Loop circuit
the middle finger indicates the direction of
the induced EMF. Now if ‘H’ is decreased slowly by
decreasing the current in the solenoid, the
flux density(B) will not decrease along AO
but will decrease less rapidly along AR1. When
H is made to be zero, at that time, B will not
be zero but will have the value OR1. It means
that on removing the magnetising force, H
the iron bar is not completely demagnetized.
This value (B = OR1) is the retentivity of the
material (Residual magnetism).

To demagnetise the bar, we have to

Fig 3.15 Right Hand Rule supply the force H in the opposite direction.
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 B its value corresponding to negative satura-
b tion (OL) to its value for positive saturation
c
Positive
Saturation
(OM), the closed loop which is obtained
Residual Magnetism
(positive) when iron bar is taken through one com-
plete cycle of magnetism. This loop is called
d a g
Coercive Force Coercive Force
H Hysteresis Loop .
(negative) (positive)

f In this BH curve, it is seen that B

Negative
Saturation Residual Magnetism always lag behind H. The two never attain
(negative)
zero value simultaneously .Hysteresis liter-
ally means to lag behind . The closed loop
Fig 3.17 Hysteresis Loop
OAR1, CA1R2C1A which is obtained when
When H is reversed by reversing the current iron bar is taken through one complete cy-
through the solenoid, then B is reduced to cle of reversal of magnetisation is known as
zero at point C where H = OC. This value is Hysteresis loop.
required to clear off the residual magnetism.
Hysteresis Loss
This is known as the coercive force and is a
measure of the coercivity of the material. • It is the loss of power due to hysteresis
and expressed in watts or KW.
After reducing the magnetism to • Hysteresis cannot be avoided but can be
zero, if the value of H is further increased minimised by selecting proper metal.
in the negative direction ( i.e reversed direc- • Lesser the hysteresis constant, better
tion), the iron bar reaches a state of magnet- the metal for A.C electromagnet.
ic saturation at point A1, which is negative • So, usually silicon steel is used for A.C
saturation (H = OL). By taking H back from circuit as it's hysteresis constant is 0.001.

3.7
RULES/LAWS RELATED TO MAGNETISM

Rule or Law Uses

Cork Screw Rule To find out the direction of line of force (magnetic field) around a
straight current carrying conductor.
Helix Rule To find out polarity of the poles of an electromagnet (solenoid)
End Rule To find out polarity of the poles of an electromagnet (solenoid)
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule To find out the direction of current in the conductor of a generator.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule To find out the direction of rotation of the armature of D.C motor.
Lenz’s Law To find out the direction of the counter current produced in the
armature.
Ampere rule To find out the direction of line of force around the current
carrying conductor.

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 1. Apply the magnetic rule by using two magnets.
2. How can the induced current be known by mutual induction method.
3. Do the magnetism practice observed from the diagram.

Permanent Magnets - நிைலக் காந்தம்

Artificial Magnets - ெசயற்ைகக் காந்தம்
Electro Magnets - மின்காந்தம்
Mmf- Magneto-Motive-Force - மின் இயக் விைச
Magnetic Flux - காந்தப் லம்
Magnetic Saturation - காந்தப் ரிதம்
Residual Magnetism - தங்கிக் ெகாண்ட காந்த சக்தி
Hysteresis Loop - காந்தத் தயக்க வைளயம்

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. Magnetic field lines
a) intersect each other
b) cannot intersect. 6. A permeable substance is one
c) are crowded near poles a) which is a good conductor
d) All of the above. b) which is a strong magnet.
c) which is a bad conductor
2. In an electro magnet, when cur-
d) through which the magnetic line
rent is switched off, the Iron bar
of forces can pass very easily.
a) holds its magnetism
b) gains voltage 7. A material which is slightly repelled
c) losses its magnetism by magnetic field is known as
d) gains current a) Ferro magnetic material
b) Para magnetic material
3. The direction of magnetic lines
c) Dia magnetic material
of force is
d) Conducting material.
a) from south pole to north pole
b) from north pole to south pole 8. Total number of magnetic field lines
c) from one end of the magnet passing through an area is called
to other a) Magnetic flux density
d) none of the above. b) EMF
c) Magnetic flux
4. The permanent magnet is used in
d) Voltage.
a) Dynamo
b) Energy meters 9. The commonly used material for
c) Transformers shielding or screening magnet is
d) Loud Speaker a) Copper
b) Aluminium
5. Magnetic properties in a mag-
c) Soft Iron
net can be destroyed by
d) Brass
a) heating
10. The unit of magnetic flux density is
b) hammering
a) weber/m2
c) by inductive action of
b) lumens
another magnet
c) tesla
d) by all above methods.
d) none of the above.

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 11. Indicate which of the following 14. Which of the following circuit
material does not retain magne- element stores energy in an
tism permanently. electromagnetic field?
a) Soft iron a) Capacitor
b) Stainless steel b) Inductance
c) Hardened steel c) Resistance
d) None of the above. d) Variable Resistance.
12. The material having low reten- 15. EMF induced by motion of conduc-
tivity are suitable for making a tor across magnetic field is called
a) weak magnet a) emf
b) temporary magnet. b) dynamic emf
c) permanent magnet c) static emf
d) none of the above. d) rotational emf
16. The magnitude of the induced emf
13. The absolute permeability (μo) of in a conductor depends on the
air or vacuum is a) flux density of the magnetic field.
a) 4π × 10-7 H/M b) amount of flux cut
b) 4π × 10-3 Henry/Metre c) amount of flux linkages
c) 4π × 10 3 H/M d) rate of change of flux linklages.
d) 4π × 107 H/M

Answer the Questions in briefly

1. What is magnetism?
2. Why is ALNICO used for permanent magnet?
3. State any three uses of permanent magnets.
4. State Maxwell cork’s screw rule.
5. What is solenoid and Toroid?
6. What are the uses of solenoid?
7. Define End Rule.
8. Define Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
9. State Flemings right hand rule.
10. Define Lenz’s law.
11. What is hysteresis loss?

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page
1. Compare electro magnet and permanent magnet.
2. Explain magnetic materials?
3. Define Flux, MMF and Reluctance.
4. Define Magnetic saturation, Retentivity and Residual magnetism.
5. Compare magnetic and electric circuit.
6. How to do you increase the magnitude of induced emf.

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain the types of electro magnetic induction with neat diagram.
2. Explain hysteresis loop with a neat diagram.

Reference Book
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, S. Chand
& Company Ltd.

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 Batteries

— Swami Vivekananda

T
he main objective of a battery is to know the classifications of the various
types of cells, also to know about the chemical r­ eactions during charging
and discharging, maintenance, and tips for care of battery.

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 4.1 Introduction and Definition
4.2 Dry Cell
4.3 Voltaic Cell
4.4 Secondary Cell and its Classification
4.5 Lithium Ion Battery
4.6  Seven Features About Disparity Between Lead Acid Battery and Lithium
Ion Battery
4.7 UPS Battery
4.8 Maintenance of Batteries
4.9 Do’s and Don’ts of Storage Battery
4.10 Nine Tips for Proper Battery Care

electrically in series. Battery acts as a por-

table source of electrical energy.
4.1
INTRODUCTION AND Battery or cell is an electrochemical
DEFINITION device consisting of two electrodes made up
Battery is a device that transforms of different material and an electrolyte. The
chemical energy into electrical energy. chemical reactions between the electrodes
Batteries consist of electro chemical cells and the electrolyte produce voltage.
that are electrically connected.

Every battery has two terminals. The

positive one is called ‘Anode’ and negative one
is called ‘Cathode’ as shown in and Fig 4.1.

Battery is a storage device used for

the storage of chemical energy and for the
transformation of chemical energy into
electrical energy.

Battery consists of a group of two

or more electric cells connected together Fig 4.1 Simple Battery Structure
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 Cells are Classified as Dry and Wet Cells.

CELL

DRY CELL WET CELL

4.1.1 Dry Cell

Dry cell is one that has a paste (or)
gel electrolyte. It is semi sealed and can be
used in any position. Nowadays the term
Fig 4.2 Dry Cell.
‘Dry cell’ refers to a cell that can be oper-
ated in any position without leakage.

4.1.2 Wet Cell

Wet cells are cells that must be
operated in an upright position. These cells
have vents to allow the gases generated
during charging or discharging to escape.
The most common wet cell is the Lead-
Acid cell.

4.1.3 Primary Cells

The Zinc-carbon consists of a
Primary cells are those cells that are zinc container which acts as the nega-
not rechargeable. That is, the chemical re- tive electrode. In the center, carbon rod
action that occurs during discharges is not which is a positive electrode is present.
easily reversed. When the chemicals used The electrolyte takes the form of a moist
in the reactions are all converted, the cell is paste, made up of a solution containing
fully discharged. It must then be replaced by ammonium chloride. As with all primary
a new cell. cells, one of the electrode becomes de-
composed as part of chemical reaction.
Example:-
As a result, cells left in equipment for
Voltaic cell, Leclanche cell, Alkaline
long periods of time can rupture, spill-
cell, Mercury cell, Lithium cell.
ing the electrolyte and causing damage
to the other parts.
Zinc-carbon cells are produced in
4.2 common standard sizes. These include
DRY CELL 1.5v AA, C, D cells.

The most common and the least (AA-pen type cell, C-minimum size,
expensive type of a dry cell battery in the D-large/Economy size.)
Zinc-carbon type as shown in figure 4.2.
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 4.2.1 Uses of Primary Cell
Primary cells are used in electron-
ic products ranging from watches, smoke
alarms, cardiac pacemaker torches, hear-
ing aids, transister radios, etc.

4.2.2 Series Cell Connection Fig 4.4 Batteries Parallel Connection

Cells are connected in series by con-
necting the positive terminal of one cell to 4.2.3 Parallel Connection
the negative terminal of the next cell. (See Cells are connected in parallel
the connection diagram in fig. 4.3) by connecting all the positive terminals
together and all the negative terminals
together as shown in the figure 4.4.
Identical cells are connected in par-
allel to obtain a higher output current or
ampere-hour rating. With this connection
Fig 4.3 Batteries Series Connection of cells, the output ampere-hour rating is
equal to the sum of the ampere-hour rating
Identical cells are connected in series of all the cells. However, the output voltage
to obtain a higher voltage is available as a remains the same as that of a single cell.
single cell. With this connection of cells,
the output voltage is equal to the sum of the When connecting groups of cells or
voltages in the cells.However, the ampere batteries in parallel, each group must be
hour (A-h) rating remains equal to that of a in the same voltage level paralleling two
single cell. batteries of unequal voltage levels set up a
difference of potential energy between the

Fig 4.5 Voltaic Cell

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 two. As a result, the higher voltage battery
will discharge its current into the other
battery until both are at equal voltage value. 4.4
SECONDARY CELL
A voltaic cell is an electrochemical cell
that uses a chemical reaction to produce elec- A cell that can be recharged by send-
trical energy. In this cell, Anode is an electrode ing electric current in the reverse direction
where oxidation occurs. Cathode is an elec- to that of a discharge mode is known as a
trode where reduction occurs. secondary cell. Secondary cells are Storage
In a voltaic cell, copper and zinc are the batteries since, after it is charged, it stores
two electrodes and sulphuric acid is an elec- the energy until it is used or discharged.
trolyte. When placed together, a chemical re-
action occurs between the electrodes and the 4.4.1 Secondary Cell Classification
sulphuric acid. Secondary cells may be classified as
This reaction produces a negative
(i) Lead acid cell
charge on the zinc (surplus of electron) and a
(ii) Alkaline cell
positive charge on the copper (deficiency of
electrons). If an external circuit is connected
Example: Nickel iron cell, Nickel cad-
across the two electrodes, electrons will flow
mium cell
from the negative zinc electrode to the positive
copper electrodes as shown in fig 4.5. Secondary cell is a type of electrical
The electric current will flow as long as battery, which can be charged, discharged
the chemical action continues. In this type of into a load, and recharged many times,
cell, the zinc electrode is eventually consumed as opposed to a disposable or primary
as a part of the chemical reaction. battery, which is supplied fully charged and
discharged after use. It is composed of one
The voltaic cell is also known as wet or more electro chemical cells. The term
cell, because in this, a liquid solution is used as ‘accumulator’ is used, as it accumulates
an electrolyte. and stores energy through a reversible
We learn that most of the primary cell electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable
except rechargeable ones are used one time only. batteries are produced in many different
It does not supply current continuously. The sec- shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells
ondary cells overcome this disadvantage. to mega watt systems connected to stabilize
an electrical distribution network.

4.3 Several different combinations

VOLTAIC CELL of electrode materials and electrolytes
are used, including Lead-acid, Nickel-­
In a secondary cell, the charging cadmium, Nickel-metal hydride, and Lith-
and discharging processes are taking place ium ion.
according to Faraday’s law of electrolysis.

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 Electronlyte-tight sealing ring
Positive plate pack Valve adapter and valve
Grid Plate Negative Pore
Positive cell
Positive Plate connection Negative cell
connection
Negative Plate
Negative
Microporous separator plate pack

Fig 4.6 Lead Acid Battery

Initial cost of rechargeable batteries
will be more than the disposable batteries, but
have a much lower total cost of ownership.

Storage battery is a cell or a connected

group of cells which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy by reversible
chemical reaction and may be recharged by Construction
passing a current through in the direction First of all, we shall see the various
opposite to that of its discharge. parts of the lead acid cell battery with the help
of fig 4.6 . The container and the plates are the
4.4.2 Lead Acid Battery main parts of the lead acid cell battery.
The battery which uses sponge lead
and lead peroxide for the conversion of
the chemical energy into electrical energy
is called lead acid cell battery. This type of
battery is most commonly used in the pow-
er stations and substations, because it has
higher cell voltage and lower cost.
1. Container
The container stores chemical energy
which is converted into electrical energy
with the help of plates. The container is
made of glass, lead lined wood, ebonite, hard

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 rubber of bituminous components, ceramic The grids are made up of an alloy of
materials or moulded plastic and are seated at lead and antimony. The grid for the positive
the top to avoid the discharge of electrolyte. and negative plates are of the same design,
At the bottom of the container, there are four (as shown in fig. 4.7) but the grids from the
ribs, on two of them rest on the positive plate negative plates are made lighter because
and the others support the negative plate. they are not as essential for the uniform
conduction of the current.
The prism serves as the support
for the plates, and at the same time pro- The number of negative plates in
tects them from short-circuit. The mate- a cell is always more than one number of
rial which the battery containers are made positive plates in a cell, so that end plates at
should be resistant to sulphuric acid. both the sides of the group remain negative.
2. Plate 3. Active Material
The plates of the lead acid cell is of The material in a cell which takes
diverse designs and they all consist some active participation in a chemical reaction
form of a grid which is made up of lead during charging or discharging is called
and the active material. The grid is essential the active material of the cell. The active
for conducting the electric current and for element of the lead acid cells are
distributing the current equally on the active
material. If the current is not uniformly (a) Lead Peroxide (PbO2)
distributed, then the active material will It forms the positive active material.
loosen and fall out. The PbO2 is dark chocolate brown in colour.
b) Sponge Lead (Pb)
It forms the negative active materi-
al. It is grey in colour.

(c) Dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

It is used as an electrolyte. It
contains 31% of sulphuric acid.

4.Separators
The separators are thin sheets of
non-conducting material made up of chem-
ically treated leadwood, porous rubbers or
mats of glass fibre and are placed between the
positive and negative to insulate from each
other. Separators are grooved vertically on
one side and are smooth on the other side.

5. Battery Terminals
Fig 4.7 Plate Arrangements of A battery has two terminals:–
Lead-Acid Battery
Positive and Negative
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 A) Working Principle
In a lead acid cell, sulphuric acid is used
as an electrolyte. In this H2So4, electrolyte is
poured after pouring water in it. Then, sulphuric
acid dissolves and the molecules of hydro-
gen and sulphate are formed. In this, hydrogen
ions are positive and sulphate ions are negative.
Two electrodes of battery are dipped
in an electrolyte and DC supply is given as
an input. Hydrogen positive ions go towards
negative plate of electrode. Sulphate negative
ions go towards positive plate of the elec-
trode. In this way lead acid battery functions. Fig 4.8 Discharging Process
The sign(+) indicates positive termi- Physical Changes While Discharging
nal and sign(−) indicates negative terminal
1. Both the positive and negative plates
Positive terminal-17.5mm dia are slowly converted into lead sul-
Negative terminal-16mm dia phate PbSO4 (white in colour)
2. Water is formed during discharge.
b) Chemical Reactions During So the acid becomes more and more
Discharging dilute. Specific gravity of sulphuric
When the cell is discharging, current acid solution decreases.
flow in the external circuit is from positive 3. Decrease in emf
to negative. (See fig. 4.8) The flow of current
through the electrolyte (H2SO4) splits into c) C hemical Reaction During
positive hydrogen ion (H2–+) and two nega- Charging
tive sulphate ions (SO4–2). For recharging, the anode and
cathode are connected to the positive and the
Each sulphate ions move towards the
negative terminal of the DC main supply.The
cathode and on reaching there, give up two elec-
hydrogen ions are positively charged move
trons to become radical SO4, attack the metallic
towards the cathode. (as in fig 4.9)
lead cathode and form lead sulphate, whitish
in colour according to the chemical equation. Sulphate ions move to the anode, and
At Anode, H2 combines with oxygen of the following chemical reaction occurs.
PbO2 and H2SO4attacks lead to form PbSO4.
AtAnode:PbSO 4 + H2 → Pb + H2SO4
At Anode: At Cathode:
PbO2 + H2 + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + 2H2O PbSO 4 + SO4 + 2H2O → PbO2 + 2H2SO4

At cathode: Pb + SO4 → PbSO 4

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 7. Short life. Long life.
8. Low efficiency. High efficiency.
9. Less maintenance. High maintenance.

4.5
LITHIUM - ION BATTERY

A Lithium-ion battery is a type of

rechargeable battery in which lithium ions
move from the negative electrode to the
positive electrode during discharge and
lithium ions move from positive electrode
to the negative electrode when charging.
Fig 4.9 Charging Process
The three primary functional com-
Physical Changes While Charging ponents of a lithium ion battery are the
1. Anode and cathode return back to positive electrode, negative electrode and
their original colour (i.e positive plate electrolyte. The negative electrode is made
dark brown and negative plate grey). from carbon. The positive electrode is a
2. Specific gravity of an electrolyte is metal oxide and electrolyte is a lithium
increased due to absorption of water. salt in an organic solvent.
3. Increase in emf values.
Nominal Cell Voltage
d) Difference Between Primary And
Secondary Cells

Primary Cell Secondarycell

1. Primary cell cannot Secondary cell can
be recharged. be recharged.
2. Chemical energy In this, Electrical
is converted into energy is converted
electrical energy. into chemical energy.
3. Internal resistance Internal resistance Fig 4.10 Lithium Ion Battery
is high. is low.
4. It is light in It is heavy in weight. NMC: 3.6/3.85 Volt
weight.
Lithium ion battery is a primary cell
5. It is less expensive. More expensive.
type battery. (see fig 4.10) It is available in
6. It is disposable. Not disposable
variety of sizes and configurations. Depend-
and needs regular
maintenance and ing on the chemicals used with lithium, the
periodic recharging. cell voltage is between 2.5 to 3.6volt.

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 Advantages of Lithium Battery battery should be kept in a cool storage area,
The are many advantages of using that will increase the life of battery.
lithium-ion battery. iii) Transportation
i) High Energy Density Lithium ion battery applications are
The main advantage of lithium ion restricted on their transportation, especially
battery is high energy density. In mobile by air. These batteries require care and pro-
phones, it needs to operate for a long time tection while on transportation.
between charges while still charging more iv) Cost
power, there is always a need to batteries, The cost of lithium ion battery is high
with a much higher energy density. It is a compared with other types of batteries.
distinct advantage.
ii) Self Discharge
One issue with batteries is that they 4.6
loose their charges overtime. The main SEVEN FEATURES ABOUT
advantage is that the rate of self-discharge is THE DISPARITY BETWEEN
very low than that of the other batteries. LEAD ACID AND
iii) No Requirement For Priming LITHIUM ION BATTERIES
In this, lithium ion battery does not
1. Weight
need to be primed, but the other batteries
Lithium ion batteries are one third
require priming.
the weight of lead acid batteries
iv) Low Maintenance
2. Efficiency
Lithium ion battery does not require
Lithium-ion batteries are of nearly
any maintenance to ensure the performance.
100% efficiency both charge and discharge,
Disadvantages allowing the same ampere hours both in and
The disadvantages of lithium ion out. But lead acid cell battery is 85% efficiency.
battery are as follows:
3. Discharge
i) Protection Required Lithium-ion batteries are discharged
Lithium ion cells require protection 100%, but lead acid batteries discharge less
from being overcharged and discharged too than 80%.
much. In addition, they need to have the
current maintained within safe limits. Ac- 4. Life Cycle
cordingly, lithium ion battery disadvantage Life cycle of the lithium-ion battery
is that they require protection to ensure that is 400–1200 cycles, whereas lead acid bat-
is it kept within the safe operating limits. tery life cycle is 400 to 500 cycles
ii) Ageing 5. Voltage
Another disadvantage of this battery Lithium-ion batteries maintain their
is ageing. The battery is dependent upon voltage throughout the entire discharge
the number of charge and discharge cycles cycle. This allows greater and longer lasting
that the battery has undergone. Lithium ion efficiency of electrical components. Lead

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 acid cell battery voltage drops consistently low self-discharge. Also used in electric
throughout the discharge cycle. vehicle and aerospace application.
6. Cost
Despite the higher upfront cost of
lithium ion batteries, the true cost of owner- 4.7
UPS BATTERY
ship is less than lead acid battery when con-
sidering the life span and performance.
7. Environmental Impact
Lithium ion batteries are a much
cleaner technology and are safer for the
environment.
Applications
Lithium-ion batteries are one of the
most popular types of rechargeable bat-
teries for portable electronics with a high
energy density, tiny memory effect and

Fig 4.11 UPS Battery

Main 230V
Input
ON ON ON
OFF OFF OFF

UPS Output

ON ON ON
OFF OFF OFF

230V Input

UPS Battery

Fig 4.12 Components of UPS System

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 An uninterruptible power supply is Types of UPS
called UPS. It is a device that permits sup-
Range Types
ply to keep on running for a short period of
0.5 to 3 KVA - Line interactive
time, when the primary power is off.
0.5 to 5 KVA - Stand by Online Hybrid
3.0 to 15 KVA - Stand by Ferro Double
UPS contains a battery that “kicks
5.0 to 5000KVA - Conversion Online
in” when the device senses a loss of power
from the primary source (as in fig. 4.11). 1. Battery should be cleaned properly
2. Cable connection of the battery needs
If you are using computer, when the to be clean and tightened, Many bat-
UPS notifies you of the power loss, you have tery problems are caused by dirty and
time to save and data you are working on loose connection.
and exit, before the secondary power source 3. The fluid level of the battery will
runs out. When all power runs out, any always be higher at a full charge.
data in computers Random Access Memory 4. Distilled water alone is the best for filling
(RAM) is erased when power surges occur, because other types of water are loaded
a UPS intercepts the surge, so that it doesn’t with chemicals and minerals that are
damage the computer. harmful to the battery. Don’t over fill the
battery especially in warm weather.
5. Use silicon seals in the cable leads.
4.8 Coat the cable washer end with grease
MAINTENANCE OF or petroleum jelly (vaseline).
BATTERIES

How does UPS work?

In a continuous UPS, the computer is
always running short of battery power and 4.9
DO’S AND DON’T OF
the battery is continuously being recharged.
STORAGE BATTERY
The battery charger continuously produces
Do’s
DC power, which the inverter continuous-
1. Store batteries in a clean, ventilated
ly turns back into 120 volt AC power. If the
and dry area.
power fails, the battery provides power to
2. Store batteries in a fully charged state.
the inverter.
3. Ensure the correct polarity connection
Components of UPS (Ref. fig. 4.12) when recharging.
1. The Static Bypass 4. Follow proper recharging schedules
2. The Rectifier to prevent overcharging.
3. The Battery 5. Keep the battery away from spark,
4. The Inverter heat and sources of fire.
6. Use proper size of cables along with
correct plugs.
7. Charge the batteries immediately
after it is discharged.
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 8. Terminal bolts are to be tightened
with spring washers and apply torque.
The tightness is to be checked. 4.10
NINE TIPS FOR PROPER
Don’ts BATTERY CARE
1. Do not add any acid or distilled water
in battery, during supply. 1. Size your battery correctly.
2. Do not tamper the vent plug. 2. Periodically check the voltage of your
3. Do not over tight or make loose the ter- batteries.
minal bolts which may cause terminal 3. Don’t try to charge alkaline batteries.
breakage or fire due to loose contact. 4. Prevent alkaline batteries from leaking.
4. Do not keep any metal object to rest 5. Take care with parallel connections.
on battery. It may cause short circuit. 6. Give VRLA (Valve-Regulated Lead-
5. Do not keep the battery in direct Acid) battering breathing space.
sunlight, dust or moist area. 7. Don’t leave Lead-Acid batteries in a
6. Do not allow discharged battery for discharged state.
more than 12 hours in idle condition. 8. Take off golden ornaments when
connecting a battery.
Precautions
9. Protect from cold temperatures and
1. Always handle a battery and its parts
snowy climates.
after wearing hand gloves, as the acid is
corrosive.
2. Always pour the acid into water and not
the water into the acid. Heat is produced
when the acid is mixed with water.
3. Since the electrolyte is highly corro-
sive, the storage of electrolyte is used
only glass or lead lined container If
the batteries are handled with the
above precautionary measures, the
life of the battery will be prolonged.
Follow the correct procedures and be
safe while handling the battery.

1. Test the supply voltage from lemon?

2. Test the voltage produced in carrot?
3. How to produce electricity from orange?

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 Solar Irradiance Solar Water Heating
System
Battery System To taps

Solar

Controller
collector Boiler
Battery
Charger
Solar panel
Battery Tank
DC Loads Pump Cold water
feed

Applications of Solar Battery System

Solar Battery Systems Solar Water Heating Systems

Solar panels absorbs sunlight as a It is the conversion of sunlight into heat for
source of energy to generate electricity water heating using a solar thermal collec-
(or) heat. A photo voltaic modules, an tion. A variety of longitudes are available of
inverter, a battery park for storage inter varying cost to provide solution in different
connection wiring, and optionally a climates and latitudes. Solar water heating
solar tracking mechanism. systems are widely used for residential and
industrial applications.

Battery - மின்கலம்
Dry cell - உலர் மின்கலம்
Wet cel - பசை மின்கலம்
Separators - பிரிப்பான்
Charging - மின்னேற்றம்
Discharging - மின்னிறக்கம்
UPS-Battery-Un- - தடையில்லா
Interrupted Power Supply மின்சாரம் தரும்
சாதனம்

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. Battery is a storage of _______ a) Ohm’s law
energy b) Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
a) Heat energy c) Lenz’s laws
b) Electrical energy d) current law
c) chemical energy 8. Lead acid battery is commonly used in
d) Solar energy ______
2. In battery, chemical energy is trans- a) Railway station
formed into ________ energy. b) Radio station
a) Electrical energy c) T.V.Station
b) Light energy d) Power station and substation
c) Sound energy 9. Separators in battery is a _______
d) Heat energy. material
a) conductive
3. Primary cells are ______ b) non –conductive
a) not rechargeable c) partly conductive
b) chargeable d) heavy conductive
c) partly chargeable 10. The voltage range of lithium-ion bat-
d) none tery is ______
4. In dry cell, carbon rod is ________ a) 2 to 2.5V
electrode b) 2.5 to 3.6V
a) Positive electrode c) 3.6 to 5V
b) Negative electrode d) 5 to 6.6V
c) Phase 11. Advantage of using lithium ion
d) Neutral battery is ____
5. In a voltaic cell, the electrolyte used is a) High energy density
_________ b) low energy density
a) Hydrochloric acid c) medium energy density
b) Nitric acid d) poor energy density
c) Sulphuric acid 12. The battery used in electric vehicles
d) Dilute nitric acid and Aerospace applications is_______
6. Voltaic cell is ____ type of cell a) Lead acid cell battery
a) Dry b) Lithium-Ion battery
b) Wet c) UPS battery
c) Solid d) charger battery
d) None
7. Charging and discharging process
in secondary cell is by which law?
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 3

Answer the Questions in briefly

1. What is meant by battery?
2. State the different types of battery?
3. Write about the primary cell?
4. State the uses of a primary cell?
5. What is called a secondary cell?
6. What is a Lead Acid cell battery?
7. What is a the use of separators?
8. What is a Lithium-ion battery?
9. Write short notes on a UPS Battery?
10. Write down the types and range of UPS?
11. What are the precautions to be followed in battery?

Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page

1. Write about a voltaic cell and its constructional details?
2. State the differences between primary and secondary cell?
3. State the advantages of lithium-ion battery?
4. Write seven features about the disparity between a lead Acid and a Lithium
ion battery?
5. State the Do’s and Don’ts of a storage battery?
6. What are the maintenances to be observed in batteries?

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page
1. With a neat sketch and explain dry cell.
2. Explain the construction of Lead Acid battery.
3. Explain the chemical reactions and physical changes during discharging
in Lead-Acid battery.
4. Explain the chemical reactions and physical changes during charging in
Lead-Acid battery.
5. Explain in detail about Lithium ion battery with diagram.
6. Draw and explain about an UPS battery with circuit diagram.

Reference Book
1. A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume I and Volume III by B.L. Theraja and
A.K. Theraja, S. Chand & Company Ltd.

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 AC Circuits

291

If "What is truth? the question be,

It is to speak out evil – free.
— Thiruvalluvar

T
he learning objective of AC circuit is preferably to know RLC-circuits, its advantages
and disadvantages, and digital energy meter. According to the trend of applications, it is
necessary to know the various types of connections in AC circuits.

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 5.1 AC Circuits - Introduction
5.2 AC wave form and it’s characteristics
5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of AC supply
5.4 R-L-C Circuits
5.5 Three phase Star/Delta connections
5.6 Digital energy meter

current and magnitude at regular intervals

of power system. Alternating current plays
5.1 a vital role in today’s energy generation.
AC CIRCUITS -
INTRODUCTION
An alternating voltage may be Voltage is positive
generated in two methods:
+ Voltage is
(i) By rotating a coil at constant angular negative
Voltage

velocity in a uniform magnetic field 0 t

(ii) By rotating a magnetic field constant Polarity

change
angular velocity within a stationary
coil - 1 cycle

In either case the generated voltage will Fig 5.1 Voltage vs Time
be of sinusoidal waveform. The magnitude of
generated voltage depends upon:

(i) Number of turns of the coil 5.2

AC WAVE FORM AND IT’S
(ii) The strength of magnetic field CHARACTERISTICS
(iii) The speed of rotation
A wave form is a representation of
The first method is used for small low alternating current (AC) that varies
A.C generators and the second method is with time. The most familiar AC waveform
used for large type of A.C generators. is the sine wave, which derives its name
from the fact that the current (or) voltage
In figure 5.1, an Alternating current varies with the sine of the elapsed time.
shows the change in the direction of

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 B = flux density in weber/m²
l = length of the conductor in meter
V = velocity of the conductor in meter/
second
Ø = angle between magnetic field and
conductor

Fig 5.2

Fig 5.3 Rotating Coil in a Magnetic Field

In the figure above, a rectangular

coil having ‘N’ turns and rotating in
counter clock wise direction in a uniform
Fig 5.2 (b) magnetic field with an angular velocity of
‘ω’ radians/sec is shown.
In fig 5.2 (a) A stationary magnetic
field and rotating coil So, the generated A.C e.m.f. value is
also depends upon the value of the angle
In fig 5.2 (b) A stationary coil and between the magnetic field and the coil.
magnetic field rotating
The sine wave may be drawn by
If a coil rotates in the magnetic taking the Electro motive force in ‘Y’ axis
field or rotates inside the coil, there is an and time in ‘X’ axis.
alternating emf induced in the coil. The
generated alternating emf depends upon In figure 5.4, a coil is rotating in a
the number of turns of coils, magnetic magnetic field in anti-clock wise direction.
field and the angle between the coil and Let us assume that the coil is in the position
magnetic field. ‘O’. Now the angle between the magnetic
field and coil is zero. Then, the e.m.f in the
Induced emf e = BlV sinθ
coil is also zero (ie, sin Ø = 0)
Where

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 c) Frequency

The frequency of a wave is defined as

the number of cycles that a wave completes
in one second. It is denoted by the letter ‘F’
and its unit is cycles/second or Hertz(Hz).
Fig 5.4 Generation AC Waveform In India, the supply frequency is 50Hz.
Frequency is calculated by
Now the coil moves to the position
‘a’ and the angles between the magnetic field PN
F= Hz
and coil is Ѳ. Then, e.m.f. is equal to BlVsinθ. 120
Now the coil moves to the position ‘b’ Where
and the angle between the magnetic field and F = Frequency in Hertz
coil is 90°. Then sin 90 = 1. The emf is maximum. P = Number of poles
This emf is called as positive maximum. N = Revolution in r.p.m
Now the coil moves to the position d) Instantaneous Value
‘d’ and the angle between the magnetic field
At any given time, it has some
and coil is zero. In this position emf is zero.
instantaneous value. This value is different at
Now the coil moves to the position ‘f’ the different points along the waveform. During
angle between magnetic field and coil is 90o, sin the positive and negative cycle, these values
90 = 1 and the e.m.f is maximum in magnetic are positive and negative respectively.
side, so it is called as negative maximum.
e) Peak Value
Now the conductor moves to the
The peak value of the sine wave is
position ‘0’, the emf is zero.
the maximum value of the wave during
Similarly, the conductor rotates positive half cycle or negative half cycle.
one revolution in the magnetic field. This
f) Peak Factor
rotation produces the sine wave form.
The ratio of maximum value to the
a) Cycle r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity is
One complete set of positive and known is peak factor
negative values of alternating quantity is Max.Value
known as cycle. One complete cycle is said Peak factor = = 1.414
R.M.S. value
to spread over 360° or 2π radians.
g) Average Value
b) Time Period
The average value of the sine wave
Time period is denoted by ‘T’. The
is the ratio of total area under the half-­
time taken for any wave to complete one
cycle curve to the distance of the curve
full cycle is called the time period.
Area under the Curve
Average Value =
Base Length
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 lagging or leading with the numerical value
of power factor should be noted to signify
whether the current lag or leads the voltage.
h) Effective Value or RMS Value
5.2.1 Phase
The value of an Alternating Current
Phase of a particular value of an
(or) Voltage is equal to the square root of
alternating quantity is the fractional
the arithmatic mean of the squares of the
part of the time period or cycle through
instantaneous values taken through one
which the quantity has advanced from the
complete cycle.
selected zero position of reference.
Im Em
R.M.S. Value = or
2 2

Current
A.C ammeters and voltmeters are
calibrated to record r.m.s. values. π/2 π 3π/2 2π
A
t=0
i) Form Factor ωt = t/4

The ratio of r.m.s value to the

average value of an alternating quantity is t=T
known as form factor Fig5.5 Phase
(R.M.S.Value)
Form factor = = 1.11 5.2.2 Phase Difference
(average value)

The form factor is useful in rectifier

service because it enables to find the
r.m.s.value from average value and vice versa.

j) Power Factor
Cosine value of angle between
voltage and current is called as power Fig 5.6 Phase Difference
factor. Power factor is also defined as the
ratio of true power to apparent power When two alternating quantities of
the same frequency have different zero points,
Power factor = cos Ѳ (Ѳ is angle they are said to have a phase difference.
between voltage and current)

VI cosθ True power

Power factor = =
VI Apparent power

The power factor can never be greater

than the value 1. If the powerfactor is 1, it
is called as unity power factor. The word
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 The angle between zero point is the 5.4.1. AC circuits with pure resistance
angle of phase difference Ѳ. It is generally A circuit having only resistance
measured in degrees or radians. The and without inductance and capacitance
quantity which passes through its zero is called pure resistance circuit
point earlier is said to be leading while the
other is said to be lagging.

5.3
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF AC
SUPPLY

Advantages
1) It is easy to transmit alternating current
from one place to another place.
2) High voltage can be generated easily.
3) The cost of AC equipment is low.
4) It is possible to convert into DC.
5) Step down, step up voltage can be easily
done by transformer.
6) A.C Motors are cheap.
Fig 5.7 AC through Resistance
Disadvantages
1) A.C cannot be stored in Batteries. Let
2) Compared to DC, A.C circuit should have The value of resistance is R
good insulation because of high output
The value of current is I
voltage which causes electric shock.
3) The voltage drop is occurred due to high The value of Electro motive force is E
starting current in AC.
Then
4) The speed of the AC motor depends
upon the frequency. Electromotive Force ( E )
Current (I) =
5) In Inductive load, power factor will be low. Re sis tan ce ( R )

E
I=
R
5.4 Power = Current × EMF
R-L-C SERIES CIRCUITS
In this circuit power factor is unity,
In this circuit, the three (R,L,C) because the angle between current and
components are all in series with the voltage is zero (cosØ = 1).
Voltage source.
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 5.4.2. AC circuits with pure Where
Inductance XL-Inductive reactance in ohm
A circuit having only inductance f-frequency in Hertz
and without resistance and capacitance is L-Inductance in Henry
called pure Inductance circuit.
5.4.4. AC Circuits with pure
capacitance
Two conducting plates separated by
insulating material is called as capacitor.
The insulating materials are be air, mica
and paper.

Fig 5.8 AC through Inductance

If A.C current flows through a coil,

Back emf is induced due to inductance of
the coil. This Back emf opposes supplied
voltage in a pure inductance coil. Back emf is
Fig 5.9 AC through Capacitance
equal to supply voltage. In inductive circuit
only, the frequency is same for voltage and
current, but they are out of phase and current In the first half cycle (up to 90o)
is lagging by 90o to the voltage.Therefore capacitor is charged and from 90o to 180o
powerfactor (cos 90=0)is zero. the capacitor is discharged. Similarly in
the second half cycle, capacitor is charged
5.4.3. Inductive Reactance first and discharged next, in opposite
Inductive reactance means the direction. So, in one cycle, capacitor is
opposition due to self inductance to the charged and discharged two times, in
A.C current through a coil. It’s unit is ohm capacitor only. In A.C circuit, the current
and it is denoted by the letter “XL” is leading by the voltage at 90o

XL = 2πfL

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 5.4.5 Capacitive Reactance VR = Voltage across the resistance (Volts)
The resistance offered by a capacitor VL = Voltage across the inductance (Volts)
is called as capacitive reactance. The unit R = Resistance (in ohms)
of capacitive reactance is ohm(Ω) and it is
X L = Inductive reactance
denoted by letters Xc.
VR = I R
1
Xc = VL = I X L
2πfc
V2 = VR2 + VL2
Where
V= VR2 + VL2
Xc = capacitive reactance in ohm
V= (IR)2 + (I XL) 2
C = capacitance in farad
F = frequency in Hertz V= I2R 2 + I2 XL 2
V = I R 2 + XL 2
5.4.6 AC – RL SERIES CIRCUITS V
R2 XL 2
I
V
Z R2 XL 2 Z
I

5.4.7 AC-RC CIRCUITS

In fig. 5.11 resistance and
capacitance are connected in series. In
resistance there is no phase difference
Fig 5.10 AC through RL Series Circuit between current and voltage. But in
Resistance and inductance are capacitance, voltage is 90º lagging by
connected in series as in fig. 5.10. In current.
resistance there is no phase difference
between Current and Voltage. But in VR = Voltage across the resistance (Volts)
inductance, current leads 90º by voltage.
VL = Voltage across the inductance (Volts)

Fig 5.11 AC through RC Series Circuit

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 R = Re sis tan ce (in ohms) in series. In this the current is same. The
X C = Inductive capi tan ce. voltage is differed by circuit elements,
VR = I × R Total supply voltage is ‘V’
VC = I × X C I = IR = IL = Ic
V 2 = VR2 + VC2 And
V= VR2 + VC2 V = VR + VL + VC
V= (IR )2 + (I X C )2 VR = Voltage across the resistance
V= I2R 2 + I2 X C2 VL = Voltage across the inductance
VC = Voltage across the capacitance
V= I R 2 + X C2
V And also
= Z = R 2 + X C2
I VR is in phase with current
5.4.8 IMPEDANCE VL leads current by 90o
Impedance is the total opposition VC lags current by 90o
offered by the circuits elements [ie, (i) If inductive reactance is greater
Resistance, Inductance and capacitance] than capacitive reactance (XL > XC)
simply, Impedance is defined as the ratio
V2=V2R+(VL- VC)2
of the voltage to current
V= V2R+(VL- VC)2
Voltage ( V )
Im pedance(Z ) = V (IR )2 (IX L IX C )2
Current ( I )
V I2 R 2 I2 (X L X C )2
5.4.9 RLC Series Circuit V I R 2 (X L X C )2
V
R 2 (X L X C )2
I

Im pedance Z = R 2 + ( X L > X c ) 2 ohms

V 
 I = Z
 
R
Power factor cos θ =
Z
and power P = VI cos θ watts

(ii) If capacitive reactance is greater

than Inductive reactance (XC > XL)

Im pedance Z = R 2 + (X C > X L )2 ohms

R
Fig 5.12 AC through RLC Series Circuit Power factor cos θ =
Z
In this RLC circuit resistance, And power P = VI cos θ watts
inductance and capacitance are connected
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  Electricity travels at the speed of light - more than 186,000 miles per second!

 Electricity always tries to find the easiest and shortest path to the ground.

 Electricity can be made from wind, water, the sun and even animal poop.

 A 600-megawatt natural gas plant can power 220,000 homes.

 The first power plant - owned by Thomas Edison - opened in New York City in 1882.

5.5.2. Reasons for the Use of Three-

Phase System
5.5
THREE PHASE STAR/ Three phase system is preferred
DELTA CONNECTIONS over single phase system for the following
3 phase A.C generator is shown in Fig reasons.
5.13. Three identical windings A,B and C are i. Three phase power has a constant
placed 1200 electrical degree apart. It rotates magnitude whereas single phase power
in anti-clock wise direction. It generates 3 pulsates from zero to peak value at twice
phase supply. Three phases are indicated in the supply frequency.
Red (R), Yellow (Y) and Blue (B) colors.
ii. A three phase system can set up
5.5.1 Poly Phase System a rotating magnetic field in stationary
If the armature of an alternator windings. This cannot be done with a
generating AC apply is having only one single phase current.
winding, it generates single phase supply.
iii. For the same rating, Three
Instead of one winding, if the alternator has
phase machines (generators, motors,
two or three windings, then two or three
transformers) are smaller, simpler in
phases are generated respectively. So a system
construction and have better operation
produces more than one phase is called poly-
than single phase machines.
phase system.
Sa
iv. To transmit the same amount
Fb Fc of power to a fixed distance at a given
a
b′ Sb voltage. The three phase system requires
N
c′ a a4 only three-fourth weight of copper that is
120˚ Fa a6 S S a2 required by the single phase system.
120˚ a8
b N
c a3 Sc
a5
v. The voltage regulation of a three
a′
phase transmission line is better than that
of a single phase line.
Fig 5.13 Poly Phase System Generation
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 5.5.3. Phase Sequence
It is the term which is used to
represent in what sequence the three
phase voltage or current attains maximum
value. If the phase sequence is said to be R,
Y, B then first red phase attains maximum
value with a phase difference of 120o each,
the yellow phase and blue phase attains
their peak value.

5.5.4. Inter Connection of Three

Phases
In a three phase alternator, there
are three windings or phases. Each phase
has two terminals. If a separate load
is connected across each winding six
conductors are required to transmit power.
This will make the system complicated
and expensive. In practice, three windings
are interconnected to give two methods of
connection.

Star (Y) connection

Mesh (∆) connection.

5.5.5. Star Y Connection Fig 5.14 Star Connection

In this method, similar ends of the

three phases are joined together to form a Iph = IL
common junction (N) supply is taken from Line Voltage EL
other three ends. The common junction =
Phase voltage =
3 3
(N) is called the star point or netural
point. The voltage between any one line If the neutral wire is taken for
and netural is called phase voltage. The external connection, then the system
current flows through that phase is called is called a three-phase four wire star
phase current. Voltage between any two connected system. If the neutral wire is
lines is called line voltage and current not taken for external connection, then the
through that line is called line current. system is called a three phase three wire star
connected system.
In this connection,
Phase current = Line current
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 Total power p = 3 × power in each phase taken from the three junctions of the Mesh
Power in each phase P = Vph Iph cosθ or Delta and they designated as R, Y and B.
VL This is called three phase three wire delta
P = 3× × IL cos θ connected system. Since no neutral exists in
3
a Delta connection, only three phase, three
VL wire system can be formed.
(where as Iph = IL , Vph = )
3 In this connection, the line voltage
∴ P = 3VL IL cos θ is equal to the phase voltage.
Phase Volltage = Line voltage
5.5.6. Delta or Mesh Connection(∆) Vph = VL
Phase Current = Line current
I
Iph = L
3
POWER
Total power P = 3 × power per phase
P = 3 Vph Iph cosθ
IL
P = 3 × VL × × cos θ
3
IL
Vph = IL , I ph =
3
i.e., Power = 3 VL IL cos θ

Where cosθ is power factor.

5.5.7 Advantages of Star Connection

Over Delta Connected System
A star connected alternator will require
less number of turns than a delta connected
alternator for the same line voltage.
A star connected alternator requires
less insulation over a Delta connected
Fig 5.15 Delta Connection alternator for the same line voltage.

In this method of interconnection, the In star connection, Three-phase,

dissimilar ends of the three phase windings Four-wire system permits to use two
are joined together. The finishing end of one voltage ie, Phase voltage as well as line
phase is connected to the starting end of the voltage.
other phase so as to obtain Mesh or Delta
connection. The three line conductors are In star connection single phase
loads can be connected between any one
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 line and the neutral. Such a flexibility is processing and communication circuit
not available in Delta connections. (microprocessor/microcontroller) and
other add on modules such as RTC
In star connection, the neutral (Real Time Clock), LCD (Liquid Crystal
point can be earthed. Moreover, earthing Display), communication ports, modules
of neutral permits to use protective and so on.
devices to protect the system in case of
ground faults. In the metering circuit, the voltage
and current inputs through current
transformer and potential transformer has
a voltage reference followed by an ADC
5.6 (Analog to Digital Convertor) section,
DIGITAL ENERGY to convert the analog inputs into digital
METER forms. These inputs are then processed
using a digital signal processor, to calculate
Digital energy meters display the
various metering parameters.
energy used on an LCD or LED display, and
some can also transmit readings to remote The processing and communication
places. In addition to measuring energy section has the responsibility of calculating
used, these meters can also record other various desired quantites, from the
parameters of the load and supply, such digital values generated by the metering
as instantaneous and maximum demands, section. This has the responsibility of
voltage, power factor and reactive power communicating and interfacings with
etc. They can also support to record the other ‘add on modules’ connected as slaves
amount of energy used during on-peak to it.
and off-peak hours.
RTC (Real Time Clock) and other
The digital energy meter has add-on modules are attached as slaves to the
a power supply, metering circuit, a processing and communication sections

Voltage
Digital meter
sensor

Signal
PIC
conditioner

Current
COM - port
sensor

Fig 5.16 Block Diagram of Digital Energy Meter

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 for various input/output functions. In Points to Remember
some meters, most of these modules RTC, ‘‘ Induced E.M.F e = Blv sinθ
LCD controller, Temperature sensor,
PN
memory, ADC (Analog Digital Converter) ‘‘ Frequency f = Hz
120
may be implemented inside the processing
2I 2V
and communication circuit. ‘‘ Average value = m or m
π≠ ≠π

Im Vm
‘‘ R.M.S. value = or
2 2

RMS Value
‘‘ Form factor = = 1.11
Average Value

Max. Value
‘‘ Peak factor = =1.414
RMS Value
VI cosθ
‘‘ Power factor=
VI
‘‘ 
In pure resistance circuit, power
factor is one (unity)
‘‘ In pure inductive or capacitive
circuit, power factor is zero
‘‘ Inductive reactance XL = 2πfl
Fig 5.17 Digital Energy Meter
‘‘ Capacitive reactance XC = 1/2πfC
Advantages of Digital Energy Meters
‘‘ Impedance Z = V
i) High accuracy I
In RLC series circuit powerfactor
ii) Robustness R
cos θ =
iii) No moving parts Z
Both in RLC series and RLC parallel
iv) Easy to gauge readings through
circuit
digital display
v) Over current protection ‘‘ Power P = VI cosθ watts
vi) Readings can be stored and print In Star Connection
out may be taken Phase current = Line current
vii) Smaller in size
Iph = IL
viii) Consumes less power (Line Voltage)
Phase voltage =
ix) Long life 3
VL
x) Easy to carry anywhere Vph =
3
xi) Remote control is possible
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 In Delta Connection Both in star and Delta connection
in three phase system
Phase voltage = Line Voltage
Power p = 3VL IL cos θ
Vph = VL
Line current Digital energy meters displayed the
Phase current = energy consumption accurately.
3

IL
Iph =
3

1. Practice the following (dynamo) type of voltage generation.

rotating
ridged knob

bicycle tyre
magnet
dynamo connection
to bicycle
frame
N S iron core

copper
light coil
to light
connection to
bicycle frame

AC Supply ᅳ மாறுதிசை மின்சாரம்

Frequency ᅳ அலைவு வேகம்
Average Value ᅳ சராசரி மதிப்பு
Peak Value ᅳ உச்சமதிப்பு
Time Period ᅳ கால அளவு
Instantaneous Value ᅳ கன மதிப்பு
Effective Value ᅳ பயன் மதிப்பு
Form Factor ᅳ வடிவுக்காரணி
Peak Factor ᅳ உச்சக்காரணி
Power Factor ᅳ திறன்காரணி
Voltage Sensor ᅳ மின்னழுத்த உணர்வி
Current Sensor ᅳ மின்னோட்ட உணர்வி

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. The unit of the flux density is
a) Ampere b) Volt
c) Weber d) Weber/m2
2. The unit of the frequency is
a) Henry b) Hertz 8 Power factor of pure capacitive cir-
c)  Cycles d) Ampere cuit, with respect to current is
a) unity b) leading
3. The value of form factor is c)   lagging d) none of the
a) 2/π b) π/2 above
c) 1.414 d) 1.11 9. The unity of Inductance is
a)  Henry b) Hertz
4. The value of peak factor is c) Farad d) Ohm
a) 2/π b) π/2
c) 1.414 d) 1.11 10. The unit of capacitance is
a)  Henry b) Hertz
5. In the value of power factor, c)  Farad d) Ohm
which is incorrect
a) Unity b) 0.8 leading 11. The unit of Impedance
c) 
0.8 lagging d) 1.5 a)  Henry b) Hertz
c)  Farad d) Ohm
6. Power factor of pure resistive
circuit is 12. The unit of Capacitive reactance
a) Unity b) Leading and Inductive reactance is
c)  lagging d) None of a)  Henry b) Hertz
the above c)  Farad d) Ohm
7. Power factor of pure Inductive
circuit, with respect to current is 13. Inductive reactance XL is equal to
a)  unity b) leading a) 2πfc b) 1/2πfc
c) lagging d) none of c) 2πfl d) 1/2πfl
the above

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
14. Capacitive reactance XC is 20. In three phase, phase difference is
equal to a) 90o b) 180º
a) 2πfc b) 1/2πfc c) 120º d) 360º
c) 2πfl d) 1/2πfl
21. In star connection, phase current
15. Star connection is also known Iph is equal to
a) Delta b) Y a) VL b) IL
c) Mesh d) None of IL
the above c) Vph d)
3
16. Delta connection is also known as
a) Star b) Y 22. In Delta connection, phase voltage
c) Mesh d) None of Vph is equal to
the above a) VL b) IL
17. XL denotes
IL
a) Resistance c) Vph d)
b) Inductive reactance 3
c) Capacitive reactance 23. Digital energy meters are used for
d) Impedance the following reason
a) High accuracy
18. XC denotes b) Small size
a) Resistance c) Long life
b) Inductive reactance d) All of the above
c) Capacitive reactance
d) Impedance

19. Four wire system can be

obtained from
a) Series connection
b) Parallel connection
c) Star connection
d) Delta connection

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 3

Answer the Questions in briefly

1 Define ‘cycle’ in alternating current.
2. Define frequency.
3. Define Amplitude or maximum value.
4. Define effective value or RMS value.
5. Write short notes on Average value.
6. Define form factor.
7. Define peak factor.
8. Write short notes on ‘phase’.
9. What is Inductance and it’s unit?
10. What is Capacitance and it’s unit?
11. What are the uses of capacitors?
12. What is Impedance and it’s unit?
13. What is Inductive reactance?
14. What is Capacitive reactance?
15. What is phase sequence?
16. What are the two connections of three phase system?

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page
1. Explain the power factor with vector diagram.
2. Briefly explain the AC circuit which is having only resistance.
3. Briefly explain the AC circuit which is having only Inductance.
4. Briefly explain the AC circuit which is having only capacitance.
5. Explain the reasons for the use of three phase system over single phase
system.
6. What are the advantages of star connection over Delta connected
system?
7. What are the advantages of digital energy meter?

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain RLC series circuit with neat diagram.
2. Explain the star connection of three phase system with neat diagram.
3. Explain the Delta connection of three phase system with neat diagram.
4. Explain how alternating current and voltage is generated with neat
diagram.

Reference Book
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume I, by B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja,
S. Chand & Company Ltd.

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 6 Transformer

299

All lights are not lights for the wise;

Truth light is light bright like Sun-light.
— Thiruvalluvar

T
he main objective of learning this lesson is to know in detail about Transformer, its
construction, operation, losses, testing method, protective devices of transformer, which
are existing under new technique.

6.1 Transformer - Introduction

6.2 Construction and Types of Transformer Core
6.3 Working Principle or Operation of a Transformer
6.4 EMF Equation
6.5 Types of Instrument Transformers
6.6 Losses in Transformers
6.7 Testing Methods of Transformer
6.8 Protective Devices of Transformer

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 i. Core type
ii. Shell type and
6.1
TRANSFORMER-
iii. Berry type
INTRODUCTION
6.2.1 Core Type
A Transformer is a static device
which transfers electrical energy from one The winding surrounds the core is
circuit to another circuit at the same fre- called core type transformer. The Figure
quency. It works on the principle of mutual 6.2 represents the core type.
induction. The transformer works only on
The magnetic circuit is made up
A.C supply.
of laminated iron core. Silicon steels are
Generating stations generate electric- used to reduce the hysteresis loss in the
ity at a voltage of 11KV. The electric power iron core, also laminated sheets are insu-
from the generating station is to be brought lated from one another by a layer of var-
to the consumers end from 33KV, 66KV etc nish insulation.
through various transmission stages.The
transformer is used to step down (or) step
up the voltage required according to the re-
quirement as shown in fig. 6.1.

Fig 6.1 Transformer in Transmission

Line. Fig 6.2 Core Type Construction

Advantages
i) Easily handled and maintained.
6.2
CONSTRUCTION OF ii) The coils are in the outside, so it will
TRANSFORMER CORE get cooled easily.

Based on the construction, it is

Disadvantages
classified into 3 types. They are:
i) High magnetic loss.
ii) High leakage flux.
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 6.2.2 Shell Type
The core surrounds the winding
is known as shell type transformer. The
Figure 6.3 represents the shell type.

The primary and secondary wind-

ings are placed on the central limb one
above the other. This gives a better mag-
netic coupling.

6.2.4 COMPARISON OF CORE
AND SHELL TYPE
TRANSFORMER

Core Type Shell Type

Transformer Transformer
1. The winding The core encircles
encircles the core. most part of the
Fig 6.3 Shell Type Transformer winding.
2. It has single mag- It has double mag-
Advantages netic circuit. netic circuit.
i) More economical for low voltage. 3. The cylindrical The multilayer disc
ii) Low current at the time of no load. coils are used. (or) sandwichs type
of coils are used.
Disadvantages 4. The coils can be The coils cannot be
i) Little complicated to make winding. easily removed for removed easily.
ii) Less cooling. maintenance.

6.2.3 Berry Type

6.3
Berry type is similar to shell type. In WORKING PRINCIPLE
berry type magnetic path is placed (OR) OPERATION OF A
around the coil. Normally this type is TRANSFORMER
not used.
A Transformer is a static (station-
ary) apparatus by means of which elec-
tric energy in one circuit is transformed
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 into another circuit without changing the
frequency.

Fig 6.5 Step-up Transformer

Step down Transformer – If the

output voltage in the secondary winding
is lesser than the input voltage, it is called
step down transformer as in fig. 6.6.

Fig 6.4 Construction of an Ideal

Transformer

It consists of two inductive coils

which are electrically separated but mag-
netically coupled to a core as shown in
Fig. 6.4. It operates on the principle of
mutual induction between two (or) more
Fig 6.6 Step-down Transformer
inductively coupled coils. If the coil is
connected to a AC source, an alternating
flux is setup. Most of the flux is linked 6.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF
with the other coil. This flux is called TRANSFORMERS
mutual flux. i. The transformer is a static machinery.
Hence there is no wear and tear and
As per Faraday’s laws of electro- no friction losses in it.
magnetic induction, an emf is induced in ii. Maintenance cost is low.
the second coil. The coil (First coil) which iii. As there is no rotating part in it, extra
is connected to the A.C supply is called as high voltage can be transferred easily
primary winding. The coil (Second coil) by providing a good insulation to its
which is connected to the load is called as winding.
secondary winding.

6.3.1 STEP UP/ STEP DOWN 6.4

E.M.F EQUATION OF A
TRANSFORMER: TRANSFORMER
Step up Transformer – If the out-
put voltage in secondary winding is higher a) Construction b) Wave Form
than the input voltage, it is called step up
transformer. (See Figure 6.5)

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 i.e average E.M.F induced per turn
= 4f Øm volts.

The flux varies sinusoidally. Hence

the, R.M.S value of induced voltage is
obtained by multiplying the average value
by form factor which is equal to 1.11 for a
sine wave.

i.e, R.M.S value of induced E.M.F

per turn= 1.11 × 4f Φm volts.
= 4.44 f Φm volts.

The primary/secondary windings

have N1/N2 turns respectively,

R.M.S value of induced e.m.f in primary

E1=4.44 f Φm N1 Volts

R.M.S value of induced e.m.f in second-

ary E2= 4.44 f Φm N2 Volts

6.4.1 Voltage Transformation
Fig 6.7 Single Phase Transformer Ratio (k)
and Wave Form The ratio of secondary volt-
age to primary voltage is called voltage
No. of turns in primary winding = N1
transformation ratio. It is represented
No. of turns in secondary winding =N2 by ‘k’.
Maximum value of flux = Øm webers E2 V2 N 2
= =
E1 V1 N1
Frequency of A.C input = f in Hz =k

The flux in the core will vary 6.4.2 Current Ratio

sinusoidally as shown in the above fig 6.7. By neglecting the losses
The flux in the core increases from Input volt ampere = output volt ampere
zero to a maximum value in one quarter
V1 I 2
cycle (1/4f second) =V1I1 V=
2 I2 or
V2 I1
i.e, Average rate of change of flux I 2 V1 N1 1
Øm
  4 fØm = = =
1 I1 V2 N 2 K
4f

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 6.4.3 Application of 6.5.2 Current Transformer
Transformer
• It is used to step up
or step down the volt-
ages and currents in
an electrical circuit.
• Used in modern electrical transmis-
sion and distribution systems.
• It boost voltage levels so as to decrease
line losses during transmission. Fig 6.9 Current Transformers
The current transformer has a primary
coil of only few turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line whose current is to be meas-
6.5
TYPES OF INSTRUMENT ured. The secondary coil consisting large number
TRANSFORMERS of turns is connected to the terminals of a low
range ammeter (See Figure 6.9). The ammeter is
6.5.1 Potential Transformer thus entirely insulated from the line. Mostly the
secondaries of all C.T are wound for 5 amperes.

6.5.3 Auto Transformer (VARIAC)

Fig 6.8 Potential Transformers

Potential transformer do not dif-

fer much from the ordinary two windings
transformers (Refer Figure 6.8). These are
step down transformers. The primary wind-
Fig 6.10 Auto Transformer
ing is connected directly across the power
circuit. The secondary is usually rated for An auto transformer is a single
110 (or) 220 volts. Voltage ratio is depenting winding transformer which is used to
get varying AC voltage. Consider a single
upon primary voltage .
winding BA of N 1 turns wound on an iron
core as shown in Figure 6.10. If core loss,
copper loss, magnetizing current and leak-
age reactance are neglected. If this winding

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 is connected to an A.C Voltage V1, a flux 2. Auto transformers are used to start
will set up in the core and e.m.f E1 will be the induction motor.
induced in the winding. Such induced e.m.f
3. It can be used to vary the voltage to
is taken by tapping at point C. There are
the load, smoothly from zero to the
N2 turns between B and C, an e.m.f E2 is
rated voltage.
induced B and C.

When load is connected across the

terminals B and C a current I2 flows. The 6.6
m.m.f due to I2 will be balanced by m.m.f LOSSES IN A
due to I1. This arrangement is referred as an TRANSFORMER
Auto transformer. If point C is sliding con-
The losses in a transformer consists
tact, a continuously variable output voltage
of I R loss (or) copper loss and iron loss (or)
2
can be made available.
core loss.
So,
V2 I 1 N2 I²R Loss (or) Copper Loss
= = =K
V1 I2 N 1 These losses occur in primary and
secondary windings. Copper loss in a trans-
Advantages former is a variable loss. It varies as the square
1. Copper required is very less. of the load current (From short circuit test
this can be determined).
2. The efficiency is higher.
3. Required less conducting material Iron Loss (or) Core Loss
and hence cost is less. Iron loss consists of hysteresis and
4. More smooth & continuous varia- eddy current losses. They occur in the trans-
tion of voltage. former core due to the alternating flux (from
open circuit test, this can be determined.)
Disadvantages Hysteresis Loss
1. Direct link between high voltage When the iron core is subjected to an
and low voltage sides there is no iso- alternating flux hysteresis loss takes place.
lation as in the case of a two wind-
ing transformer. Eddy Current Loss
Eddy current is induced in the cores.
2. The short circuit current is greater than This loss is due to the flow of eddy current.
that of a two winding transformer. Thin laminations are used to reduce the eddy
current loss.
6.5.4 Applications of Auto
Transformer 6.6.1 Efficiency of a Transformer
1. As a booster of supply voltage to a The efficiency of a transformer is the
small extent. ratio of output power to input power.

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 Input = output + losses 1. Open circuit test
output power 2. Short circuit test
% Efficiency (η ) = ×100
input power
output power These two tests are used for finding out
= ×100
output power + losses the power loss occurring in the transformer.
(iron loss + copper losss)

input power − losses

6.7.1 Open Circuit Test on
= ×100 Transformer
input power
The open circuit test on trans-
former is used to determine core losses in
6.6.2 Why Transformer Rating in KVA?
transformer.
As seen Cu loss of a transformer
depends on current and iron loss depends
on voltage. Hence total transformer losses
depends on volt ampere (VA) and not on
phase angle between voltage and current i.e, it
is independent of load power factor. Therefore
rating of transformer is in KVA and not in KW.

KW Fig 6.11 Open Circuit Test

KVA =
cosθ
The connection diagram for open cir-
6.6.3 Why Transformer does not cuit test on transformer is shown in Figure
Work on DC Supply? 6.11. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter
The transformer works on the princi- are connected in primary side of the trans-
ple of mutual induction, for which current in former. The voltage at rated frequency is
one coil must change uniformly. If DC sup- applied to the primary side with the help of
ply is given, the current will not change due a variac (or) variable ratio auto transformer.
to constant supply and transformer will not
work. This may cause the burning of wind- The secondary side of the transformer
ings due to extra heat generated and may is kept open. Now with the help of variac,
cause permanent damage to the transformer. applied voltage gets slowly increased until
Thus DC supply should not be connected to the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated
the transformers. voltage of the primary side. After reaching at
rated primary side voltage, all three instru-
ments reading (voltmeter, ammeter and
wattmeter readings) are recorded.
6.7
TESTING METHODS OF
The ammeter reading gives no load
TRANSFORMER current (Io) being secondary is open the
There are two tests are performed on a transformer draws very less current. Hence
transformer to determine the power. They are: copper loss are negligible. As no load current

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 6.7.2 Short Circuit Test on
Transformer
The short circuit test on transformer is
used to determine copper loss in transformer.

The connection diagram for short cir-

cuit test on transformer is shown in Figure
6.12. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter
are connected in primary side of the trans-
former as shown. A reduced voltage at rated
William Stanley (1858-1916) was frequency is applied to the primary side with
an inventor and engineer. He developed the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
the first practical transformer (which transformer.
spurred the development of AC power)
as well as other developments; like an
improved electric meter and the first
metal thermos bottle (vacuum flask).
He lived most of his life and ran his busi-
nesses in Western Massachusetts during
the golden age of electric development.
Fig 6.12 Short Circuit Test
Stanley is one of the most impor-
tant inventors of AC power, his work The secondary side of the trans-
puts him on a par with Edison, Westing- former is short circuited. Now with the help
house, Tesla, Elihu Thomson, Charles of variac applied voltage is slowly increased
Brush and other major personalities of until the ammeter gives reading equal to the
the time. Like the other great pioneers of rated current in the primary side. Then three
the time he loved to tinker and design, instruments reading (voltmeter, ammeter and
held a disdain for legal quagmires of watt-meter) are recorded. The voltmeter read-
patent proceedings, and had his own set ing is very small compared to the rated primary
of friends and rivals in the industry. voltage of the transformer. Here the core losses
in transformer can be taken as negligible.

(Io) is quite small compared to rated current Let the, voltmeter reading is Vsc.. The
of the transformer, the voltage drop due to input power during test is indicated by watt-
this current that can be taken as negligible. meter reading. As the transformer is short
As the transformer is open circuited, there circuited, there is no output, hence the input
is no output. Hence the input power consist power consist of copper loss in transformer.
of core losses and copper loss in transformer
during no load condition.

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 a) Conservator
Transformer oil losses its insulating
6.8
PROTECTIVE DEVICES OF properties and is oxidised when it is in contact
TRANSFORMER with the atmosphere. For this reason, the oil
The following are the protective devices must not come in direct contact with the air
outside. Conservators or oil expansion cham-
in transformer and are explained below:
bers are provided to prevent this absorption.
a) Conservator
b) Breather The conservator is cylindrical vessel.
c) Explosion vent It is fitted on the top of the tank. The tank is
d) Buchholz relay entirely filled up with oil. The conservator is
e) Transformer oil filled with oil partly (about 50%). The trans-
former oil gets heated due to the losses in a
transformer. The volume increases due to heat
and the level of oil in conservator increases.
Air is expelled from the conservator through
the breather. When the coil cools down, the
volume decreases and the level of the oil in
the conservator comes down.

This is referred to a ”breathing”. The

oil surface in the conservator is only exposed
to oxidation. The sludge is thus confined to
the oil surface in the conservator. If there is no
conservator the sludge will stick to the cool-
ing tubes. This will spoil the cooling effort.
Fig 6.13 Protective Devices of Transformer

Fig 6.14 Buchholz Relay

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 b) Breather Two pairs of electrical contacts are
The breather is a small vessel. It is con- provided. These contacts may get short
nected between conservator and air outlet. circuited under certain situations.
It contains silica gel. It is a dehydrating When an insulation breaks down in
agent. The moisture in the incoming air a transformer, gas is generated in the oil.
is removed. The colour of the silica-gel is Quick generation of this gas leads to a seri-
blue and pink, when wet or damp. ous fault. The gas rushes through the pipe
c) Explosion Vent and pushes the lower float to the right. The
two lower contacts bridge together and
In the event of an accidental inter-
closes to trip the circuit of circuit breaker.
nal short circuit in the transformer, an
Now the transformer is disconnected from
arc is formed between the turns of the
the supply. If the fault develops slowly, gas
winding. Heat is produced by the arc.
will also generated slow. This may not be
Due to this, a large volume of gas is pro-
sufficient to move the lower float. This gas
duced. Provision must be made for rapid
gets collected gradually in the top of the
release of gas. Otherwise high pressure
relay chamber. The oil level gets lowered.
will be built up inside leading to the lip
This causes the upper float to sink. It finally
of the tank blown off. For this reason an
closes the second pair of contacts. This
explosion vent is provided on the tap of
trips the circuit breaker or it makes ring
the tank. Under normal conditions air is
an alarm bell for caution. A fault can thus
not allowed to come in contact with the
be detected and the transformer is discon-
oil. Under short circuit conditions, the
nected from the circuit.
diaphragon is ruptured due to high pres-
sure. The gas is expelled to atmosphere. If e) Transformer Oil
the high pressure gas releasing a portion
Transformer oil is a mineral oil. It
of the hot oil may get splashed and cause
is obtained by refining crude petroleum.
injury to the workers in the transformer
It is a good insulator. Its tendency to form,
yard. The explosion vent’s mouth is cov-
a sludge is very much less. The dielectric
ered by a glass or aluminium.
strength of oil is affected to a great extent
d) Buchholz Relay by the presence of moisture. So it should
This is a device which is attached to be kept dry. Transformer oil serves two
an oil immersed transformer. It is fitted in functions,
the pipe connecting the transformer tank 1. Cooling
with the conservator. 2. Insulation
It consists of two floats as shown in
Fig. 6.14.

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 Points to Remember: 6. E.M.F induced in secondary winding
1. Transfer electrical energy from one = (E2) = 4.44 N2 fØm Volts.
circuit to another circuit.
output power
2. It works without changing the 7. % Efficiency (η ) = ×100
input power
frequency.
3. Transformer works on the principle 8. Voltage transformation ratio (K)
of mutual induction.
E2 N 2 V2 I1
= = = k =
4. Transformer works on AC supply E1 N1 V1 I 2
only, not in DC.
5. E.M.F induced in primary winding
= (E1) = 4.44 N1 fØm Volts.

Activities

1. Measure the output voltage of given trans-

former below.

2. Construct 6V transformer with centre tap-

ping connection.

3. Calculate the losses occuring in the trans-

formers by OC and SC tests.

Transformer - மின்மாற்றி
Step-up transformer - உயர்வத்த மின்மாற்றி
Step-down transformer - ைறவத்த மின்மாற்றி

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. The transformer may represent as a) Frictional loss
a) rotating device b) Mechanical loss
b) electronic device c) Hysteresis loss
c) static device d) Eddy current loss
d) none of these
2. Transformer operates on the 7. The transformer will work on
principle of a) AC only c) Both AC & DC
a) self induction b) DC only d) None of these
b) mutual induction 8. The iron core is used to …… of the
c) ohm’s law transformer,
d) len’s law a) increase the weight
b) provide tight magnetic coupling
3. To find the R.M.S value of trans-
c) reduce core losses
former, E.M.F is to be multiply
d) none of the above
with
a) 2.22 9. The primary and secondary of a
b) 1.12 transformer are ….. coupled
c) 1.11 a) electrically
d) 1.14 b) magnetically
4. Transformer core is laminated c) electrically and magnetically
to reduce the d) none of these
a) Copper loss
b) Eddy current loss 10. Conservator is a
c) Wintage loss a) main tank of transformer
d) Hysteresis loss b) protective device of transformer
c) earthing system of transformer
5. Transformer oil serves the func- d) none of these
tion of
11. The purpose of conducting open
a) Lubrication
circuit test (O.C) is to determine
b) Insulation and cooling
a) eddy current loss
c) Only insulation
b) core loss
d) None of these
c) hysteresis loss
6. Silicon steel sheets are used to
d) copper loss
reduce the

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 3

Answer the following questions in briefly:

1. What is transformer?
2. What is meant by step up transformer?
3. What is meant by step down transformer?
4. What are the advantages of transformer?
5. What is the voltage transformation ratio of transformer?
6. Mention the advantages of core type transformer.
7. Write down the types of instrument transformer.
8. Write down the applications of auto transformer.
9. What are the protective devices of transformer?
10. Why transformer is rating in KVA?
11. Define efficiency of a transformer.
12. What are the type of transformer according to cooling method?

Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page

1. Explain the constructions of shell type transformer.
2. Explain why transformer not works on DC supply.
3. Compare between core & shell type transformer.
4. Explain about auto transformer.
5. Explain losses occur in transformer.

103 Transformer

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page
1. Explain the working principle of a transformer.
2. Derive the EMF equation of a transformer.
3. Explain the working principle of potential and current transformer.
4. Explain the procedure to perform various tests conducted in
transformer.

Reference Book
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume IIand Volume III by B.L. Theraja and
A.K. Theraja, S. Chand & Company Ltd.

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 7 DC Generator and DC Motor

392
Letter, number, art and science
Of living kind both are the eyes.
—Thiruvalluvar

L
earning objective of this chapter will enables the student to:

• Understand the various parts of DC machines

• Know the generation of DC voltage
• Understand the expression for the generated voltage
• Know DC motor working principle
• Know the applications of DC motor

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 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basic principle of operation of DC generators
7.3 Construction of DC machines
7.4 Types of DC generators
7.5 EMF Equation of DC generator
7.6 Applications of DC generator
7.7 DC Motor
7.8 Back EMF of DC motor
7.9 Types of DC motor
7.10 Applications of DC motor

electrical energy is called an electrical gen-

erator, while the electrical machine which
7.1 converts electrical energy into mechanical
INTRODUCTION
energy is called an electrical motor.
DC machines are electro mechan-
ical energy conversion devices which can The electrical machines which work
operate as generators converting mechan- on AC supply are AC machines whereas the
ical energy given to them from a prime electrical energy of direct type are called
mover to electrical energy. They can also DC machines. In this chapter we are going
operate as DC motors, taking electri- to study about DC machines.
cal energy from DC supply and convert-
ing it into mechanical energy to drive a DC machines are classified into
mechanical load. Nowadays DC motors two types:
are widely used because of their simpler
and flexible drive systems such as elec- 1) DC generator
tric traction, cranes, etc. The extension of 2) DC motor
these DC machines leads to the develop-
ment of brushless DC machines which are First, we will study the basic princi-
mostly used in modern scenario. ple of DC generators.

As said above, an electrical machine

which converts mechanical energy into
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 7.2.1 Elementary DC Generator
Consider a single-turn rectangular
7.2
BASIC PRINCIPLE copper coil ABCD rotating clockwise in a
OF OPERATION DC magnetic field provided by N and S mag-
GENERATOR nets or electromagnets are shown in fig
According to Faraday’s law of elec- 7.1. The two ends of the coil are joined to
tromagnetic induction, ‘when a conduc- two split-rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insu-
tor is rotated in a magnetic field, to cut lated from each other and from central
the magnetic lines of flux, dynamically shaft. Two collecting brushes (of carbon
induced emf is produced in the conduc- or copper) press against the split-rings.
tor. This emf causes a current to flow if Their function is to collect the current
the conductor circuit is closed’. The direc- produced in the coil and to carry it to the
tion of the current is found by Fleming’s external load resistance R. The rotating
Right-hand rule. coils are called as ‘armature ’ and the mag-
nets as “field magnets” or “poles”. The coil
Hence, the basic requirements for
is rotated in clockwise direction at a uni-
the dynamically induced emf to exits are:
form magnetic field.
1) A steady magnetic field
2) A conductor or coils
3) Relative motion between the mag-
netic field and the conductors.

To understand the principle of

EMF generation, consider the following
Fig 7.1.

Fig 7.1 Principle of EMF Generation

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 At position 1, where θ = 0 degrees, coil position is represented in fig 7.1.
the plane of the coil is perpendicular to from position 5 to position 7 (that is 180
the direction of lines of the flux. Now, the degrees to 270 degrees), the induced emf
flux linked with the coil is maximum, but value starts again from zero to maximum
the rate of change of the flux linkages is and from position 7 to positon 1 (from
minimum. So, no emf is induced in the 270 degrees to 360 degrees) maximum to
coil. i.e., is at the starting position the emf zero in opposite direction.
induced is zero.
In this way the generated emf goes
When the coil is rotated fur- on one cycle as alternating emf. The two
ther, the rate of change of flux linkage halved split-rings make the bidirectional
increases up to the position 3, where emf into unidirectional emf to behave as
θ = 90 degrees. At this position, the plane DC generator. This set up is shown in fig
of the coil is parallel to the lines of flux. 7.2. In the first half revolution current
Now, the flux linked with the coil is min- flows along the path A-B-a-M-L-b-C-
imum, but rate of change of flux linkage D-A, (fig 7.2a). The coil in the second
is maximum. Therefore, at this position half rotation, the induced currents are
emf induced in the coil is maximum. On reversed. But the positions of brushes
further rotation the value of generated ‘a and b’ are also reversed so that cur-
emf continues to decrease from maxi- rent through the load remains the same
mum to minimum value. direction, that is the loop D-C-b-M-L-a-
B-A-D (fig 7.2b). The device making the
At position 5, where θ = 180 degree, alternating supply into unidirectional
the generated emf is reduced to zero. The supply is by means of a device called
magnitude of emf with respect to the ‘commutator’.

Fig 7.2 AC into DC Waveform

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 1. Yoke
2. Pole core
3. Pole winding
4. Pole shoe
5. Pole face
6. Air gap
7. Armature core
8. Slot
9. Tooth
10.Foot
11.Armature winding
12.Commutator
13.Shaft
14.Brush
15.Frame
16.Lifting leg

Fig 7.3 Parts of DC Machines

7.3.1 Yoke
The Functions of Yoke are:
7.3
CONSTRUCTION OF DC
1) It provides mechanical support to the
MACHINES
poles and acts as a protecting cover
Invariably speaking, the construc- for the whole machine.
tion of the DC generator and DC motor are 2) It carries the magnetic flux produced
same. So any DC generator can be treated by the poles.
as DC motor. The construction of a 4-pole
DC machine is given in the fig 7.3. 7.3.2 Field System
Field system consist of two main
All DC machines have mainly two parts, poles and field winding.
parts:

1) Stator (outer stationary part)

i) Poles
2) Rotor (inner rotating part) Each pole is divided into two parts,
namely:
The Stator consists of Yoke or
Magnetic frame, poles, pole shoe, field 1) Pole core
winding. 2) Pole shoe

Rotor has the following parts: The functions of pole core and pole
Armature – Armature core, Armature shoe are:
winding
1) Pole core carries field winding which
Commutator – Brushes, Bearing.
is necessary to produce the flux.
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 2) Pole shoes spread out the flux in the ii) Armature Slots and Windings
air gap uniformly. The armature windings are placed
3) They support the exciting coils (or into the slots on the armature surface.
field coils). When the armature rotates, an emf is in-
4) It is made up of magnetic material duced in the armature conductors in case
like cast-iron or cast-steel. of generators. The ends of the coils are sol-
dered with commutator segments. These
ii) Field Winding segments are made up of copper materials.
The field winding is placed on the
pole core. It is made up of aluminium or 7.3.4 Commutator
copper. Their functions are to carry the The emf induced in the armature
current to produce the required magnetic conductor is alternating in nature. This al-
flux. The pole structure of a DC machines ternating emf is made into unidirectional
is illustrated in fig 7.4. by means of a device called as commuta-
tor. It is made up of copper segments.

7.3.5 Brushes and Bearings

The function of brushes is to col-
lect current from commutator. They are
usually made up of carbon or graphite and
in the shape of rectangular block. These
brushes are housed in brush-holders usu-
ally of the box-type variety. Ball bearings
are frequently employed because of their
Fig 7.4 Yoke and Poles reliability. But for heavy duty machines,
roller bearing is preferable. The complete
7.3.3 Armature System
structure is shown in fig 7.5.
It is further divided into two parts
namely:

1) Armature core
2)) Armature winding

i) Armature Core
It is cylindrical in shape with slots
on its outer periphery. It is mounted on
the shaft. They are used to house the ar-
mature conductors in the slot. It is made
of cast-steel laminations to reduce the Fig 7.5 Poles and Armature of DC
eddy current loss. Machines.

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 7.4
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
DC generators are classified ac-
cording to the manner in which field
windings are connected. The process of
giving DC voltage to the field winding for
producing magnetic field is called field
excitation. The generators are classified
based on the exciation, as: Fig 7.7 DC Series Generator

1. Separately Excited DC Generator The current equation is Ia=IL =Ise

In separately excited generator, The Voltage equation is Eg=V + Ia(R a+Rse)
the exciation to the field winding is giv- V=load voltage
en by an external DC supply as shown in
Fig 7.6.
b) DC Shunt Generator
In shunt generator the field wind-
ing is across (shunt) the armature wind-
ing. Here the armature current (Ia) is the
sum of shunt field current (Ish) and load
current (IL) as shown in Fig 7.8.

Fig 7.6 Separately excited DC generator

2. Self-Excited DC Generator
In this type of DC generators, the gen-
eration of emf is due to its property of residual
flux or residual magnetism present in the field
winding. They are mainly of three types:

a) DC series generator Fig 7.8 DC Shunt Generator

b) DC shunt generator The current equation is Ia = IL+Ish
c) DC compound generator The voltage equation is Eg = V+IaR a

a) DC Series Generator
In DC series generators the field c) DC Compound Generator
winding (Rse) is connected in series with These types of generators are again
the armature winding (R a). Therefore, the classified into long shunt generator and
series current (Ise ) is equal to the arma- short shunt generator based on the field
ture current (Ia) and the load current (lL), winding connections. In long shunt com-
as shown in the Fig 7.7. pound generator, the shunt field winding
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 Fig 9.(a) DC Long Shunt and Fig 9.(b) Short Shunt Compound Generator

is connected in parallel with the series N = speed in RPM

combination of series field winding and P = no of poles
armature winding. (fig 7.9a) A = no.of parallel paths
(A=P)- for lap winding
In short shunt compound genera- (A=2)- for wave winding
tor, the series field winding is connected
in series with the parallel combination According to Faraday’s law of electro-
of armature and shunt field winding. (Fig magnetic induction, the value of generated
7.9 b) dØ
EMF, Eg =
dt
Where,
Flux cut/conductor in one revolu-
Ia = Armature current
tion for ‘P’ poles ‘dØ’=ØP
R a =Armature resistance
IL = Load current The time for one revolution ‘dt’=60/N.
Ish =Shunt field current
Isc =Series field current The value of induced emf per conductor,
Rse =Series field resistance
Eg = ØP = ØPN
=
dØ
Rsh =shunt field resistance dt 60 60
VL = load voltage N
Eg = Generated voltage from armature.

For ‘Z’ number of conductors, and

for ‘A’ parallel paths,
7.5
EMF EQUATION OF DC
θ ZN P
GENERATORS Eg = X volts
60 A
Let Ø = flux in webers.
Z = no. of armature conductors

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 7.6
APPLICATIONS OF DC
Un ive rs a l
GENERATORS
motors are known
to sometimes over- 1. DC Series Generators
speed, perhaps
i) They are used for series arc lighting
dangerously and
ii) They are used as boosters, for the
destructively, when run with no load.
purpose of compensating the drop in
This article deals with different meth-
voltage in the lines on loading.
ods of universal electric motor speed
iii) Used for regenerative braking of DC
control.
locomotives.
A motor which can be oper-
ated either on DC (direct current) 2. DC Shunt Generators are Used
or on single phase AC (alternat- i) In shunt generator, terminal voltage
ing current) is called a universal is more or less constant. So these are
motor. On both AC and DC, it gives used for supplying loads needing
approximately the same speed and constant voltage.
output. Universal motors often run ii) In Electroplating
at dangerously high speed when iii) In Battery charging purpose.
operated at no load. This means iv) As Exciters for AC generators.
that motor speed will be low at full
load, but the speed of the motor will 3. DC Compound Generators
start increasing as the load on the i) By means of compound generator it
motor decreases. Finally at no load, is possible to give constant voltage at
the motor will run at very high the line end by proper compounding.
speed (perhaps about 20,000 rpm ii) Differentially, compound generator
in some cases) and cannot made to may be used for welding purpose.
run at less than about 2,000 rpm. iii) They are used to supply power to
The speed of universal motor varies railway circuits, elevator motors etc.
just like that of a DC series motor.
Being a series wound motor, it has 4. Separately Excited Generators
a high starting torque and varia- These generators are used for:
ble speed characteristics, and if the
i) Supplying DC motors whose speed is
motor is started at no load, due to
to be varied widely.
its high starting torque it will attain
ii) Where a wide range of DC voltage is
high speed quickly. Thus it is not
required for testing purpose.
advisable to start a universal motor
at no load.

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 7.7
DC MOTOR

7.7.1 Motor Principle

An electric motor is a machine
which converts electrical energy into me-
chanical energy. Its action is based on the
principle that when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
the conductor experiences a mechanical
force. The direction of this force is given
by Fleming’s left-hand rule and magnitude
is given by: Fig 7.10 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

F = BIl (N)
7.7.3 Principle of Operation of DC
B = f lux density due to the flux produced Motor
by the field winding
A motor is a mechanism by
I = Magnitude of current passing through
which electrical energy is converted into
the conductor
mechanical energy. Both in principle and
l = Active length of the conductor
design, a DC motor is the reverse process
of DC generator.
By construction, there is no basic
difference between DC generator and DC
Consider a single conductor
motor. In fact, the same DC machine can
placed in a magnetic field as shown in
be used interchangeably as a generator or as
fig 7.10. The two diagrams indicate the
a motor. In generator the input is mechani-
direction of magnetic fluxes considering
cal energy by a prime mover and develops a
separately.
voltage, while in a DC motor the input is elec-
trical energy and it develops rotating torque. How the resultant rotation takes
place in a DC motor is clearly understood
7.7.2 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule from the following descriptions in the
Keep the forefinger, middle finger Fig 7.11.
and thumb of the left hand mutually per-
A steady current is passed through
pendicular to one another. If the forefin-
the armature coil from the commutator
ger indicates the direction of the magnetic
and the brushes are so arranged as to re-
field (B), the middle finger indicates the
verse the current every half revolution.
direction of current (I) in the conductor,
When a coil, carrying a current is placed
and the thumb points to the direction of
in magnetic field, it experiences forces,
motion (F) of the conductor.
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule, which

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 Flux by
conductor
Main Flux
Conductor

S
N
N S

Current carrying
conductor

Fig 7.11 Resultant Force developed

turn it about in a direction perpendicular As for the reasons above, one of the
to both the field and the current. coil side ‘A’ will be forced to move down-
wards while ‘B’ moves upward. These two
The fig 7.12a shows the upper side forces are equal in magnitude and oppo-
of the conductor, the magnetizing force site to each other. (7.12c). These twist-
of the field due to the current are addi- ing forces make the armature to rotate
tive while on the lower side these are sub- through the two ends, that are supported
tractive. The result is to increase the flux by bearings.
density into the region directly above the
conductor and to reduce flux density be- But practically, a DC machine will
low the conductor. have multiple conductors and each con-
ductor will be experiencing a force F=BI l
If the current is reversed in the newton. These forces collectively produce
conductor, the strengthening of flux lines a driving torque which sets the armature
occur below the conductor and the con- ­rotating. The machine is then said to be
ductor will be pushed upwards as shown motoring.
in fig 7.12b.

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig 7.12 Torque Development in DC Motors
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 R a=armature resistance in ohms.

7.8 The back emf Eb is always less than

BACK EMF OF DC that of the applied voltage and hence the
MOTOR (EB) current is flowing against the direction of
When the armature of a DC motor back emf.
rotates in the magnetic field, the armature
conductor cuts the magnetic flux. Hence an
EMF will be induced in the conductor. Ac-
cording to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic 7.9
TYPES OF DC MOTORS
induction. This induced EMF acts in oppo-
site direction to the applied voltage and it is The DC motor is classified into
referred as the back emf or counter emf Eb. three types based on the field winding
connection with the armature.
The back emf is given by,
i) DC series motor
θ ZN P ii) DC shunt motor
Eb = × volts
60 A iii) DC compound motor

which is same as that emf induced DC compound motor is classified as,

in a DC generator.
a) Long shunt compound motor
The relationship between the cur- b) Short shunt compound motor
rent, back emf and the applied voltage for a
DC shunt motor is given by E b = V − Ia R a . 7.9.1 DC Series Motor
Where, In DC series motor, the field wind-
Eb = back emf in volts ing is connected in series with the arma-
V = supply voltage in volts ture as shown in Fig 7.14. The series field
Ia=armature current in amperes

Fig 7.14 Equivalent Circuit of DC Series

Fig 7.13 DC Motor Circuit Motor

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 winding carries the input current, IL=Ia=Ise. series with the parallel combination of ar-
The series field winding is relatively small mature and shunt field winding. The con-
in number to give minimum value of re- nection diagram for this compound motor
sistance drop. is as shown in Fig 7.16.

7.9.2 DC Shunt Motor

In DC shunt motor, the field winding
is connected parallel (shunt) with the arma-
ture as shown in fig 7.15. The field winding
has a large number of turns and relatively
smaller cross sectional area. Therefore, the
shunt field winding has high resistance and
hence shunt field current is relatively small
compared with armature current. The speed
of DC shunt motor is almost constant during
no-load to full-load. Fig 7.16 Equivalent Circuit of DC Short
Shunt Compound Motor

b) Long Shunt Compound Motor

In long shunt compound motor,
the shunt field winding is connected
in parallel with the series combination
of series field winding and armature
winding.

Fig 7.15 Equivalent Circuit of DC Shunt

Motor

7.9.3 DC Compound Motor

In compound motors both series
and shunt windings are connected accord-
ing to their name of long shunt and short
shunt compound motor.

a) Short Shunt Compound Motor

In short shunt compound motor, Fig 7.17 Equivalent Circuit of DC Long
the series field winding is connected in Shunt Compound Motor.

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 7.10
APPLICATIONS OF DC
MOTORS
Type of Motor Characteristics Applications
1. DC Series Motor i) Variable speed i) Electric traction
ii) Speed can be controlled ii) Cranes hoists
iii) No load condition is dangerous iii) Conveyors Elevators
iv) High starting torque Trolleys
2. DC Shunt Motor i) Speed is fairly constant i) Lathe machines
ii) Adjustable speed ii) Blowers and fans
iii) Medium starting torque iii) Centrifugal pumps
iv) R  eciprocating pumps
v) Machine tools
vi) Drilling machines
3. DC Compound i) Variable speed i) Punches
Motor ii) Speed can be controlled ii) Elevators
iii) High starting torque iii) Shears
iv) Rolling mills
v) Printing presses
vi) Air compressors

Activities

Test the DC supply and practice the following

DC motor to rotate.

Generator - மின்னாக்கி
Motor - மின்ேனா
Magnetic poles - காந்த வங்கள்
Carbon brush - கரிரிைக
Bearings - தாங்கிகள்

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. Initially the emf generated is an
alternating one. But this alter-
nating emf is converted into
6. The principle DC motor is based
direct emf by
on
a) Slip-ring
a) Fleming’s left-hand rule
b) Commutator
b) Fleming’s Right-hand rule
c) Carbon brush
c) Faraday’s law
d) End rings
d) None
2. The direction of induced emf in
7. For electric traction, the motor
DC generator is found by
used is
a) Fleming’s left-hand rule
a) DC shunt motor
b) Fleming’s Right-hand rule
b) DC series motor
c) Faraday’s law
c) DC compound motor
d) Kirchhoff ’s law
d) AC motor
3. The Yoke of a DC machine is
8. Which of the following motor is
made up of
constant speed motor?
a) Copper
a) DC shunt motor
b) Aluminium
b) DC series motor
c) Zinc
c) AC series motor
d) Cast-iron
d) None
4. Which of the following is a func-
9. DC compound motor is having
tion of brushes?
………… winding
a) To convert AC to DC
a) series winding only
b) To convert DC to AC
b) shunt winding only
c) To collect the current and to
c) series or shunt winding only
deliver to load
d) series and shunt winding only
d) None of the above
10. Commutator is made up of
5. The armature is made up of
----------
a) Solid aluminium
a) Copper
b) Solid steel
b) Brass
c) Laminated aluminium
c) Aluminium
d) Laminated steel
d) Silver

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 3

Answer the Questions in briefly

1. What are the main parts of DC machines?
2. Write some short notes on commutator.
3. What are the functions of yoke?
4. What are the types of DC generators?
5. State Fleming’s left-hand rule.
6. State the applications of DC series motor.
7. Mention the applications of DC shunt motor.
8. Draw the equivalent circuit diagram of DC shunt motor.

Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page

1. Derive the emf generated in DC generators.
2. Give circuit diagram of the different types of DC generators.
3. List out the applications of DC generators.
4. Give circuit diagram of the following types of DC motors.
5. Explain the force developed in case of DC motors.

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain the process of emf generation in DC generators.
2. With neat diagrams explain the construction of DC machines.
3. How the rotating force is developed in DC motors?
4. Explain the different types of DC generators with neat diagram.

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 Reference Book
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ VolumeII B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, S. Chand
& Company Ltd.

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 8 Alternators and AC Motors

291

If "What is truth? the question be,

It is to speak out evil – free.
— Thiruvalluvar

T his chapter enable the students to know about basic principle, construction, operation of single
phase, three phase AC motor and stepper motor.

8.1 Alternator (AC Generator) - Introduction

8.2 Basic Principle
8.3 Construction
8.4 Single Phase AC Motor
8.5 Three Phase AC Motor
8.6 Stepper Motor

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 8.1.2 Types of Alternator
According to the position of armature
8.1 and field, alternators are classified into two types
ALTERNATOR -
INTRODUCTION
a) Stationary field and rotating a­rmature
The machine which generates
type.
­alternating current is called as alternator
b) Stationary armature and rotating
or synchronous generator.
field type.

a) Stationary field and rotating

armature type
It is commonly used in small size
generators and for the lower voltages. The
DC supply given to the field windings and
the alternating current generated is delivered
Fig 8.1 Principle of AC Generation to the slip ring. The mechanical construction
of the revolving armature alternator is sim-
In Power Supply System alternating ilar to that of the DC generator except that
current is supplied to a greater e­ xtent that there is no commutator.
direct current supplies, because of the fol-
lowing reasons. b) Stationary armature and rotating
field type
1. AC power can be generated in bulk
quantity without much difficulty  lternator with the stationary arma-
A
2. AC requirements are cheaper in cost ture and revolving field type is used
3. AC voltage can be step up or step in the generation of high voltages.
down by using transformers The main reason for rotating arma-
4. AC can be easily converted into DC ture type is the difficulty of using sliding con-
tact brushes on slip rings at high voltages.
8.1.1 Requirement of Alternator
With a stationary armature, the power from
For the generation of AC emf by
the generator is delivered through copper to
the alternator the following basic systems
copper connections firmly ­bolted together.
are required:
The revolving fields are supplied with DC
normally at 110V, through a pair of slip rings.
1. Magnetic field system to produce
the magnetic field. Advantages
2. Armature system which house the
1. It is easy to insulate the armature
conductor on which emf is to be
winding, because they are placed
induced.
in the stator.
3. A prime mover is required which gives
2. Output Current can be easily
necessary rotational power for the
­collected and easily supplied to
generation of emf in the alternator.
the load circuit.
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 3. Rotating field system has two slip
rings only and it can be easily
insulated. 8.3
CONSTRUCTION OF
4. Rotating field is light in weight ALTERNATOR
and hence it can run at high
Alternators are constructed in two
speed.
types
5. In stationary armature the wind-
ing may be cooled more efficiently. 1. Salient Pole alternator
2. Non – Salient Pole alternator (or)
Turbo Alternator
8.3.1 Salient Pole Alternator
8.2
BASIC PRINCIPLE
(a) STATOR
It is the stationary part of the ma-
chine and it is built up of silicon steel lam-
inations having slots on its inner periphery
to house the armature conductors. The ar-
mature core in the form of a ring is fitted to
a frame which may be of cast iron or welded
steel frame which is called stator frame.
The armature core is laminated to
reduce the eddy current loss. The lamina-
Fig 8.2 Basic Principle of Alternator tions are stamped out and insulated from
each other with paper or varnish. The
An alternator works on the same stampings also have holes which make ax-
fundamental principle of electromagnetic ial and radial ventilating ducts to provide
induction as D.C. Generator i.e. when the efficient cooling.
flux linking a conductor changes, an emf Armature Slot
is induced in the conductor. Like a D.C Slots provided on the stator core
generator, an alternator has an armature are mainly of three types.
winding and field winding.
1. Wide-Open Slots
2. Semi-closed slots
3. Closed slots

The frequency of output ac voltage

of a synchronous generator is directly pro-
portional to the rotor speed. To maintain
constant frequency, the rotor must always
move at synchronous speed. Fig 8.3 Types of Slots
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 1. Wide Open Slots reduce the heat due to eddy currents. In
The open slots are more commonly large machines, field winding consists of
used because the coils can be form-wound rectangular copper strip wound on edge.
and pre – insulated before placing in the
slots. This type of slots also facilitates easy 8.3.2 Non-Salient Pole Alternator or
removal and replacement of defective Turbo Alternator
coils. But this type of slots create uneven
(i) STATOR
distribution of flux, there by producing
ripples in the emf wave. The stator diameter of Non salient
pole Alternator is small and the length is
2. Semi-Closed Slots long. Stator is the stationary part of the
The semi closed type slots are bet- machine, and it is built up of silicon steel
ter in this respect but don’t permit the use laminations having sloth on its inner pe-
of forms wound coils, there by complicat- riphery to house the conductors. Normal-
ing the process of winding. ly this type of alternator has double layer
winding. But in high voltage machines,
3. Closed Slots
single layer winding is used in semiclosed
Totally closed slots don’t disturb
sloth. Lengthy ventilating ducts are pro-
the air gap flux and they are rarely used.
vided for cooling purpose.

(b) ROTOR
(ii) Smooth Cylindrical Type Rotor
Salient Pole type rotor is used in low
and medium speed alternators. It has a large
number of projecting poles, having their
cores bolted on to a heavy magnetic wheel of
cast iron or steel. The diameter of this kind
of alternator is large and the length is small.
The poles and pole shoes are laminated to

Fig 8.5 Cylindrical Pole Rotor

This rotor is used in very high speed

alternators driven by steam turbines. The
rotor of turbo alternator physically is in
the form of smooth cylinder, having long
axial length and smaller diameter.

Poles are not projected out from

the surface of the rotor. The outer periph-
Fig 8.4 Salient Pole Construction ery of the rotor stampings has radial slots.

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 Comparison of Salient Pole Type Rotor and Smooth Cylindrical Type Rotor
Sl.No Salient Pole Rotor Cylindrical Rotor
1 The diameter of rotor is large The diameter of rotor is small
2 Poles are projecting outside Poles are not projecting outside
3 Length of rotor is short Length of rotor is long
4 Damper winding is required No damper winding is required
5 Runs at slow speed. (100 rpm to Runs at very high speed. (1500 rpm to
1500 rpm) 3000 rpm)

6 Suitable for hydro generators Suitable for turbo alternators run by steam
turbines

The field windings are accommodat-

ed in these slots. Generally copper strips are
used for the field winding, R­ adial ducts are 8.4
SINGLE PHASE AC
provided for ventilation purposes. MOTOR
Single phase and three phase sys-
8.3.3 Parts of A.C Motors tem is widely used for domestic and com-
1. Frame: It is made up of alloy cast iron. mercial purpose. As the single-phase sys-
2. Stator and Rotor core: It is built from high tem is more economical and the power
quality, low loss silicon steel laminations. requirement in most of the houses, shops,
3. Stator and Rotor windings: They have offices are small, which can be easily met
moisture proof insulation embodying by three phase system.
mica and high quality varnishes. They Normally single phase motors are
are carefully spaced for most effective air used for domestic purposes. Generally be-
circulation. low 1 HP (1HP = 746 watts) motors are used
4. Air gap: The stator is machined carefully for domestic purpose and they are called as
to ensure uniformity of air gap. fractional Horse Power motors (FHP)
5. Shafts and Bearings: The motor shaft is
fixed with in the rotor and rotates with it. Advantages
The rotor shaft is held in place by bearings i) Simple in construction
at either end of the motor casing. Ball and ii) Cheap in cost
roller bearings are used. iii) Very reliable
6. Fans: Light aluminum fans are used for iv) Easy to repair and maintenance
adequate circulation of cooling air.
Applications
Due to all the above advantages, the
single phase motor find its applications in

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 i.mixer These two windings are connected in
ii.grinders parallel across single phase supply and are
iii.vacuum cleaners spaced 90º electrical degrees apart, phase
iv.fans difference of 90º electrical degree can be
achieved by connecting capacitor in series
v.washing machines
with the starting winding. Hence the motor
vi.centrifugal pumps
behaves like a two phase motor and the sta-
vii.egg beaters
tor produces revolving magnetic field which
viii.Hair drier and causes rotor to run. Once motor speed, say
ix.blowers. up to 80% of its normal speed, the starting
winding gets disconnected from the circuit
8.4.1 Why Single Phase Induction by means of a centrifugal Switch and the mo-
Motor' is not a Self Starting? tor runs only on main winding.
How to Make Single Phase
Induction Motor Self-Starting? (ii) Rotor
Single phase induction motor has it consists of a laminated cylindrical
distributed stator winding and squirrel cage core having parallel slots on its outer periph-
rotor. When fed from a single phase supply, ery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed
its stator winding produces a flux which is in each slot. All these bars are joined at each
only alternating. It is not a synchronously end by metal ring called end rings. The en-
revolving (or) rotating flux as in the case of a tire construction resembles like a squirrel
two or three phase stator winding fed from a cage and hence the name called like that.
two or three phase supply. Now, an alternat- The rotor is not connected electrically to
ing or pulsating flux acting on a stationary the supply but has current induced in it by
squirrel cage rotor cannot produce rotation transformer action from the stator.
(only a revolving flux can produce rotation).
8.4.2 Classification of Single Phase
To make itself starting, it can be
Motor
temporarily converted into a two phase in-
a) Split phase induction motor
duction motor while starting. This can be
b) Capacitor start capacitor run motor
achieved by introducing an additional start-
c) Universal motor
ing winding also called as auxiliary winding.
a) Split Phase Induction Motor
(i) Stator Winding
As the starting torque of this type
Stator of a single-phase Induction
of motor is relatively small and it’s start-
motor has two windings
ing current is high. These motors are most
1. Main winding (Running winding) commonly used for rating up to 0.5 HP
2. Starting winding (auxiliary winding) where the load could be starting easily

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 the main winding alone as with both wind-
ings connected.

Changing the Direction of Rotation

The direction of rotation of a split
phase motor is determined by the way the
main winding and auxiliary windings are
connected either by changing the main
winding terminals or by changing the
starting winding terminals, the reversal
of direction of rotation could be obtained.

Fig 8.6 Split Phase Induction Motor APPLICATIONS

These motors are widely used on
CONSTRUCTION easy starting loads of 1/3HP or less
The above figure 8.6 shows the sche-
matic diagram of single phase split phase in- 1. Washing machines
duction motor. The starting winding is de- 2. Driving fans
signed to have a higher resistance and lower 3. Grinders
reactance than the main winding. The main 4. Wood working tools
winding will have higher inductance when b) Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
surrounded by more iron which could be
made possible by placing it deeper into the
stator slots.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
The starting current Is will lag the
main supply voltage VL by 15° and the
main winding current Im lags main sup-
ply voltage by about 80°. Therefore, these
currents will differ in time phase and their
magnetic fields will combine to produce a
rotating magnetic field. Fig 8.7 Capacitor Start - Run Motor
When the motor has come up to
about 75% of synchronous speed the start- WORKING PRINCIPLE
ing winding is opened by a centrifugal This motor starts with a high capaci-
switch and the motor will continue to op- tor in series with the starting winding, so that
erate as a single phase motor. At the point the starting torque is high. When a motor
the starting winding is disconnected, the is running, run capacitor is in supply. Both
motor develops nearly as much torque with the running and starting windings remain
in circuit. At the start, when the centrifugal

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 switch is closed the two capacitors are put in
parallel. After the motor has reached 80% full
load speed, the centrifugal switch opens and
running capacitor remains in the circuit. It
is used to disconnect the starting capacitor
from the supply after attaining almost 75% of
full load speed.Either by changing the main
winding terminals or by changing the start-
ing winding terminals, the reversal of direc- Fig 8. 8 Universal Motor
tion of rotation could be ­obtained.
CONSTRUCTION
APPLICATIONS Basically universal motor is similar
These motors are mainly used for low to D.C series motor. The universal mo-
noise and high starting torque applications tor is usually two poles and a winding of
few turns which gives opposite magnetic
1. Compressors
­polarity. The armature is of wound type
2. Pumps
and it consists of a laminated core hav-
3. Air Conditioners
ing either straight (or) skewed slots and a
4. Refrigerators.
commutator to which the leads of the ar-
c) Universal Motor mature winding are connected.
The universal motor is defined as a
motor which may be operated on D.C sup- WORKING PRINCIPLE
ply or single phase A.C supply at approxi- Universal motor develop unidirec-
mately the same speed and output. tional torque, whether they operate on
D.C or A.C. Supply Universal motor works
on the same principle as a D.C motor, i.e.
force between the main pole flux and the
current carrying armature conductors.

Comparision of various types of single phase motors

Sl. No Types of the Starting Speed Windings Applications
Motor Torque
1 Split – phase Low Low Main winding Driving fans, wood
motor Starting winding working tools
2 Capacitor High Constant Main winding Compressors,
start capacitor Starting winding refrigerators, air
run motor -Conditioners
3 Universal Very high Varies Field wind- Vacuum cleaners,
motor according ing armature mixie, portable drills,
to load winding sewing machine

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 In A.C operation, both field and ar- According to the rotor construc-
mature currents change their polarities, at tion, three phase induction motors are
the same time resulting in unidirectional classified as
torque.
i) 3-phase squirrel cage induction
APPLICATION motor
Universal motor is used in: ii) 3-phase slip-ring induction motor

8.5.1 Principle of Operation

1. Vacuum cleaners
2. Food mixer Three phase supply is given to the
3. Portable drills and stator winding. Due to this, current flows
4. Domestic sewing machines through the stator winding and produces
a rotating magnetic field in the space be-
tween stator and rotor. This magnetic field
rotates at synchronous speed given by
8.5
TYPES OF THREE PHASE 120f
N s= p .
MOTORS
Three phase induction motors are
Where Ns = Synchronous speed
widely used in industrial and domestic
drives. The rotor of induction motor re- f = Supply frequency
ceives the power from the stator by means p = Number of poles for which the
of induction. Most of the operating princi- stator is wound
ples resembles to the working of transform-
er only. So, it can also be treated as a rotat- This rotating magnetic field cuts
ing transformer. That is, primary winding the rotor conductors, an emf is induced
is stationary part and secondary winding is in the rotor. This induced emf produces
rotating part. current and this current produces a rotor
field.

Fig 8.10 Stator and Rotor of 3 Phase Induction Motor

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 Electric motors are used to “actuate” something in your robot: its wheels, legs,
tracks, arms, fingers, sensor turrets, or weapon systems. There are literally doz-
ens of types of electric motors (and many more if you count gasoline and other
fuelled engines), but for amateur robotics, the choice comes down to these three:
In a stepping motor, applying power causes the shaft to rotate a few degrees, then
stop. Continuous rotation of the shaft requires that the power be pulsed to the
motor. As with continuous DC motors, there are sub-types of stepping motors.
Permanent magnet steppers are the ones you’ll likely encounter, and they are also
the easiest to use.

Both these stator and rotor fields Stampings are insulated from each other.
develop a torque. Then the rotor is rotat- More number of stampings are stamped
ing in the same direction as the rotating together to build the stator core. The sta-
magnetic field. In an induction motor, the tor core is fitted in a casted or fabricated
rotor speed is always less than the syn- steel frame. The slots in the stator, houses
chronous speed. the three phase winding and produces the
required rotating magnetic field.
8.5.2 Construction of 3 Phase Rotor
Induction Motor Two types of rotor are used in
­Induction motors. They are:
Eyebolt
Fan Cover Frame
a. Squirrel cage rotor
Bearings
Nameplate b. Slip ring (or) Wound rotor
Rotor

Endshields a) Squirrel Cage Rotor

Drain
Pugs
This is made up of a cylindrical
Fan laminated core with slots to carry the ro-
Stator
V-Ringer tor conductors. The rotor conductors are
Stator
Shaft
Slider
heavy bars of copper or aluminum, short
Windings
circuited in both ends by end rings. The
entire rotor resistance is very small. No
Fig 8.9 Parts of 3 Phase Induction
supply is given or taken. Motors having
Motor
such type of rotors are extremely rugged
Stator in construction. The majority of induc-
The stator is made up of number tion motors are cage rotors.
of stamping, with alternate slot and tooth.
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 Advantages Disadvantages
1. Cheaper 1. Slip-ring type motor is heavier.
2. Light weight 2. High cost
3. Rugged construction 3. High rotor inertia
4. Higher efficiency 4. High speed limitation
5. Requires less maintenance 5. Maintenance problems due to brushes
Disadvantages and slip – rings
1. Moderate starting torque
Applications
2. Starting torque cannot be controlled
These motors are used when
Applications speed control and high starting torque is
1. Lathes ­required. Mainly used in:
2. Drilling machines
3. Fans 1. Lifts
4. Blowers
5. Water pumps
6. Grinders and
7. Printing machines

b) Slip Ring (or) Wound Rotor

In this type of rotor, rotor windings
are similar to the stator winding. The rotor
winding may be star or delta connected,
distributed winding. The rotor is wound
for as many poles as the member of stator
poles and is always wound three phase even
when the stator is wound two phase. The
three phases are brought out and connect- Fig 8.11 Stator and Rotor Synchronous
ed to slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft. Motor
It is possible for introduction of additional
resistance in the rotor circuit during the 2. Hoists
starting period for increasing the starting 3. Cranes
torque of the motor. By varying the exter- 4. Compressors
nal resistance in the rotor circuit, the mo-
tor speed and torque can be controlled.
8.5.3 Slip
Advantages The difference between synchro-
1. The starting torque can be controlled nous speed and rotor speed is called the
by varying the rotor circuit resistance slip speed. It is usually expressed as a per-
2. The speed of the motor can also be centage of synchronous speed (Ns) and
controlled by varying the rotor cir- represented by the symbol ‘S’.
cuit resistance
Slip Speed= NS – N
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 NS – N
Slip S = The position of a motor is ­decided
NS
­ egrees
by the step angle and is expressed in d
NS – N
% Slip =   × 100
NS
Step angle, (θS) = 360/mn
8.5.4 Synchronous Motor
A motor which is running in its m - number of phases.
synchronous speed is called as synchro- n – number of rotor teeth.
nous motors.
Stepper motor can be divided into
1. For a given frequency, the synchro- the following three categories.
nous motor runs at a constant aver-
age speed, whatever the load. 1. Variable Reluctance (VR) stepper
2. Synchronous motor can be operated motor
over a wide range of power factors,
2. Permanent Magnet (PM) stepper
both lagging and leading.
motor
3. The synchronous motor is not a
3. Hybrid stepper motor
self-starting motor.
4. The changes in applied voltage do not
8.6.2 Variable Reluctance Stepper
affect synchronous motor torque.
5. For synchronous motor, D.C excitation Motor
is required. It is the most basic type of stepper
6. Synchronous motors are usually motor. The VR stepper motor has stator and
more costly and complicated rotor. The stator windings are wound on the
stator poles. The rotor carries no windings.
Applications of Synchronous Motor Rotor poles are of a ferromagnetic material.
1. Power factor correction The rotor is a salient pole type. This mo-
2. Constant speed, constant load drives tor may be single stack or multi stack type.
3. Constant voltage This is called variable reluctance motor be-
cause the reluctance of the magnetic circuit
formed by the rotor and stator teeth varies
with the angular position of the rotor. The
8.6 direction of motor rotation is independent
STEPPER MOTOR
of the polarity of the stator current.
A stepper motor is an electrome-
chanical device which converts electrical 8.6.3 Permanent Magnet Stepper
pulses into discrete mechanical move- Motor
ment. In this motor also stator winding
are wound on the stator poles. The stator
8.6.1 Step Angle is multipolar. The rotor is generally cy-
Step angle is defined as the angle lindrical and rotor poles are permanently
which the rotor of a stepper motor moves magnetized. The direction of motor rota-
when one pulse is applied to the input of tion depends on the polarity of the stator
the stator. current.

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 Fig 8.12 Types of Stepper Motor

8.6.4 Hybrid Stepper Motor 2. Ideal for many autonomous robots

It combines the features of vari- requiring higher precision
able reluctance and permanent magnet
Points to Remember
stepper motors. This is the most popu-
lar type of stepper motor. It has wound 1. A.C. generator is also called as alter-
stator pole and permanently magnetized nator or A.C Synchronous generator.
rotor poles. 2. Stationary armature and rotating
The important features of the hy- field is most advantageous one.
brid motors are its rotor structure. A re- 3. Stator is the stationary part and rotor
cent type motor, a disc rotor is used which is the rotating part.
is magnetically, axially to give a small 4. Alternator are constructed in two
stepping angle and low inertia. types
a) Salient pole alternator
Advantages of Stepper Motor
1. The rotating angle of the motor is b) Non- salient pole alternator
proportional to the input pulse 5. Salient pole type the diameter of
2. The motor has full torque at stand ­stator is large and length is short
3. Excellent response to starting, stop- 6. Non – Salient pole type the diameter
ping and still reversing of stator is short and length is long
7. A.C motors are classified into
Disadvantages of Stepper Motor a) Synchronous motor
1. Resonances can occur if not properly
b) Induction motor
controlled
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high 8. Synchronous motor is running at syn-
speeds chronous speed which is NS = 1500
9. Synchronous motors are used for
Uses of Stepper Motor power factor correction
1. It can be held at a particular position 10. Induction motor can also be treated
of the shaft as rotating transformer

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 11. Induction motors are widely used in 2) Auxiliary Winding
industrial drives 15. Either by changing main winding
12. For cooling purpose, light alumi- terminals or by changing auxiliary
num fans are used in three phase A.C winding terminals, the reversal of
motors direction of rotation is obtained in
13. No external supply is given or taken capacitor type motors
in squirrel cage rotor
16. Stepper motor is an electromechani-
14. In a single phase motor, stator wind-
cal device
ings are:
1) Main Winding, and

Alternator (or) AC generator -

Stator -
Rotor -
Slot -
Squirrel cage motor -

1. Construct a small working model by using stepper motor (children toy)

1. Identify the motors which is used in the following domestic appliance.

a) Mixie  b) Grinder  c) Washing Machine  d) Fan

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. The AC generator is also called 5. Size of stator of an alternator is
as small in diameter and large in axial
i) Alternator length, is called as
ii) DC generator a) Salient – pole type alternators
iii) Synchronous motor b) Turbo alternators
iv) Synchronous generator c) D.C. generator
(a) (i) and (ii) only d) None of the above
(b) (i) and (iii) Only 6. Which type of rotors isused for
(c) (i) and (iv) only very high speed in alternators?
(d) (ii) and (iii) only a) Salient pole type
2. Armature Core is laminated b) Smooth cylindrical type
a) To reduce hysteresis loss c) Squirrel cage type
b) To reduce eddy current loss d) None of the above
c) To reduce copper loss 7. Axial Ventilating holes are pro-
d) To reduce mechanical losses vided to
3. Slot types in the stator core of an a) Increase eddy current
alternator are b) Increase cooling effect
a) Wide – open slots c) Reduce eddy current
b) Semi – closed slots d) Reduce cooling effect
c) Closed slots 8. Stationary field and rotating arma-
d) All of the above ture type is used in
4. Which type of rotor is used in low i) Small size generators
and medium speed alternators? ii) For low voltages
a) Salient – pole type rotor iii) Large size generators
b) Cylindrical type rotor iv) For high voltages
c) Squirrel cage type rotor (a) (i) and (ii)
d) None of the above (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (iii) and (iv)
(d)­  (iv) and (i)

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 9. Stationary armature and rotating 14. Squirrel cage induction motors are
field type is used in used in
i) small size generators a) Lathes
ii) For low voltages b) Drilling machines
iii) Large size generators c) Fans
iv) For high voltages d) All of the above
(a) (i) and (ii) 15. Slip ring induction motors are used in
(b) (ii) and (iii) a) Lifts
(c) (iii) and (iv) b) Hoists
(d) (iv) and (i) c) Compressors
10. A motor which is running in its syn- d) All of the above
chronous speed is called as 16. One horse power is equal to
a) Synchronous motor a) 736 watts b) 756 watts
b) Induction motor c) 746 watts d) 766 watts
c) Three phase motors
d) Single phase motors 17. In India, frequency is
a) 25 Hz b) 50 Hz
11. The rotor used in three phase induc- c) 60 Hz d) 40 Hz
tion motor is
a) Squirrel cage rotor 18. Which one is in correct?
b) Salient – pole type rotor a) Single phase motors are not self
c) Non- salient pole type rotor starting
d) None of the above b) Single phase motors are self
starting
12. Advantage of three phase Induction c) Three phase motors are not self
motors are starting
a) Very simple in construction d) None of the above
b) It’s cost is low
c) Very reliable 19. Normally, which motor is used in
d) All of the above Electric Mixie?
a) Split phase motors
13. Slip is designed as b) Shaded pole motors
(a) Ns –N c) Capacitor start motors
Ns–N d) Universal motors
(b)
Ns
Ns–N 20. Which motor is used in both A.C.
(c) and D.C supply?
N
N–Ns a) Split phase motor
(d) b) Shaded pole motor
N
c) Universal motor
d) Capacitor start motor

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 3

Answer the Questions in briefly

   1. What are the advantages of A.C. generator?
   2. State the types of armature slots.
   3. What are the types of three phase induction motors?
   4. Mention some advantages of three phase induction motor.
   5. What are the advantages single phase motor?
   6. State the applications of synchronous motor.
  7. Name the two types of rotors used in three phase Induction
motors.
  8. Define ‘Slip’.
   9. Write some of the applications of squirrel cage Induction motor.
10. State the advantages of slipring induction motors.
11. Write down the few applications of slip ring Induction motor.
12. Why Single phase motor is not a self starting?
13. Name two windings in stator of single phase induction motor.
14. What is meant by ‘Slip speed’?
15. Write some of the disadvantages of squirrel cage induction
motor?
16. State the different types of stepper motor.
17. What are the advantages of stepper motor?
18. What are the disadvantages of stepper motor?
19. Write down the applications of stepper motor?

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page
1. Compare the salient pole type rotor with smooth cylindrical type rotor.
2. Explain the advantages of stationary armature and rotating field system.
3. What are the type of single phase motors?
4. Explain double field revolving theory.
5. Explain the construction of squirrel cage rotor.
6. What are the application of following motors?
a. Spilt phase motor
b. Universal motor

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain the salient pole and non salient pole alternator with neat sketch.
2. With neat sketch, explain the operation of an alternator.
3. Explain the construction and operation of single phase capacitor start
Induction run motor.
4. Explain with neat sketch about universal motor.
5. Briefly explain the various types of stepper motor.

Reference Book
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume II by B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, S.
Chand & Company Ltd.

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 Engineering Materials

If the boys and girls do not learn

discipline in their school days, money
and time spent on their education is so
much national loss.
—Mahatma Gandhiji

T
he learning objective of this chapter is to know about engineering materials,
classifications, electrical, mechanical properties and types of materials.

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 9.1 Introduction
9.2 Engineering Material
9.3 Classification of Materials and Properties
9.4 Mechanical Properties
9.5 Conducting Materials
9.6 Insulating Materials
9.7 Optical Materials

Materials Properties
Pencil – Hard, Light, Opaque.
9.1 Window – Transparent, Brittle.
INTRODUCTION–
Paper – Light, Malleable.
PROPERTIES OF Fork – S hiny, Hard, Conductor,
MATERIALS Magnetic.
A material is a substance used to
make physical things. The term property
means quality, which defines the specific
characteristic of a material. Materials have
different properties and characteristics
depending on what they are used for. Exam-
ples of certain materials and their proper-
ties are given below.

Figure 9.1 Properties of Materials

Insulation works in both directions: if it is well insulated, a building is more com-

fortable whatever the season, warmer in winter and cooler in summer. It is therefore
more economical as regards heating and air conditioning.

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 Uses of materials Materials. A particular material is selected
Materials Uses on the basis of following considerations.
Steel - Construction of 1. Availability of Material
Bridges/ Building 2. Cost of Material
Wrought/Cast - Manufacturing of 3. Sustainability
iron Tools 4. Ease of Manufacture
Gold, Silver, Copper - Making Coins 5. Compatibility
Plastic, Wood - Making Chairs 6. Reliability
Why copper suitable for wiring? 7. Recyclability
Copper is a good conductor of electricity, 9.2.1 Classification of Engineering
strong and ductile. Materials
Why cooker is made up of metals? Metals and Non- metals plays an
Metals are good conductor of heat, strong important role in the engineering industry.
and does not melt with high temperature. The materials mainly used in practice are
metals which may be divided into ferrous,
Hence a detailed study of properties of non-ferrous and alloy. Non- metals are clas-
materials provide a steady knowledge to select sified as polymer and ceramics.
things depending on their uses and nature.
9.2.2 Ferrous Metal
• The metal which contain iron as its
main constituent are Ferrous metal.
9.2 • Cast iron, wrought iron and steel are
ENGINEERING some examples of ferrous metals.
MATERIALS • Hematite, magnetite, limonite and
The substances which are useful in the siderite are basically iron ores. The
field of engineering are called Engineering main ore is hematite.

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

METALS NON-METALS

FERROUS NON-FERROUS
POLYMER CERAMIC
METALS METALS

THERMO- SETTING THERMO

COPPER PLASTICS PLASTICS
CAST IRON ALUMINIUM
WROUGHT IRON LEAD
STEEL IRON ZINC
MIXED STEEL BRASS BAKELITE
PVC
BRONZE POLYSTER
POLYTHENE
REXIN
ACRYLIC
EBONITE

Fig 9.2 Classification of Materials

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 Fig 9.3 Classification of Metals

• Indians have specialized in metal-

lurgy of iron and steel manufacturing.
• Ashoka’s pillar at Delhi, Puri tem- 9.3
CLASSIFICATION
ple’s iron joints speak the glory of
OF MATERIALS AND
our skill.
PROPERTIES
Properties of materials can be classi-
9.2.3 NON- FERROUS METAL fied under several heads. As a matter of fact
• The metal which contains metals the following, classification of materials are
other than iron as main constituent important for an engineer, to select a suita-
is non-ferrous metal. ble material for a desired purpose.
• Copper, Aluminium, Zinc, Lead,
Tin, Platinum, Silver, Gold, Tungsten 9.3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
are some examples of non- ferrous Physical properties determine the
metals. micro and macro structure of the materials
such as shape, size, colour, lustre , density ,
9.2.4 ALLOY METAL structure, finish , etc..
• Combining of two or more metals to
obtain special properties are called as 9.3.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
alloy metal. These properties deals with behaviour
• Brass, Bronze, Stainless steel, of materials while force or load is acting
Nichrome are some example of alloy on it, such as elasticity, plasticity, ductility,
metal.
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 brittleness, strength, stiffness, machinability, 9.3.7 THERMAL PROPERTIES
malleability, hardness, toughness etc. Thermal properties determine the
behaviour of the materials when they are
subjected to thermal changes. Ex: specific
9.3.3 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES heat, thermal conductivity , thermal expan-
Electrical properties determine the sion, thermal stress, thermal shock, latent
ability of material to permit or resist the flow heat, specific heat , etc..
of electricity. Ex: conductivity, resistivity,
di- electric, insulation, etc..

9.3.4 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES 9.4

MECHANICAL
Magnetic properties determine the
PROPERTIES
behaviour of the materials with presence
of applied magnetic field. Ex: permeability, Mechanical property defines the
retenativity, hysteresis, curie temperature, etc.. behaviour of material under an act of force
or load.
9.3.5 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Optical properties of a material
determine the behaviour of a material under
the action of light. Ex: emission of light,
absorbance, color luminosity, photo sensi-
tivity, reflecting, refractive index, scattering,
transmission etc.

Fig 9.5 Mechanical Properties

i) Strength
It is defined as the ability of a material
to resist loads without failure and fracture.
Fig 9.4 Optical Properties
ii) Stiffness
9.3.6 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES It is defined as the ability of a mate-
rial to resist deformation or deflection
Chemical properties determine the
under load. Stiffness within the elastic limit
corrosion rate, chemical reaction rate of
is known as modulus of Elasticity.
material. Ex: corrosion resistance, reactivity,
chemical composition, PH, hydroscopy etc.
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 iii) Elasticity xii) Fatigue
The ability of a material to deform Failure of materials under repeated
under load and return to its original shape or reversal stress is called Fatigue.
when the load is removed.
xiii) Resilience
iv) Plasticity
The capability of a strained body to
The ability of a material to deform
recover its side and shape, after deformation
under load and retain its new shape when
caused. Especially by compressive stress.
the load is removed.
v) Ductility
The ability of a material to be 9.5
deformed plastically without rupture under CONDUCTING
tensile load. Materials possesing ductility MATERIALS
can be drawn into fine wire.
vi) Brittleness Conductivity is the property of a
It is the property of sudden fracture material by which it allows the flow of elec-
without any visible permanent deformation. tric current. Conducting materials can be
classified into low resistivity, high resistivity
vii) Machinability and zero resistivity.
The ease with which a given material
may be worked or shaped with a cutting tool 9.5.1 Conducting Materials and
is called machinability. Its Uses
viii) Hardness Silver – Used in contact surface of
The ability of material to resist scratch- switch gears and circuit
ing or indentation by another hard body. breaker points
Copper – winding in electrical wires,
ix) Toughness and transformer, in wires,
The ability of material to absorb hard drawn copper in trans-
energy up to fracture during the plastic mission lines.
deformation. Aluminium – flexible wires, bus bars,
domestic wiring.
x) Malleability Tungsten – to make filament in bulbs.
The ability of material to be deformed Platinum – thermo couple and constant
plastically without rupture under compres- material
sive load. Malleable metals can be ham- Manganese – standard resistances and
mered and rolled into thin sheets. shunts.
Constantine – thermo couples, rheostats
xi) Creep
and starters for electric
The slow and progressive deforma-
motors.
tion of a material for long time with a con-
Nichrome – Heating element in Iron box,
stant stress.
(Ni,ch) heater.

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 Kanthan –Heating element in furnaces.
(Fe-er-Al)
Carbon – Brushes in electrical 9.6
INSULATING MATERIALS
machines.
9.6.1 Solid Insulating Materials
9.5.2 Comparison of Copper and
Aluminium A) Plastics
• It is an organic polymer, which can be
FactorS Aluminium Copper moulded into and desired shape and
Colour Silverly Reddish size with the help of heat, pressure or
white brown
both.
Density 2700 kg/m3 8900° kg/m3
Melting point 660°C 1085°C
Resistivity 2.65 x 10–6Ω-m 1.72 x 10–6Ω-m

9.5.3 Advantage of Aluminium

• Cheaper - Low Cost
• Lighter - 1/3 weight of copper.
• Softer. Fig 9.6 Application of Plastic
• Non-Reactive to acids.
• The plastic in liquid forms is known
• Availability - Aluminium is third most
as resin.
abundant element in nature. 7.28% of
• There are two types of plastics
earth crust is aluminium.
namely Thermo plastic and Thermo
set plastic .
9.5.4 Disadvantage of Aluminium
• Thermo plastic can be softened and
• Higher Resistivity : Hence aluminium hardened by heating and cooling by
is not used for winding. If used, the any number of times. (e.g) Polythene,
wire must be of large size to reduce I2 R PVC, Acrylic.
losses and machine size also increases. • Thermo set plastic cannot be softened
• High contact Resistance. once they are moulded. It is formed
• Poor Tensile Strength - Aluminium by condensation and polymerization.
cannot be used directly as overhead Eg. Polyester, Bakelite, Epoxy
transmission line as it cannot be
b) Ceramics
stretched.
• Ceramics are inorganic, non-
• Possibilities for Loose contacts -
metallic, covalent compounds.
Aluminium cannot be soldered by
• They are produced from earthy mate-
conventional method.
rial (clay) by the action of fire
• Clay product, refractories and glasses
are types of ceramics.

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 • Porcealin is (clay product) used oxidation resistance and good ther-
in line insulators. Transformer mal stability.
bushing pin, switches, Fuse Holder • Transformer oil is used for insulating
and socket, discs of Electric stove & and cooling transformer (winding
Kettle and beads are used to insulate
and core)
heating element. Aluminium is an
• Cable oil and capacitor oil are other
important refractory material used
in furnances. mineral insulating oils.
  Silica glass, Fiber glass, Pyrex are
b) Synthetic Insulating Oils
important glass insulation materials
• Compared to mineral oil, these oils
used in Capacitor, Radio & TV tubes,
are very cheap and inflammable.
Lamps, Laminated boards.
• Askarel is used as coolant in High
c) Rubber Voltage Transformer (upto 110° C )
Rubber is an organic polymer, which • Aroclors,sovoland sovtol are other
elongates on stretching and regains its orig- synthetic insulating oils.
inal shapes after the removal of the stress.
Rubber may be classified as natural rubber 9.6.3 Gaseous Insulating Materials
and synthetic rubber. A) Air
d) Mica It is an important insulating material
Mica is a mineral compound of available in nature. It is used in HT lines and
aluminium silicate with soda potash and capacitor as an insulating material.
magnesium.It has high dielectric strength
and low power loss. Mica is used in tapping b) Nitrogen
stator coils, electric irons, hotplates, • It is chemically inert, prevent oxidation
toasters, motor slot lining and transformer and reduce deterioration.
insulation. • It is used in oil filled transform-
e) Asbestos ers, capacitors and in cables under
• It is natural mineral material of pressure.
fibrous structure and low dielectric.
c) Inert Gases
• It has high dielectric loss and low
• They are used in electronic tubes and
dielectric strength.
• It is used in electrical machines to discharge tubes as insulators
withstand temperature, cloth tape,
Paper boards, covering on wire of
heating element, arcing barrier in
switches and breakers. 9.7
OPTICAL MATERIALS
9.6.2 Liquid Insulating Materials
Optical materials are becoming
A) Mineral Insulating Oils increasingly important for communication.
• These oils are obtained from distilla- In communication, an entire network of
tion of crude petroleum.It has high optical fibre, LED’S, LASER and detectors

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 has already been installed for transmission
of voice and data. Optical disk recording
with semi conductor, laser playback are
replacing the conventional piezo electric
pickups.
Various optical materials and their
Application

Technology Application
1. O
 ptical
communication
i) Wave guides To guide the light
inside the fibre by total
internal reflection (eg.
optic fibre cable) Fig 9.7 Examples of Optical Fibres
ii) O
 ptical To modulate the intensity
modulator or phase of light by an
electric field / magnetic
field /ultrasonic waves
iii) Optical switches
iv) Optical Source To do fast switching
To produce light
2. Energy To convert light energy
convertors into electrical energy
(solar panel, silicon,
selenium sulphate)
3 T
 hermal energy To detect thermal
detectors radiation
4 Display device To display electrical
signal in the visual
(eg LED, LASER)
5 O
 ptical Fiber To measure
Sensor mechanical quantities
like displacement,
acceleration, pressure &
electrical quantities likes
field strength, current

1. Collect 15 insulating Materials?

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 Engineering Materials - ப�ொறியியல் ப�ொருட்கள்
Metal Alloy - உல�ோகக் கலவை
Stiffness - விறைப்புத்தன்மை
Elasticity - நெகிழ்வுத்தன்மை
Plasticity - உருமாறும் தன்மை
Ductility - கம்பியாக நீளும் தன்மை
Brittleness - ந�ொறுங்கும் தன்மை
Hardness - கடினத்தன்மை
Toughness - கெட்டிப்புத் தன்மை
Malleability - தகடாகும் தன்மை
Creep - த�ொய்வு
Fatique - ந�ொந்தக் களைப்பு

A 1

Choose the Correct Answer:

1. Steel is an example for________ 3. Which of the following are the
a) Non Metal thermal properties of materials?
b) Ferrous Metal i) Fatigue
c) Non-Ferrous Metal ii) Specific Heat
d) Alloy Metal iii) Thermal Conductivity
2. Which one of the following is iv) Creep
an alloy__________ a) Both (i) and (iv)
a) Cast Iron b) Both (ii) and (iii)
b) Copper c) All the above
c) Brass d) None of the above
d) Platinum

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 4. Zinc is an example of ________ 9. Which state of material resist Ten-
a) Non Metal sion, Compression and shear stress?
b) Ferrous Metal a) Gaseous
c) Non-Ferrous Metal b) Liquid
d) Alloy c) Solid
5. Refractive index and Reflectiv- d) None of the above
ity are properties of material is 10. Which of the following met-
known as ________________ als are both malleable and
a) Mechanical ductile_________
b) Thermal a) Copper
c) Chemical b) Cast Iron
d) Optical c) Porcelain
6. Which of the following are d) Zinc
the chemical properties of 11. Which of the following conducto-
materials? ris used in over head distribution
a) Corrosion Resistance lines?
b) Reactivity a) Aluminium
c) Chemical Composition b) Copper
d) All the above c) ACSR
7. Which one of the following is an d) Steel
organic material________ 12. Which of the following is used for
a) Zinc making the resistance of heating
b) Iron element ________
c) Silicon Carbide a) Invar
d) Wood b) Nichrome
8. Shape and density are properties c) Mangani
of materials is known as _____ d) Constantan
a) Physical 13. The following list gives the four met-
b) Chemical als Gold(Au), Silver(Ag), Alumini-
c) Mechanical um(Al) and Copper (Cu) increasing
d) Electrical order of resistivity.____
a) Ag, Cu, Au, Al
b) Au, Ag, Cu, Al
c) Ag, Au, Cu, Al
d) Cu, Ag, Au, Al

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 14 Aluminium is found ______ 16 Most widely used conducting
percentage of earth crust materials are____
a) 7.28 a) Gold and Silver
b) 8.27 b) Copper and Aluminium
c) 7.82 c) Copper and Silver
d) 8.72 d) Gold and Platinum
15 Which one of the following is
used as energy convertor in
optical materials____
a) Optic Fibre Cable
b) LED
c) LASER
d) Solar Panel

Answer the Questions in briefly

1. List out the broad classification of the properties of engineering
materials.
2. Write short notes on types of metals.
3. Differentiate Thermo setting plastic and Thermo plastic.
4. State the different properties of material.
5. Write down the thermal properties of materials.
6. What is meant by optical properties and give some examples?
7. Write short notes on optical energy convertor.
8. Name the insulating material available at free of cost and where it is
used.
9. State the factor to be considered for the selection of materials for
engineering applications.

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page
1. Explain the various properties of engineering materials.
2. Tabulate the applications of optical materials and technology.

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain the mechanical properties of materials.
2. Explain the types of conducting materials.
3. Compare the properties of copper and aluminium.
4. Explain the types of insulating materials.

Reference Books
1. ‘An introduction to Electrical Engineering Materials’ by Dr. C.S. Indulkar and Dr. S. Thiruven-
gadam, 4th edition, S. Chand & company.

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 Electronics

Do all the good you can,

By all the means you can,
In all the ways you can,
In all the places you can,
At all the times you can,
To all the people you can,
As long as ever you can.

—JOHN WESLEY

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 T
his chapter enables the students to study in detail about atomic structure, types of
conductors, classification of rectifiers, filtering circuits. LED, LCD, display, camera and
mobile phone workings.

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Rectifiers-Types

10.3 Filter Circuits

10.4 Zener Diode

10.5 Transistor-NPN and-PNP

10.6 LED(Light Emitting Diode)

10.7 LCD(Liquid Crystal Display)

10.8 Seven Segment Display

10.9 CCTV Cameras

current flow through a vacuum, gas and

semiconductors.
10.1
INTRODUCTION
10.1.1 Atomic Structure
In the modern era of fast-developing According to modern theory, mat-
society, electronics is the most important ter is electrical in nature. All the materi-
branch of Engineering. Electronics is the als are composed of very small particles
branch of engineering which deals with called atoms. The atoms are the building
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 bricks of all matter. An atom consists of a
central nucleus of positive charge around iv) The last orbit cannot have more
which small negatively charged particles, than 8 electrons
called electrons revolved in different paths v) The last but one orbit cannot
or orbits. have more than 18 electron

Nucleus is the central part of an

atom which contain protons and neutrons. 10.1.3 Structure of Elements
A proton is a positively charged particle, We have seen that all atoms are made
while the neutron has the same mass as the up of protons, neutrons and electrons. The
proton, but has no charge. Therefore, the difference between various types of ele-
nucleus of an atom is positively charged. ment is due to the different number and
So all the materials are in stable condition. arrangement of these particles within their
The sum of protons and neutrons consti- atom. For example, the structure of copper
tutes the entire weight of an atom and is atom is different from that of carbon atom
called atomic weight. The number of elec- and hence the two elements have different
trons is equal to the number of protons in properties. (Ref Fig. 10.1)
an atom and is called as atomic number.
The atomic structure can be easily
i.e, Atomic number=number of pro- formed if we know the atomic weight and
tons (or)number of electrons. atomic number of the element.
Atomic weight=number of protons +
number of neutrons. Ex:copper→Atomic weight = 64
Atomic number = 29,
10.1.2 Structure of Electron Number of protons=Number of
in An Atom electrons=29,
The electrons in an atom revolve And Number of neutrons=64–29=35
around the nucleus in different orbits or
paths. The number of electrons in any
orbit is determined by the following rules.

The number of electrons in

any orbit is given by 2n2 where n is
the number of the orbit.
For example
i) First orbit contains = 2 × 12 = 2
electrons
ii) Second orbit contains = 2 × 22
= 8 electrons
iii) Third orbit contains = 2 × 32
= 18 electrons
Fig 10.1 Atomic Structure of Copper
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 Fig shows the structure of copper Classification of Rectifiers
atom.It has 29 electrons which are ar- The unidirectional characteristic
ranged in different orbits as follows. active element ie., diode is used for this
purpose. The rectifier convert an AC sig-
1 orbit = 2 × 12 = 2 nal into DC signal. Rectifiers are classi-
2 orbit = 2 × 22 = 8 fied into two types namely (i) Half wave
3 orbit = 2 × 32 = 18 rectifier (ii) Full wave rectifier. They are
4 orbit will have 1 electron explained as below
The atomic structure of all known
elements can be shown in this way. 10.2 (i) Half wave Rectifier
In half-wave rectification, the rec-
tifier conducts current only during the
10.2 positive half-cycle of input ac supply.
RECTIFIERS - TYPES
The negative half-cycle of a.c. supply are
It has already been discussed in the suppressed ie., during negative half-cy-
previous chapter that a pn-junction con- cle, no current is conducted and hence no
ducts current easily when forward bias voltage appears across the load.
and practically no current flows when it is
reverse biased. Circuit details

Fig 10.2 shows the circuit where

“A pn-junction is known as a a single crystal diode acts as a half-wave
semiconductor or crystal diode” rectifier. The a.c. supply is applied in
series with the diode and load resistance
For reasons associated with eco- RL through a transformer.
nomics of generation and transmission,
the electric power available is usually an Operation
a.c. supply. The supply voltage varies sinu-
soidally and has a frequency of 50 Hz. It is The a.c. voltage across the sec-
used for lighting, heating and also in elec- ondary winding AB changes polarities
tric motors. after every half-cycle. During the posi-
tive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, end ‘A’
Mostly all electronic devices require becomes positive with respect to ‘B’. This
d.c. power for this proper operation. DC makes the diode forward biased and hence
batteries are used for vehicles and rarely it conducts current. During the negative
in commercial appliances. They are costly half cycle, end A is negative with respect
and require frequent charging or replace- to B. Under this condition, the diode is
ment. So we can get d.c. power from, a.c. reverse biased and it conducts no cur-
power by using regulated d.c. power rent. Therefore, current flows through the
supply. It consists of transformer, rectifier diode during positive half-cycle of inputs
filter and regulator. ac voltage only. It is blocked during the

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 negative half cycle as shown in fig 10.15. voltage. This can be achieved with two
In this way, current flows through load RL diodes working alternately. Therefore,
always in the same direction. Hence d.c. a full-wave rectifier utilize both half-
output is obtained across RL and this out- cycle of input a.c voltage to produce
put is pulsating d.c. the d.c.output. The following two
circuits are commonly used for full wave
rectification.

(i) Centre tap full wave rectifier

(ii) Full-wave bridge rectifier

(a) Centre Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

Circuit Details

The circuit employs two diodes

D1 and D2as shown in fig 10.16. A cen-
tre tapped secondary winding AB is used
with two diodes connected so that each
uses one half-cycle of input a.c. voltage.

Fig 10.2 Half wave Rectifier-wave form

These pulsations in the output are
further smoothened with the help of “Fil-
ter circuit”. The peak inverse voltage of the
diode should be at least equal to Vm

10.2.(ii) Full Wave Rectifier

In full wave rectification, cur-
rent flows through the load is the same
direction for both half-cycle of input a.c. Fig 10.3 Full wave Rectifier-Wave Form

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 Operation Between other two ends of the bridge, the
During the positive half cycle of load resistance RL is connected.
secondary voltage, the end A of the sec-
ondary winding becomes positive and end
B negative. This makes the diode D1for-
ward biased and diode D2 reverse biased.
There fore diode D1conducts while diode
D2 does not. The conventional current
flow is through diode D1,load resistor Rl
and the upper half of secondary winding
as shown by the dotted arrows.

During the negative half cycle, end

A of the secondary winding becomes neg-
ative and end B positive. Therefore diode
D2conducts while diode D1does not. The Fig 10.4 Full Wave Bridge
conventional current flow is through Rectifier-Wave Form
diode D2, load RL and lower half winding
as shown by solid arrows. Referring to Operation
fig 10.3 it may be seen that current in the During the positive half cycle of sec-
load RL is in the same direction for both ondary voltage, the end P of the secondary
half-cycle of input a.c. voltage. Therefore winding becomes positive and end ‘Q’neg-
d.c. is obtained across the load RL. The ative. This makes diode D1 and D3 forward
peak inverse voltage (piv) of this rectifier biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse
is 2Vm biased. Therefore, only diodes D1 and D3 will
conduct. These two diodes will be in series
In recent days center tap full wave through the load RL as shown in fig 10.5 (i).
rectifier is not used. It is replaced by full The conventional current flow is shown by
wave bridge rectifiers. Because of its appli- dotted arrows. It may be seen that current
cation, full wave bridge rectifier is mostly flows from A to B through the load RL
used.
During the negative half-cycle of
(b) Full wave Bridge Rectifier secondary voltage, end P becomes negative
and end Q positive. This makes diodes.
Circuit Details D2 and D4 forward biased whereas diodes
The need for a center tapped power D1 and D3 are reverse biased .Therefore,
transformer is eliminated in the bridge only diodes D2 and D4 conduct. These two
rectifier. It contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 diodes will be in series through the load
& D4 connected to form bridge as shown RL as shown in fig 10.5(ii). The current
in fig 10.4. The a.c supply to be rectified flow is shown by the solid arrows. It may
is applied to the diagonally opposite ends be seen that again current flows from A to
of the bridge through the transformer.
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 The most commonly used filter cir-
cuits are capacitor filter, choke input filter
and capacitor input filter (or) π Filter.

10.4
ZENER DIODE

Zener Diode is a specially designed

pn-junction diode. The symbol of the
Zener diode in as shown in fig10.6. When
forward biased, its characteristics are just
those of ordinary diode. A Zener diode is
always reverse connected, i.e. it is always
reverse biased. When the reverse bias on a
Fig 10.5 Full Wave Bridge crystal diode is increased, a critical voltage
Rectifier
B through the load.ie in the same direc-
tion as for the positive half-cycle. There-
fore d.c output is obtained across load RL
The peak inverse voltage (piv) of
Fig 10.6 Zener Diode
each diode is equal to the maximum sec-
ondary voltage of transformer. called breakdown voltage is reached where
the reverse current increase sharply to a
high value. The breakdown region is the
knee of the reverse characteristic as shown
10.3
FILTER CIRCUITS in fig 10.7. Therefore the breakdown voltage

Generally a rectifier is required to

produce pure d.c supply for using at various
places in the electronic circuits. However, the
output of a rectifier has pulsating character.
ie it contains a.c and d.c components. The a.c.
component is undesirable and must be kept
away from the load. So a filter circuit is used
to remove the a.c component.

“A filter circuit is a device

which removes the ac component
of rectifier output but allows the d.c
component to reach the load”
Fig 10.20 Zener Diode Characteristics

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 is sometimes called ‘Zener voltage’ and
sudden increase in current is known as
Zener current.

The breakdown or Zener voltage

depends upon the amount of doping.
If the diode is heavily doped, depletion
larger will be thin and consequently the
breakdown of the junction will occur at a
lower reverse voltage. On the other hand,
a lightly doped diode has a higher break-
down voltage. When an ordinary crystal
diode is properly doped, so that it has a
sharp breakdown voltage and it is called a
Zener diode.

A properly doped crystal

“
diode which has a sharp breakdown
voltage is known as a Zener diode”

10.5
TRANSISTOR

“When a third doped element

is added to a crystal diode in such
a way that two pn junction formed,
the resulting device is known as a
transistor Fig 10.8 Transistor Configuration

The n-p-n transistor is composed

The transistor is a new type of elec- of two n-type semiconductors seperated
tronic device and is capable of achieving by a thin section of p-type as shown in
amplification of weak signals. fig 10.8(i). However a p-n-p transistor is
formed by two p-sections seperated by a
There are two types of transistors, thin section of n-type as in fig 10.8 (ii).
namely (i) n-p-n transistor (ii) p-n-p
transistor. A transistor (p-n-p or n-p-n) has
three section of doped semiconductors.
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 The section on one side is the emitter and 10.5(i) Working of npn – Transistor
the section on the opposite side is the col- Fig 10.9 shows the npn-transistor
lector. The middle section is called the with forward bias to emitter base junction
base and forms two junctions between the and reverse bias to collector base junction.
emitter and collector. The above fig 10.8 The forward bias causes the electrons in
(i) & (ii) shows the symbols of n-p-n & the n-type emitter to flow towards the
p-n-p transistors. base. This constitutes the emitter current
IE. As these electrons flow through the
Note that emitter is shown by an p-type base, they tend to combine with
arrow which indicates the direction of holes. The base is lightly doped and very
conventional current flow with forward thin. Therefore, only a few electrons less
bias. For n-p-n connection, it is clear that than 5% combine with holes to constitute
conventional current flow out of the emit- base current IB. The remainder more than
ter as indicated by the outgoing arrow in 95% cross over into the collector region to
fig 10.8(i). Similarly, for p-n-p connec- constitute collector current IC. In this way,
tion, the conventional current flows into almost the entire emitter current flows in
the emitter as indicated by inward arrow the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter
in fig 10.8(ii). current is the sum of collector and base
currents. ie, IE=IB+IC.
Transistor Action
The emitter base junction of a
transistor is forward biased where as col-
lector base junction is reverse biased. If
for a moment, we ignore the presence of
emitter base junction, then practically no
current would flow in the collector circuit
because of the reverse bias. However, if
the emitter base junction is also present,
then forward bias on it causes the emitter
current to flow. It is seen that this emitter
current almost entirely flows in the collec- Fig 10.9 n-p-n Transistor
tor circuit. Therefore, the current in the
collector circuit depends upon the emitter
current. If the emitter current is zero, then 10.5(ii) Working of pnp - Transistor
collector current is nearly zero. However Fig 10.10 shows the basic connec-
if the emitter current is 1ma, then collec- tion of a pnp transistor. The forward bias
tor current is also about 1ma. This is pre- causes the holes in the p-type emitter to
cisely what happens in a transistor. flow towards the base. This constitutes
the emitter current IE. As these holes cross
We shall now discuss the transistor into n-type base, they tend to combine
action for npn and pnp transistors. with the electrons. As the base is lightly
doped and very thin. Therefore, only a few

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 the junction and recombine with the holes
on the p-side.

Fig 10.10 p-n-p Transistor

holes 5% will combine with the electrons.
The remainder 95% cross into the collec- Fig 10.11 LED Display
tor region to constitute collector current
IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter LED under forward bias and its
current flows in the collector circuits. It symbol are shown in the Fig 10.11. When
may be noted that current conduction an LED is forward biased, the electrons
within pnp-transistor is by holes. How- and holes move towards the junction and
ever, in the external connecting wires, the recombination takes place. As a result of
current is still by electrons. recombination, the electrons lying in the
conduction bands of n-region fall into the
holes lying in the valance band of a p-re-
gion. The difference of energy between the
10.6 conduction band and the valance band is
LIGHT EMITTING radiated in the form of light energy. Each
DIODE (LED) recombination causes radiation of light
The Light emitting diode(LED) is energy. Light is generated by recombina-
a PN junction device which emits light tion of electrons and holes where by their
when forward biased. In all semiconduc- excess energy is transferred to an emit-
tor PN junctions, some of the energy will ted photon. The brightness of the emitted
be radiated as heat and some in the form light is directly proportional to the for-
of photons. In silicon and germanium, ward bias event.
greater percentage of energy is given out
in the form of heat and the emitted light Applications
is insignificant. In other materials such • LEDs can be switched ‘on’ and ‘off ’ at
as gallium phosphide (Gap) or gallium a very fast speed of one nano second
arsenide phosphide (Ga As P) the number (1ns).
of photons of light energy emitted is suffi- • They are used in burglar alarm sys-
cient to create a visible light source. Here, tems, picture, phones, multimeters,
the charge carrier recombination takes calculators, digital meters, micropro-
place when electrons form the n-side cross cessors, digital computers, etc.

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 • Used in solid state video displays and monolithic device as shown in fig 10.12
optical communication system. which can display all numerals. Each seg-
• Used in programmable advertise- ment contains LED which can be turned
ment boards. ‘on’ or ‘off ’ to form the desired digit. Each
• Used in image sensing circuit. segment of the array has to be switched in
response to a logic signal.

10.7
LIQUID CRYSTAL
DISPLAY(LCD)
Liquid crystal display (LCDs) are
used for display of numberic and alpha-
numeric character in dot matrix and
segmental displays. The two liquid crys- Fig 10.12 7-Segment LED Display
tal materials which are commonly used ­Common Anode
in display technology are nematic and
cholesteric. For example Fig 10.12 (i) shows the
response to a logic signal corresponding to
Advantages of LCD 2, in which segments a ,b, g, e and d have
1) The voltage required are small. been switched ‘on’ and c and f remains
2) They have a low power consumption. ‘off ’. Similarly when all segments are ‘on’,
A seven segment display requires the digit formed is ‘off ’ 8. If only the center
about 140W (20W per segment), segment g is the digit will be zero. Com-
whereas LCDs require about 40mw mon anode and common cathode seven
per numeral. segment LED displays are shown in Fig
3) They are economical. 10.12 (ii) common anode type LED dis-
plays an active ‘low’ configuration, where
Disadvantages of LCD
as an active ‘high’ circuitry is necessary for
1) LCDs are very slow device. The Turn the common cathode type LED display.
‘on’ and ‘off ’ times are quite large.
2) When used in dc, their life span is
quite small. Therefore, they are used
with ac supplies having a frequency 10.9
CCTV CAMERAS
less than 50 HZ.
3) They occupy a large area. CCTV systems have become
extremely popular over a decade as the
technology has improved and become more
10.8
SEVEN SEGMENT affordable. Themajority of CCTV camera
in use nowdays are usually for surveillance
DISPLAY
and security purposes. CCTV systems can
One way of producing an alphanu- be found in almost every bank, casino,
meric display is to make a seven segment mall and large departmental store. In fact,

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 CCTV systems have become so afforda- Advantages
ble, most smaller mom and pop stores etc. a) Ease of installation
apartments also have CCTV systems in b) Vandal proof features
them for security purpose. c) Infrared capability

Different types of CCTV Camera (ii) Bullet Camera

There are many types of CCTV Bullet cameras are long and cylin-
camera. Here we run through these types drical in shape, and are ideal for outdoor
of camera and what makes them unique use. Their strengths lie specifically in
and more suitable for some venues over applications which require long distance
others. They are viewing. Installed within protective cas-
i) Dome camera ings, the cameras are protected against
ii) Bullet camera dust, dirt and other natural elements.
iii) C-mount camera The cameras can easily be mounted with
iv) Day/night camera a mounting bracket, and come fitted with
v) PTZ camera either fixed or varifocal lenses depend-
ing on the requirements of its intended
(i) Dome Camera application.
The dome camera is one of the
most commonly useful for indoor security
and surveillance. The shape of the cam-
era makes it difficult for onlookers to tell
which way the camera is facing, which is a
strong piece of design, deterring criminals
by creating an of uncertainty.

Fig 10.14 Bullet Camera

Advantages
a) Adaptability can use indoors and out
doors
b) Compact size aids installation.
c) High quality image resolution

iii) C-mount Camera

This type of camera Coming with
detachable lenses. C-mount cameras allow
simple lense changes to fit different applica-
Fig 10.13 Dome Camera
tions. C–mount cameras, were standard CCTV
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 lenses can only cover distances of 35-40ft, can benefit from not requiring inbuilt infrared
also cover distances beyond 40ft, to the possi- illuminators as they can capture clean video
bility to use special lenses with these cameras. images in the dark thanks to their extra sen-
sitive imaging chips. For this reason, these
cameras are ideal for outdoor surveillance
applications in which IR cameras are unable
to function optionally.

Fig 10.15 C-mount Camera

Advantages
Fig 10.16 Day/Night Camera
a) It can support changes in technology.
b) Effective for indoor use. Advantages
c) Bulky size makes them noticeable. a) Record in both color and black &
white
iv) Day/Night Camera b) Wide variety of sizes available
Capable of operating in both normal c) Infrared capability
and poorly lit environment. These cameras

How Neon Lamps work!!!

When an electric voltage is applied to the terminals (about 15,000 volts), enough energy
is supplied to remove an outer electron from the neon atoms. If there is not enough volt-
age, there will not be enough kinetic energy for the electrons to escape their atoms and
nothing will happen. The positively charged neon atoms (cations) are attracted to the
negative terminal, while the free electrons are attracted to the positive terminal. These
charged particles, called plasma, complete the electric circuit of the lamp

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 Atomic Structure - அ ணு அ ம ை ப் பு
Valance Electron - இ ண ை த ி ற ன் எ ல க ்ட ் ரா ன்
Free Electron - க ட் டு ற ா எ ல க ்ட ் ரா ன்
Energy Band - ஆ ற ்ற ல் ந ி லை க ள்
Impurity - மா சு
Forward Bias - மு ன ் ன ோக் கு ச ா ர் பு
Reverse Bias - ப ி ன ் ன ோக் கு ச ா ர் பு
Emitter - உ ம ி ழ ் வா ன்
Collector - ஏ ற ்பா ன்
Base - அ டி வா ய்
Depletion Layer - ச ி தை வு அ டு க் கு
Filter Circuit - வ டி ப்பா ன் சு ற் று
LED – Light Emitting Diode - ஒ ள ி உ ம ி ழு ம் ட ை ய � ோ டு
LCD – Liquid Crystal Diode - த ி ரவ ப டி க க ாட்சி த ி ரை

1. How to test the effectiveness of the battery by LED?

2. Identify the types of the transistor using multimeter.
3. Test the LED 7- segment display using the following picture.

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 Choose the Correct Answer:
1. An atom consist of c) 4
a) Proton d) 3
b) Neutron 5. Filter circuit is used to remove
c) Electron a) dc components
d) All of the above b) ac components
2. The number of electrons in c) combination of these two
any orbit is calculated by the d) none of these
Formula 6. In forward biasing, the emitter
a) 2n current in npn t­ ransistor is
b) 2n2 a) IB
c) 2n3 b) IC
d) n2 c) IB+IC
3. In half wave rectifiers, the num- d) none of these
ber of diodes used as 7. The number of segments in seven
a) One segment display is
b) Two a) 6
c) Three b) 5
d) Four c) 7
4. In bridge rectifier, the number d) 3
of diodes used as
a) 1
b) 2

Answer the Questions in briefly

1. What is called atom?
2. What are the types of rectifiers?
3. What are the different types of CCTV camera?

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 Answer the following questions not exceeding one page
1. Briefly Explain “Atomic Structure”.
2. Explain the use of Filter circuits.

Answer the following questions not exceeding two page

1. Explain half-wave rectifier with neat circuit diagram.
2. Explain full-wave bridge rectifier with neat circuit diagram.
3. Explain the operation of Zener diode.
4. Explain the working of pnp transistor.
5. Explain the working of npn transistor.
6. What are the advantages of using (i) LED (ii) LCD?
7. Explain seven segment display with diagram.

Reference Books
1. ‘A text book of Electrical Technology’ Volume I and Volume IV by B.L. Theraja and
A.K. Theraja, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
2. Principles of Electronics by V.K. MEHTA and SHALU MEHTA, S. Chand & Company
Ltd.

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 MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Basic Electrical Engineering Theory
TIME: 3.30 hrs STD:11th MARKS:90

Choose the correct answer:

1. In case of electric fire use 6. Charging and discharging process
a) dry sand in secondary cell is by which law?
b) wet sand a) Ohms law
c) carbon powder b) Faradays laws of electrolysis
d) water c) Lenz’s law
2. Good conductor has a property d) Current law
of 7. Advantage of using lithium-ion
a) low resistance battery is
b) high resistance a) high energy density
c) medium of these two b) low energy density
d) none of these c) medium energy density
3. According to ohm’s law I is equal d) poor energy density
to 8. Digital energy meters is used for
a) V2/R the following reason
b) I2/R a) High accuracy
c) V/I b) Small size
d) V/R c) Long life
4. The permanent magnet is not d) All the above
used in 9. Transformer operates on the
a) horse shoes magnet principle of
b) energy meters a) self-induction
c) transformers b) mutual induction
d) loud speaker c) ohm’s law
5. Which magnetic field is like a d) len’s law
magnetic field of a bar magnet? 10. The function of DC machine is of
a) Current carrying wire a) Fleming’s left-hand rule
b) Current carrying ring b) Fleming’s right hand rule
c) Current carrying solenoid c) Faraday’s law
d) Current carrying rectangu- d) Krichhoff ’s law
lar bar

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 11. Which type of rotor is used for 14. The number of electrons in any orbit
very high speed in alternators? is calculated by the formula
a) Salient pole type a) 2n
b) Smooth cylindrical type b) 2n2
c) Squirrel cage type c) 2n3
d) None of the above d) n2
12. One horse power is equal to 15. The Camera which covers a distance
a) 736 watts of more than 40 feet is
b) 756 watts a) Dome Camera
c) 746 watts b) Bullet Camera
d) 766 watts c) C Mount Camera
13. Which one of the following is an d) Day/Night Camera
organic material
a) Zinc
b) Iron
c) Silicon carbide
d) Wood

Answer the Questions in briefly

1) What are the methods used for production of electricity?
2) Define ohm’s law?
3) Two resistance 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel voltage of the
circuit in 240V. Find the value of total resistance?
4) What is electro magnetism?
5) Define End Rule?
6) Write short notes on UPS Battery?
7) Define effective value or RMS value?
8) What are the protective devices of transformer?
9) State Fleming’s left hand rule?
10) Why single phase motor is not a self-starting?
11) State the factor to be considered for the selection of materials for
engineering applications?
12) What are the different types of CCTV camera?

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 Answer the Questions not Exceeding one page
1. Explain the method of preventing an electric shock?
2. Explain the properties of a conductor?
3. Compare magnetic and electric circuit.
4. What are the advantages of digital energy meter?
5. Explain about auto transformer?
6. What are the types of single phase motor?
7. Explain the various properties of engineering materials?

Answer the Questions not Exceeding two page

1. Explain the Kirchoff ’s laws?
(or)
Explain in detail about Lithium ion battery with diagram?
2. Explain the process of emf generation in DC generators?
(or)
Explain Half-wave rectifier with neat circuit diagram.

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 Basic Electrical
Engineering
PRACTICAL

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 CONTENTS

CLASS XI

1. Study of Hand Tools for Wiring 174

2. House Wiring and Electrical Safety Rules 195

3. Verification of Ohm’s Law. 205

4. Preparation of Appliances Test Board 209

5. One Lamp Controlled by a Regulator 212

6. Wiring Connection of Fluorescent Lamp 216

7. Stair-Case Wiring 219

8. Godown Wiring 223

9. Electric Bell 226

10. Testing of Resistor, Diode, Transistor, and Capacitor  230

Tabulation of Electric Symbols 237

Case Study -1 240

Case Study -2 242

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 STUDY OF HAND TOOLS FOR WIRING

Do not wait for opportunity. Create it

12th

11th

10th

9th

8th

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 Aim
Usually, in the field of electricity, so many electric tools (both hand and machine
tools) are now-a-days being utilised. A person becomes more efficient, when he knows
the proper way of handling the tools. In domestic side, repairs, maintenance and electrical
wiring work, various types of hand tools are used. In this topic, Line diagram is given to
know about the study of hand tools for wiring purpose.

Cutting Plier

Uses
It is made up of forged steel and is used for cutting, twisting, pulling, holding and
gripping small jobs in wiring assembly and repairing work. Non-insulated plier is also
available. Insulated pliers are used for work on live lines.

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 They are specified with their overall dimensions of length in mm. Mostly, the pli-
ers used for electrical work will be of insulated grip.

Long Nose Pliers

Uses
Long nose pliers are used for holding small objects in places where fingers cannot
reach.

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 Round Nose Plier

Uses
Wire hooks and loops could be made using the round nose pliers.

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 Cutter

Uses
It is used for cutting copper or aluminium wires having smaller diameter.

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 Care and Maintenance of Pliers
1. Do not use pliers as hammers.
2. Do not use pliers to cut large size of copper or aluminium wires and hard steel wires of
any size.
3. While using the pliers avoid damage to the insulation of hand grips.
4. Lubricate hinged portions.

Screw Driver

Uses
Screw drivers are used for tightening or loosing screws. The screw driver tip should
snugly fit the grooves of the screw to have maximum efficiency and to avoid damage of the
screw heads. The screw driver is used for electrical works, generally have plastic handles
and the stem is covered with insulating sleeves. As the length of the screw driver is pro-
portional to the turning force, for small work choose a suitable small sized screw driver.

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 Electrician Knife

Uses
It is used for removing the insulation of cables and cleaning the wire surface. One
of the blade having sharp edge is used for skinning the cable and rough edged blade is
used for cleaning the surface of wires.

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 Line Tester

Uses
It consists of a glass tube filled with neon gas and electrodes at the ends. To limit
the current within 300 micro- amps at the maximum voltages, a high value resistance
is connected in series with one of the electrode. It may have tip like probe or like screw
driver at one end. The presence of supply is indicated by the glow of the lamp. When the
tip is touched on the live supply and the brass contact in the other end of neon tester is
touched by hand, then completes the circuit and the neon bulb will glow.

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 Ball Peen Hammer

Uses
The hammer is made up of special steel and the striking face is tempered and is
used for nailing, straightening and bending work. The handle is made up of hard wood.

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 Rawl Jumper

Uses
A rawl plug tool has two parts, namely the tool bit and holder. The tool bit is made
of tool steel the holder is made of mild steel. It is used for making holes in bricks, concrete
wall and ceiling. Rawl plugs are inserted in them to fix accessories.

Pipe Jumper

Uses
A pipe jumper is used along with a hammer to make holes in wall which is required
for wiring. The diameter of the pipe jumper depends upon the diameter of the pipe to be
accommodated in wall, and the length depends upon the wall thickness.

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 Mallet

Uses

It is made up of hard wood or nylon. It is used for driving the firmer chisel for
straightening and bending of thin metallic sheets. Also it is used in motor assembly work.

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 Try Square

Uses
It is used to check whether the object is plane, perpendicular or at right angle. Two
straight blades set at right angle to each other constitute the try square. The steel blade is
riveted to the stock. The stock is made up of cast iron. The stock should be set against the
edge of the job.

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 Measuring Steel Tape

Uses
The measuring tape is made up of thin steel blade, bearing dimensions on it. It is
used for measuring the dimension of the wiring installation and general measurements.

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 Hacksaw

Uses
It is made up of a sturdy nickel plated steel frame. The frame can be adjusted
between 250mm to 300mm blades. It should be fixed on the frame with its teeth pointing
away from the handle in order to the cutting in forward stroke. It is mainly wood saw (or)
tenon saw.

Generally the length of a tenon saw is 250 to 300mm and has 8 to 12 teeth per
25.4mm and the blade with 10cm. It is used for cutting thin, wooden accessories like
wooden batten, casing capping, boards and round blocks.

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 Pincers

Uses

It is used for extracting nails from the wood. The size is given by its length, e.g.
100mm, 150 mm and 200 mm.

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 Firmer Chisel

Uses
It has a wooden handle and a cast steel blade of 150mm length. It's size is measured
according to the width of the blade, e.g: 6 mm, 12 mm, 18 mm or 25 mm. It is used for
chipping, scrapping and grooving in wood.

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 Poker

Uses
It is a long sharp tool used for making pilot holes on wooden articles to fix screws.

Spanner - Double Ended

Uses
The size of a spanner is indicated so as to fit on the nuts. They are available in many
sizes and sharps.

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 The sizes indicated in double- ended spanners are

10 – 11 mm
12 – 13 mm
14 – 15 mm
16 – 17 mm
18 – 19 mm
20 – 21 mm

Spanner sets are used for loosening and tightening of nuts and bolts. It is made of
cast steel. They are available in many sizes and may have single or double ends.

Ring Spanner

Uses
The ring spanner is used in place where the space is restricted.

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 Centre Punch

Uses
The size of the centre punch is given by its length and diameter of body, e.g: 100×8
mm. The angle of tip of the centre punch is 90°.It is used for making and punching pilot
holes on metals. It is made of steel and the ends are hardened and tempered.

Hand Drill

Uses
A hand drill machine is used for making holes in thin metal sheets or wooden
articles.

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 Electric Drill

Uses
When power is available, power drilling machine is more convenient and an
accurate tool for drilling holes on wooden and metal articles.

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 HOUSE WIRING AND ELECTRICAL
SAFETY RULES

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 Aim
To study the basic components of house wiring, safety devices, house wiring rules
as per ISI-specification and safety measures of electrical wiring.

Components of Basic Electrical Wiring

Besides safety precautions and regulations, the main thing want to familiarise the
design of house wiring. It consists of three basic components:

¾¾ Service Entry
This refers to service wire (which brings power supply) from the main grid or pole to
house and the Energy meter. The service entry is critical and there are a few things to keep in
mind. First of all, make sure all service line are at least 10 feet above the ground, inaccessible
from windows, and free of obstructions such as tree limbs. Besides that, make sure your ser-
vice entry is properly installed so that no water can penetrate the access point or meter. Any
changes or fault rectification in this area must be done by the service provider i.e, T.N.E.B.

¾¾ Panel Board
Panel board is the control centre for electrical wiring. It consists of Main switch
and Distribution fuse board. Now-a-days new safety devices Double Pole MCB instead of
Main Switch and Single Pole MCB instead of distribution fuse were used. While installing
an Air conditioner, Heater, Washing machine or running wiring to a new addition, ensure
electricity is switched off before starting the work, and where you install new breakers.

¾¾ Branch Circuits
Calculate total load of various electric points used in house, and the wiring should be
carried out on distribution systems with branch circuits. Each branch circuit must have light
circuits not exceeding 10 points or 800 watts, if power wiring circuit not more than 2 points
and AC 1 point. This refers to isolate the areas of house from panel board. For instance, you
cut power to your kitchen while the rest of the house is in operation.

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 Line Diagram of Service Line to Main Switch Connection

Safety Devices
Fuse
Fuse and circuit breaker prevent overheating of wires and protect all electrical
equipments. If the current through fuse is greater than its specified rating, it gets fused.
This breaks the circuit and stops the current, making the equipment safe.

Safety points regarding fuse are:

¾¾ Always use the correct rating of fuse. For example, if the circuit is of 10 Amp capacity,
the fuse rating must be 150% i.e. 15 amp.
¾¾ Always use the correct size of fuse, keep the old one to check.
¾¾ Never replace the fuse with bare wire.It will not be safe.
¾¾ Do not increase the fuse capacity for preventing or eliminating frequent fuse blow-ups.
Instead it is essential to locate the causes and eliminate the same.
¾¾ Circuit Breakers are fuses that have buttons or switches for reset.Thus they do not nor-
mally need replacing.

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 Wiring of the Distribution Board with RCD (Single Phase Consumer Unit)
(From Energy Meter to the Main Distribution Board)

  

Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB)

Miniature Circuit Breakers are gaining increasing prominence in household, labs
and distribution wiring in shops & commercial establishments. MCB is an electromagnetic
device that embodies complete enclosure in a moulded insulating material. MCB works as

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 circuit breaker in case of overload/short circuit. It has an advantage since no replacement is
required and it can be reset on elimination of fault and switched ON again. The main function
of an MCB is to switch the circuit, i.e., to open the circuit (which has been connected to it)
automatically when the current passing through MCB exceeds the value for which it is set. It
can be manually switched ON and OFF as similar to normal switch if necessary. MCBs are of
time delay tripping devices, to which the magnitude of over current controls the operating
time. This means, these get operated whenever overload exist long enough to create a danger
to the circuit being protected. Therefore, MCBs doesn’t respond to transient loads and motor
starting currents. Generally, these are designed to operate within 2.5 milli seconds during
short circuit faults and 2 seconds to 2 minutes in case of overloads (depending on the level of
current). MCBs characteristics are:

¾¾ Rated current up to 100 A

¾¾ Trip characteristics are not normally adjustable
¾¾ Thermal or Thermal-Magnetic operation

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 MCCBs
Moulded Case Circuit Breakers are used for commercial purposes. Its characteris-
tics are:

¾¾ Rated current up to 1000 A

¾¾ Trip current may be adjustable
¾¾ Thermal or Thermal-Magnetic operation

ELCBs
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker works as a circuit breaker in case of only earth
leakage.

¾¾ Phase (Line), Neutral and Earth wire are connected through ELCB
¾¾ ELCB is working based on earth leakage current.

RCD/RCCB
Residual Current Device (RCD)/Residual Current Circuit Breaker(RCCB) which
works as a circuit breaker in case of an earth leakage, over load or short circuit. It is used
for protection against electric shocks.

It’s Characteristics:

¾¾ Phase (Line) and Neutral both wires are connected through RCD.
¾¾ It trips the circuit when an earth fault occurs.
¾¾ The amount of current flowing through the phase should return through neutral.Any
mismatch between two currents flowing through phase and neutral is detected by RCD
and trips the circuit within 30 milliseconds.
¾¾ RCDs are an extremely effective form of shock protection.
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 House Wiring Rules as Per ISI Specification
In construction of a house, the owner should focus on electric works, which need
a lot of attention while laying wiring as well as quality of wiring, specification of electric
appliances and cables/wires. Always plan to work exactly where the outlets, switches
and fixtures are going to be placed. This also allows to check the appropriate tools and
materials are in sufficient quality. Calculate the total load from various items that would
be used in the house and select the proper conductor that is capable of withholding the
total load and distribute accordingly.

Care should be taken while fitting pipes, junction boxes, fan hook boxes in RCC
slab and walls. If any fault happens, it may cause any incident and may require dismantling
of the defective portion. So take proper care to avoid dismantling which is very costly in
comparison to get them fixed properly earlier. To avoid an electric shock, the following
precautions must be kept in mind.Therefore the following rules laid down by the Indian
Standard Institution should be followed. Few of them are listed below for your guidance.

¾¾ The wiring should be carried out on distribution systems with main and branch
distribution boards.
¾¾ All conductors should run along walls and ceiling, so that they are easily accessible and
capable of being thoroughly inspected. In any case, wiring should not be run above
ceiling.
¾¾ Horizontal run of wiring should be at a height of 3 metre.Switch Boards should be fitted
at a height of 1.5 metre.
¾¾ Fuse wire should be connected with phase only. Connect all switches with phase wire.
Connect the neutral link in neutral wire.
¾¾ One circuit means, one connection from electrical meter or main fuse board.The
number of points in light circuit should not exceed 10 (or) total load on circuit should
not exceed 800 Watts.
¾¾ All conductors should be made of copper and should be stranded. They should have a
cross section less than 0.002 square inches, nominal area (3/0.029 inches).
¾¾ For Power wiring circuit, the size of wire should be 1.5 mm square for copper and
2 mm square for aluminium.[One power circuit = (three 5 amp socket) or (two 15 amp
socket) or (one 15 amp socket + two 5 amp socket) or (one Alternating current circuit)]
¾¾ Never use damaged insulation, for wiring. It avoid short circuit and overloading, with
the use of MCB and save the electrical appliances.
¾¾ Burnt element, cut/broken wiring, loose/open connection should be avoided.
¾¾ Earthing means to connect electrical system to general mass of earth to ensure
immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger. Provide earth connection
to enhance voltage and protect human beings from sudden electric shock.Earth wire
should be 14 SWG in case of copper and 4 mm square in case of Aluminium.

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 ¾¾ All materials used in electrical fitting should be of approved quality of make and from
a reputed manufacturer as per ISI specification.
¾¾ For low power operations 5 Ampere small size sockets, and for heavy power
operations 15 ampere large size sockets should be used. Multi-plug adaptors are
used for temporary usage only i.e., for a short period of time. No socket or extension
box should be overloaded.
¾¾ Most of the imported equipments function in two different settings 110-120V and 220-
240V. These equipments have switch for setting the input supply voltage. Hence, make
sure that the switch in equipment is in 220-240V position.
¾¾ The wiring of a plug is colour coded to help guard against electrical accidents. The
colour codes in India as per Indian Electricity Rules are: Phase (Line) is Red, Blue or
Yellow, Neutral is Black and Earth (Ground) Green or Green with Yellow lines.
¾¾ If there are only two wires in the power cable, no earth connection is required. If there
are three conductors then the equipment needs to be earthed properly.
¾¾ Always make sure that the earth wire is longer than the other two so that if the cable is
accidently pulled out of the plug, the earth wire is the last wire to become disconnected.

  

  

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Safe Work Practices

While operating the electrical circuits and handling the hand tools, the following
safety measures should be taken.

1. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.

2. Disconnect the power source before servicing or repairing electrical equipment.
Leave a note that you are working. Tape the circuit breaker in OFF position (or) Pull
the fuse carrier, while working.
3. Use Tester to make sure of electrical connection is live or not. Even though fuse is
pulled there may be supply from U.P.S or Auto Generator. So ensure it carefully.
4. Use tools and equipment only with insulated handles when working on electrical
devices. Make sure that all the tools are provided before commencing the wiring.
Example are Tester, Cutting plier, Screw driver, Hammer, Jumper, Electric Drill,
Colour insulation tapes, Wire Stripper etc.,
5. Never use metallic pencils or rulers, or wear rings or metal watchbands when doing
work with electrical equipment.

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 6. When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure hands are dry
and when possible wear non conductive gloves & shoes with rubber soles.
7. If it is safe to do so, work with only one hand, keeping the other hand at your side or
in your pocket, away from all conductive material.
8. Equipment producing a “tingle” should be disconnected and reported promptly for
repair.
9. Drain capacitors before working near them and keep the short circuit on the
terminals during the work to avoid electrical shock.
10. When it is necessary to touch electrical equipment (for example, when checking for
overheated motors), use the back of the hand. Thus, if accidental shock were to cause
muscular contraction, you would not “freeze” to the conductor.
11. Do not rely on grounding to mask a defective circuit nor attempt to correct a fault
by inserting another fuse or circuit breaker, particularly one of a larger capacity.
Before replacing a fuse or circuit breaker, check the problem that caused earlier was
rectified.
12. Insulate all electric contacts and conductors. Never splice wires together and conceal
them within a wall without a junction box. An accessible junction box should always
be used to join wires.
13. Never use an aluminium or steel ladder while working on any receptacle at height in
your home. An electrical surge will ground and the whole electric current will pass
through the body. Use only bamboo, wooden or a fibre glass ladder for electrification
work.
14. Do not store highly flammable liquids near electric supply.
15. Minimize the use of electrical equipment in cold rooms or other areas where
condensation is likely.
16. Keep the length of extension cords to restricted length.
17. Unplug cords by gripping the plug and, do not by pulling the cord.
18. Do not wear loosed clothing or ties near electrical equipment.
19. If a person was affected by an electric shock, immediately disconnect the power
source of the circuit breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt.
20. Never work on live equipment.
21. De-energize open experimental circuits and equipment to be left unattended.
22. Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
23. Be aware that interlocks on equipment disconnect the high voltage source when a
cabinet door is open, but the power for control circuits may remain ON.
24. Try to cover the live wire with cap while working on circuit panels. The cap acts as an
insulation and helps to prevent electric shock.

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 VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW

205 Verification of Ohm’s Law

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 Aim
To determine the resistance value of two given coils of wire by using Ohm’s Law.

Apparatus Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Battery -12V 1
2 Plug Key 1
3 Rheostat 1
4 Resistances 2
5 Voltmeter - 0-10V 1
6 Ammeter - 0-1A 1
7 Connecting Wires or Cord As Required

Connection Diagram

Ohm’s Law
At constant temperature, the current flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across it and inversely proportional to the resistance of the
conductor.
V
I= Where
R
V=I×R V= Voltage in volts
V I = Current in amps
R=
I R = Resistance in ohms

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 Procedure
¾¾ The first coil R1is connected as shown in the circuit diagram.
¾¾ After checking the connection, close the plug key.
¾¾ Adjust the rheostat.
¾¾ The corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted and are tabulated.
V
¾¾ By using the formula R1 = , the value of resistance is determined.
I
¾¾ Similarly, the second coil R2 is connected as shown in the circuit diagram.
¾¾ After checking the connection, close the plug key.
¾¾ Adjust the rheostat.
¾¾ The corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted and are tabulated.
V
¾¾ By using the formula R2 = , the value of resistance is determined.
I

To Find R1

S No Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading Resistance

‘I’ in ampere in ‘V’ volts V
R1 = Ohms
I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R1 = ______________

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 To Find R2

S No Ammeter Reading Voltmeter reading Resistance

‘I’ in ampere in ‘V’ volts V
R2 = Ohms
I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R2= ______________

Result
The resistance of two coils of wire R1 = __________________Ohm

R2 = __________________Ohm

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 PREPARATION OF APPLIANCES
TEST BOARD

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 Aim
To learn and to prepare an appliances test board and also know, how to test domes-
tic appliances using it.
Tools Required
S.No Name Quantity
1 Screw Driver 1
2 Cutting Plier 1
3 Tester 1
4 Electrician Knife 1
5 Poker 1
6 Drilling Machine 1
7 Ball Peen Hammer 1
8 Hacksaw Frame 1
Materials Required
S.No Name Quantity
1 Wooden Board -12" × 18" 1
2 Fuse Unit - 16A, 240V 1
3 Ammeter - 0-5A 1
4 Voltmeter - 0-300V 1
5 Lamp - 200W 1
6 Three Core Power Cord 5 metre
7 1/18 Copper Wire 3 metre
8 Indicating Lamp 1
9 Lamp Holder 1
10 One Way Switch 2
11 Five Pin Socket 2
12 Three Pin Plug 16A, 240V 1
Connection Diagram

Test Board
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 Connection Procedure
1. Provide holes in the wooden board at the required places wherever necessary.
2. Fix the switches, socket, fuse indicator, ammeter and voltmeter properly.
3. Give connection to all accessories as per the connection diagram.
4. Connect the power cord properly.
Testing Procedure
1. Connect the given appliances to the test lamp by series.
2. Lamp lighting and faults

S No Lamp Lighting Fault

1 Glows Dimly No fault. Appliance “Good”.
2 Glows Brightly Short circuit fault
3 If not Glow Open circuit fault

3. After rectifying all the faults, connect the appliance parallel to the supply and find out
the value of current and voltage
1 Current = __________
2 Voltage = __________

Result
I have known the method of preparing an appliances test board and also known the
method of testing all the appliances by using test appliance board.

And also I have measured the value of current and voltage by ammeter and volt-
meter respectively. The value of

1. Current = __________
2. Voltage = __________

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 ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY A
REGULATOR

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 Aim
To learn about one lamp controlled by one regulator in various position.
Tools Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Screw Driver 1
2 Cutting Plier 1
3 Tester 1
4 Electrician Knife 1
5 Poker 1
6 Drilling Machine 1
7 Ball Peen Hammer 1
8 Hacksaw Frame 1
9 Measurement Tape 1
10 Try Square 1

Materials Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Wooden Board - 3" × 4" 1
2 3/4" P.V.C Pipe 1 length
3 1/18 Copper Wire 8 meter
4 One Way Switch 1
5 Regulator 1
6 Lamp Holder 1
7 Three Way Junction Box 1
8 3/4" Clamp 12
9 3/4" Screws 24
10 1 ½" Screws 2
11 Insulation Tape 1
12 60W Lamp 1

Layout Diagram

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 Connection Diagram

Procedure
¾¾ Study layout diagram and the cable route, distance location of fitting and other
accessories.
¾¾ Draw the wiring diagram as per the line diagram.
¾¾ List out the materials required for this wiring.
¾¾ Confirm how to frame PVC pipe.
¾¾ Fix the PVC pipe by using clamps, junction box and switch boxes using wooden screws.

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 ¾¾ Run the cable in the PVC pipe as per the wiring diagram.
¾¾ Connect the terminals of switches and lamp holder as per the circuit diagram.
¾¾ Connect the leads of pendent holder by using wire.
¾¾ Fix the lamp in pendent holder.
¾¾ Give supply and check the circuit.

Result
I have known the method of one lamp controlled by one regulator. After giving
supply to the circuit through one way switch, turn the regulator in clock wise direction
and find out the brightness of the lamp.

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 6 WIRING CONNECTION OF
FLUORESCENT LAMP

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 Aim
To know and do the wiring connection method of Fluorescent Lamp.
Tools Required
S.No Name Quantity
1 Screw Driver 1
2 Electrician Knife 1
3 Cutting Plier 1
4 Poker 1
5 Tester 1
Materials Required
S.No Name Quantity
1 Fluorescent Lamp 2
2 LED Tube Light 1
3 Choke 1
4 Starter 1
5 Electronic Choke 1
6 Single Strand Conductor 15 meter
7 Insulation Tape 1
8 Sleeves 10 cm
9 Tube Light Holder 4
10 Starter Holder 1
Connection of tube light with choke and starter

Procedure
Phase supply is given to the pin 1 of the first terminal through switch and choke
(all are connected in series)

Neutral is connected to pin 1 of the second terminal

Pin 2 of the both the terminals are connected to starter.
These connections are shown in the conection diagram
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 Connection of Tube Light with Electronic Choke

Procedure
Phase supply is given to the input side (L) of the choke through switch.
Neutral is given to the input side (N) of the choke directly.
From choke four wire connections are taken and they are connected to both the
terminals as shown in the diagram.
Connection Diagram of LED Tube Light

Procedure
As shown in the diagram, phase and neutral supply is given to the LED tube light

Result
Verified and known the method of doing wiring connection of tube light with
various chokes.

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 7 STAIR-CASE WIRING

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 Aim
To learn and know about the method of doing of Stair-case wiring.

Tools Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Screw Driver 1
2 Cutting Plier 1
3 Tester 1
4 Electrician Knife 1
5 Poker 1
6 Drilling Machine 1
7 Ball Peen Hammer 1
8 Hacksaw Frame 1
9 Measurement Tape 1
10 Try Square 1

Materials Required

S No Name Quantity
1 Wooden Board - 3" × 4" 1
2 3/4" P.V.C Pipe 1 length
3 1/18 Copper Wire 10 meter
4 L Bend 1
5 Two Way Switch 2
6 Lamp Holder 1
7 Three Way Junction Box 1
8 3/4" Clamp 18
9 3/4" Screws 36
10 1 ½" Screws 3
11 Insulation Tape 1
12 60W Lamp 1

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 Layout Diagram

Connection Diagram

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 Procedure
¾¾ Study the layout diagram and the cable route, distance location of fitting of all accessories.
¾¾ Draw the wiring connection as per the line diagram.
¾¾ List out the materials required for this wiring.
¾¾ Confirm how to fix PVC pipe.
¾¾ Fix the PVC pipe by using clamps, junction box and switch boxes using wooden screws.
¾¾ Run the cable in the PVC pipe as per the wiring diagram.
¾¾ Connect the terminals of switches and lamp holder as per the circuit diagram.
¾¾ Connect the leads of pendent holder by using wire.
¾¾ Fix the lamp in pendent holder.
¾¾ Give supply and check the circuit.

Result
I have known the method of doing stair-case wiring. If both switches are in ‘UP’ or
‘DOWN’ position, the lamp glows. Otherwise the lamp does not glow.

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 8 GODOWN WIRING

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 Aim
To learn and know about the method of doing Godown wiring.
Tools Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Screw Driver 1
2 Cutting Plier 1
3 Tester 1
4 Electrician Knife 1
5 Poker 1
6 Drilling Machine 1
7 Ball Peen Hammer 1
8 Hacksaw Frame 1
9 Measurement Tape 1
10 Try Square 1

Materials Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Wooden Board - 3" × 4" 1
2 3/4" P.V.C Pipe 2 length
3 1/18 Copper Wire 12 meter
4 One Way Switch 1
5 Two Way Switch 2
6 Lamp Holder 3
7 Three Way Junction Box 3
8 ¾" Clamp 24
9 ¾" Screws 48
10 1 ½" Screws 6
11 Insulation Tape 1
12 60W Lamp 3

Layout Diagram

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 Connection Diagram

Procedure
¾¾ Study layout diagram and the cable route, distance location of fitting of all accessories.
¾¾ Draw the wiring diagram as per the line diagram.
¾¾ List out the materials required for this wiring.
¾¾ Confirm how to fix PVC pipe.
¾¾ Fix the PVC pipe by using clamps, junction box and switch boxes by using wooden screws.
¾¾ Run the cable in to the PVC pipe as per the wiring diagram.
¾¾ Connect the terminals of switches and lamp holder as per the circuit diagram.
¾¾ Connect the leads of pendent holder by using wire.
¾¾ Fix the lamp in pendent holder.
¾¾ Give supply and check the circuit.
Result
I have known the method of doing the godown wiring. If we switch ON the first
switch, first lamp only glows. And if we switch ON the second switch, second lamp only
glows. And if we switch ON the third switch, third lamp only glows.

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 9 ELECTRIC BELL

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 Aim
To know and learn about an electric bell controlled by one way bell switch and its
working.
Tools Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Screw Driver 1
2 Cutting Plier 1
3 Tester 1
4 Electrician Knife 1
5 Poker 1
6 Drilling Machine 1
7 Ball Peen Hammer 1
8 Hacksaw Frame 1
9 Measurement Tape 1

Materials Required
S No Name Quantity
1 Wooden Board - 3" × 4" 1
2 3/4" P.V.C Pipe 1 length
3 1/18 Copper Wire 8 meter
4 One Way Bell Switch 1
5 Electric Bell 1
6 One Way Junction Box 1
7 Three Way Junction Box 1
8 3/4" Clamp 12
9 3/4" Screws 24
10 1 ½" Screws 2
11 Insulation Tape 1
12 Ceiling Rose 1

Layout Diagram

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 Connection Diagram

Bell

Switch

Procedure
¾¾ Study the layout diagram, the cable route, distance location of fitting of all other
accessories.
¾¾ Draw the wiring diagram as per the line diagram.
¾¾ List out the materials required for this wiring.
¾¾ Confirm how to fix PVC pipe.
¾¾ Fix the PVC pipe by using clamps, junction box and switch boxes using wooden screws.
¾¾ Run the cable in the PVC pipe as per the wiring diagram.
¾¾ Connect the terminals of switches and ceiling rose by using wire as per the circuit
diagram.
¾¾ Fix the electric bell in ceiling rose.
¾¾ Give supply and check the circuit.

Working of an Electric Bell

The image below shows the internal mechanism of an electric bell.

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 The step by step process of the working of the electric bell is described below:

¾¾ If the switch is pressed ON and the current will flows through the circuit.
¾¾ The electromagnet is powered and generates a magnetic field, that attracts the iron strip
towards it.
¾¾ The striker of the bell strikes the gong (bell)
¾¾ When the striking arm strikes the gong, the contact is broken and current stops flowing
through the circuit.
¾¾ This causes the electromagnet to lose its magnetic field.
¾¾ The connected spring arm returns the striker to its original rest position.
¾¾ The contact is restored and current flows through the circuit (provided the main switch
is still pressed).
¾¾ The process is repeated.

Result
I have known the method of preparing an electric bell controlled by one way bell switch
and its working. After giving supply to the circuit, the electric bell will ring.

229 Electric Bell

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 10 TESTING OF RESISTOR, DIODE,
TRANSISTOR AND CAPACITOR

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 Aim
To study and test the conductivity of the components of Resistor, Diode, Transistor
and Capacitor.

Apparatus Required
Sl.No Description Quantity Typical Value
1 Resistors 5 1kΩ, 2kΩ, 3kΩ, 4kΩ, 5kΩ
2 Diodes 2 1N4007, 1N4002
3 Capacitor 2 1mFD, 2mFD
4 Transistors-NPN 2 BC107, BC108
5 Transistors-PNP 2

Testing of Resistor
Objective
To learn the resistor code and identify the value of given resistors.

Consider the following diagram for the better understanding of finding the
resistor values. The first band indicates the first digit, second band is for the second
digit and the third band indicates the multiplier. The numerical value corresponding to
the colour bands are shown below. If the first colour band is brown and the second band
is black then the first two digits are 10. If the multiplier colour is red (value in 2) then
two numbers of zeros added with first two digit.

Tolerance value of Gold = ±5%

Tolerance value of Silver = ±10%

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 Ist Digit 2nd Digit Multiplier Code Resistance
Colour brown Black 2
Value 1 0 00 1000 1kΩ

Likewise, the other types of resistors as four band, five band and sixbands. The tol-
erance is fixed from these bands.(fig)

Testing of Diode
Objective
To test the diode for its forward (conduction) and reverse mode(non-conduction)
of operation.

Description
It is well known that the diodes are unidirectional devices which allow current
in one direction. These are expected to offer very low resistance for the flow of current
under forward biased condition and a very high resistance under reverse biased condition.
In other words, one can undertake diode testing by measuring the resistance across its
terminals by using an equipment like multimeter.

A diode is forward-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the anode and the
negative (black) test lead is on the cathode.

A diode is reverse-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the cathode and the
negative (black) test lead is on the anode.

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 Step 1. Select the switch of the multimeter in resistance mode

Step2. Connect the positive terminal of the diode to Anode and the negative terminal to
the cathode.

Step3. Check the reading of the multimeter.

Under this condition the resistance of the diode is very less that means good conduction
is expected.

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 Step 4. Connect the positive terminal of the diode to cathode and the negative terminal
to the Anode.
Under this condition the resistance of the diode is very high which means open circuit
is expected.

1N4001 diode

Testing of Transistor
Objective
Transistors:
The bi-polar junction transistor (BJT)transistor has three terminals. They are

1. Emitter(E)
2. Base(B)
3. Collector(C)

To identify the above three terminals, keep the flat surface of transistor facing
towards the face of you and mark 1.2 and 3 from left side onwards.

The schematic diagram of BJT is shown below.

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 Steps to Identify the NPN Type Transistor
1. Keep the Multimeter in the Diode mode.
2. Keep the positive probe to the center pin (Base) of the transistor.
3. Touch the negative probe to the pin-1 (Emitter). You will see some voltage in the multimeter.
4. Similarly, touch the negative probe to the pin-3 (Collector) with respect to the pin-
2. You will see some voltage in the multimeter.
5. It will ensure that, it is a NPN transistor. The logic behind this is, in NPN transistor
Emitter (E) - N type material - Equivalent to cathode of the diodeBase (B) - P type
material - Equivalent to anode of the diodeCollector (C) - N type material - Equivalent
to cathode of the diode
6. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is to cathode,
then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value.

Steps to Identify the PNP Type Transistor

1. Keep the Multimeter in the Diode mode.
2. Keep the positive probe to the pin-1 (Emitter) of the transistor.
3. Touch the negative probe to the center pin (Base). You will see some voltage in the
multimeter.
4. Similarly touch the negative probe to the center pin (Base) with respect to the pin-3
(Collector). You will see some voltage in the multimeter.
5. It will ensure that it is a PNP transistor. The logic behind this is, in PNP transistor Emitter
(E) - P type material - Equivalent to anode of the diodeBase (B) - N type material
- Equivalent to cathode of the diodeCollector (C) - P type material - Equivalent to
anode of the diode
6. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected
to cathode, then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not
show any value.

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 Testing of Capacitor
Objective: To test the condition of a capacitor.
Test & Check a Capacitor By a Digital Multimeter

1. Make sure the capacitor is discharged.

2. Set the meter on Ohm range (Set it at least 1000 Ohm = 1k).
3. Connect the meter leads to the capacitor terminals.
4. Digital meter will show some numbers for a second. Note the reading.
5. And then immediately it will return to the OL (Open Line). Every attempt of Step 2 will
show the same result as was in step 4 and Step 5. It means that Capacitor is in Good
Condition.
6. If there is Change, then Capacitor is dead.

Conclusion
Thus the passive elements of electrical engineering is tested for its values.

Result
In this practical, I have known the method of testing the value of Resistor, Diode,
Transistor and Capacitor.

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 TABULATION OF ELECTRICAL
SYMBOLS

Sl. no Symbols Component Name Description

1 DC Supply Direct Supply
2 AC Supply Alternating Supply

3 1 ϕ (or) 1 Single Phase Supply Single Phase Power

4 3 ϕ (or) 3 Three Phase Supply Three Phase Power
5 Fuse The fuse disconnects when current
above threshold. Used to protect
circuit from high currents
6 Earth/Ground Used for zero potential reference and
electrical shock protection
7 Lamp/Bulb Generates light when current flows
through
8 Connected Wires Connected wires crossing

9 Not Connected Wires Wires are not connectedw

10 Switch Disconnects current when open

11 Resistor Resistor reduces the current flow
12 Variable Resistor/ Variable resistor - has 2 terminals
Rheostat
13 Trimmer Resistor Pre-set Resistor

14 Capacitor Capacitor is used to store electric

charge. It acts as short circuit
with AC and open circuit with DC

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 15 Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

16 Inductor Coil / Solenoid that generates

magnetic field
17 Variable Inductor Inductor value can be varied

18 _ + Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

_ +

19 Generator Electrical voltage is generated by

G mechanical rotation of the generator
20 Motor Electric motor
M
21 Voltmeter Measures voltage. Has very high
V resistance. Connected in parallel
22 Ammeter Measures electric current. Has near
A zero resistance. Connected serially
23 Wattmeter Measures electric power
W
24 Ohm Meter Measures resistance
Ω
25 Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low
or low to high

26 Star Connection Method of connecting 3ϕ winding in

star connection

27 Delta Connection Method of connecting 3ϕ winding in

Delta connection

28 Electric Bell Rings when activated

29 Buzzer Produces buzzing sound

30 Loudspeaker Converts electrical signal to sound

waves

31 M
AC Motor Operater in AC only
s

32 AC Generator to produce alternating current

G
s

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 33 M Universal Motor Operates in both AC & DC

s
34 Push Button (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open
35 Single Phase Alternator Produces single phase AC current
s
36 Fault Identify fault in circuit

37 Over Head Line High tension supply line

38 Diode Diode allows current flow in one
direction only - left (anode) to right
(cathode)
39 Zener Diode Allows current flow in one direction,
but also can flow in the reverse direction
when above breakdown voltage
40 C NPN Bi-Polar Allows current flow when high
B
Transistor potential at base (middle)
E

41 E PNP Bi-Polar Transistor Allows current flow when low

B
potential at base (middle)
C

42 Antenna/Aerial Transmits & receives radio waves

43 Main Switch Lighting To control the lighting circuit

LP

44 Main Switch Power To control the power circuit

P

45 Change Over Switch Changing supply from one line to

other line
46 Choke Increase voltage for illumination of
tube light
47 Siren Produces sound

48 5-Pin Socket Used for 2-Pin and 3-Pin plug

49 Ceiling Fan Air to Hall/room

50 T Thermostat Set constant heat in heating
appliances

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 Case Study - 1

Name - K.Gunasekar
Fathers Name - K. Kandasamy

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION
Course Year of Institution/ Board/ Percentage
Completion School University
ME (PED) 2016 Sona College of Anna University, 81%
Technology, Salem. Chennai
BC (ECE) 2010 Govt. College of Engineering, Anna University, 63%
Salem. Chennai
DECE 2002 Annai J.K.K DOTE 75%
Samporani Ammal
Polytechnic College
T.N Palayam.
HRS 2000 Govt. Hr. Sec. School, State Board 67%
Mettur dam.
Salem (DT)
SSLC 1998 Govt. Hr. Sec. School, State Board 57%
Nerringipettai.

EXPERIENCE
CSI Polytechnic College, Salem, as Lecturer in ECE Department from 4th August
2008 to till date.

Thiyagarajar Polytechnic College, Salem, as Instructor in ECE Department from

1st April 2006 to 29th Feburary 2008.

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 Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, as Lab Technician in ECE &
EEE Department from 24th March 2003 to 2nd January 2006.

Annai J.K.K Samporani Ammal Polytechnic college, T.N.Palayam, as Lab Technician in

ECE Department from 1st May 2002 to 21st March 2003.

AREA OF INTEREST
Digital Electronics.
Mobile Communication.
Micro Processor and Micro Controller.

SOFTWARE SKILLS
Basics of C.
Embedded System.

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 Case Study - 2

Name - N. Thangavelu
Father Name - A. Naina

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION
Course Year of Institution/ Board Percentage
Completion School
HRS 1990 Govt. Hr. Sec. School, State Board 73%
Mettur dam
SSLC 1988 Govt. Hr. Sec. School, State Board 70%
Mettur dam

EXTRA QUALIFICATION
Simple Wiring Training Program (3 months) in Vellss Industrial Training Institute under
the Scheme for Training of Nehru Rozgar Yojana from 14/02/1994 to 14/05/1994.

DEPARTMENT OF EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING – Electric Wireman Helper Com-

petency (WH No. 026337) passed in the year 2000.

SELF EMPLOYMENT IN
Building Wiring
Single phase and Three phase Motor Servicing.

EXPERIENCE
From 1992 to till date.

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 Class XI – Basic Electrical Engineering
List of Authors and Reviewers
Acadamic Advisor & Expert Authors
Dr. P. Kumar, Joint Director ( Syllabus ),
State Council of Educational Research and Training, K. Raja,
Chennai. Vocational Instructor,
Government Boys Higher Secondary School,
Domain Experts Katpadi, Vellore.

Dr. R Azhagumurugan Ph.D., J. Jaya,

Associate Professor, Vocational Instructor,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Government Higher Secondary School,
Sri Sairam Engineering College, Metturdam.
West Tambaram, Chennai.
S. Vallinayagam,
Reviewer Vocational Instructor,
Government Higher Secondary School,
Dr. M. Venkatesh kumar Ph.D., Nadupatti.
Associate Professor,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Arupadai Veedu Institute of Technology, T. Ashok,
Payanoor, Chennai. Vocational Instructor,
KGS Higher Secondary School,
Aduthurai.

R. Srinivasan,
Vocational Instructor,
Government Boys Higher Secondary School,
Walaja, Vellore.

C. Kasinathan,
Vocational Instructor,
General Cariyappa Higher Secondary School, Saligramam,
Chennai 600 093

Academic Coordinators
A.Ilangovan, Lecturer,
DIET, Thirur,
Thiruvallur District.
P.Malarvizhi, BT Assistant,
PUMS, Padiyanallur,
Thiruvallur District.
K.Ravichandran, PG Assistant,
Thanthai Periyar Govt. Hr. Sec. School, Puzhuthivakkam,
Kancheepuram District.

Book Design QR Code Management Team

(Typing, Pagination, Layout Designing and Illustration) R. Jaganathan
Student Xerox, Adayar, Chennai. S.G. Asst., (SPOC)
PUMS Ganesapuram - Polur, Thiruvannamalai Dist.
Wrapper Design N. Jagan
Kathir Arumugam B.T. Asst.,
GBHSS Uthiramerur, Kanchipuram Dist.
Quality Control J.F. Paul Edwin Roy
Manohar Radhakrishnan B.T. Asst.,
PUMS Rakkipatti, Salem Dist.
Coordination
Ramesh Munisamy
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Elegant Maplitho paper.

Printed by offset at:

243

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