EUROPEAN HISTORY

The French Revolution of 1789

Causes

The French people revolted in 1789 against the government of Louis XVI as a result of a
combination of factors such as the existing system of government, an incompetent king,
financial crises, and the system of privileges among other factors. That the revolution
broke in 1789 and not earlier is because the situation in France had deteriorated. The
people of France could not wait any longer.

Political

Politically the revolt was triggered of by factors such as the existing system of
government, an incompetent king as well as various influences from the American War of
Independence, England and the Philosophers.

1. The Existing System of Government

- The existing system of government in France lacked political participation and

representation of the people.
- This is in view of the fact that all the power was centred in the hands of one person- the
French King. He was responsible for all the political appointments and he was the one
with the final say on all state issues. This is confirmed by his words “The state is my self.
The thing is legal because I wish it.”
- this clearly indicated that he treated France as his personal property and it clear shows
his dictatorial tendencies as well as absolute arrogance.
- Furthermore France did not have a parliament. Of course there was a platform in the
form of the Estates-General in which the people presented their grievances and proposals
to the king. But then these last met in 1614 yet the year was now 1789.

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- Thus all the decision making process was left in the hands of the King and the Royal
Council. Thus France was left without checks and balances making Louis XVI a dictator.
- In addition all the political posts were monopolized by a group of a few individuals, the
nobility. This was a privileged class that belonged to the second estate. They alone could
be appointed to cabinet posts as ambassadors abroad and to commissioned ranks in the
navy and the army. The bourgeoisie felt that their education and wealth made them
qualify for the appointments.
- The legal system of France was pathetic and in shambles. France had about 360
different feudal codes. The government of Louis XVI was involved in the appointment of
local councils in townships and meddled in parish administration.
- As a result there was the selective application of the law in favour of the Nobility and
the clergy.
- In view of the above system of government the French people, particularly the Third
Estate staged a revolution in May 1789 in order to correct the situation. Their aim was to
achieve political participation by being involved in the affairs of the state and being
represented politically through an assembly.

2 The Incompetent King

- The French King Louis XVI was directly responsible for the outbreak of the French
Revolution because of his inconsistent policies. He had a weak-willed character that
caused him not to follow up on reforms that he would have initiated.
- This is because Louis XVI would initiate a reform programme and then fail to complete
it. For example in the 1780s he initiated an economic reform programme designed to
stabilize the French economy.
- He appointed a number of economists like Turgot, Necker, Brienne and Calonne who all
proposed that France do away with the existing system of privileges that hindered
economic development. In particular they proposed a system of fairer taxation and the
removal of tariffs in between the French districts in order to facilitate the movement of
goods.

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- Turgot advocated on honesty and efficiency and proposed to check on the power of the
church, advocated for justice in taxation and the circulation of goods especially corn.
- Necker advocated for the maintenance of the status quo but became unpopular with the
King and the nobility when he issued a statement on the financial position of France at a
time when the participation of France in the American War of Independence had left the
country on the verge of bankruptcy.
- Calonne who took over from Necker did not seek to curb the extravagance at the court
but soon became unpopular among the nobility when he advocated for a land tax to be
paid by everyone to improve on state revenue.
- The proposals the economists were opposed by the nobility, clergy, and the Queen. The
King failed to support the economists and gave in to pressure and had each of the
economists dismissed one after another. France lost the opportunity to stabilize the
economy.
- The dismissal of the economists threw away an excellent opportunity to diffuse tension
between the peasants and the clergy and the nobility over taxation.
- The circulation of goods especially corn could have helped to alleviate the devastating
effects of the bad harvests of 1789.
- The dismissals also demonstrated that the government of Louis XVI lacked any form of
seriousness towards solving the financial crises of France.
- These dismissals also showed that the economists were tolerated by the government of
Louis XVI as long as they did not poke their noses into the affairs of the Nobility and the
Clergy.
- Moreover the king’s incompetence and inconsistence was clearly evident when called
for the meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789 in order to chart the way forward for
France.
- The expectation of the Third Estate was that it would meet jointly with the First and
Second Estates comprising of the clergy and the nobility respectively and then draft their
proposals for the King to consider.
- But then the king attempted to block this reform process by ordering the estates to meet
separately. It was highly probable that the proposals from the Third Estate would not

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reach the king since the procedure was that the Third Estate would present their proposals
to the First and Second Estates before they are forwarded to the king.
- It was the king’s action that triggered the revolution since the Third Estate reacted by
taking a more radical move and declared itself as the National assembly thereby setting
the revolution into motion.
- Louis XVI was dictatorial. Through the law of “Letters de Cachets” that allowed
imprisonment without trial. The law undermined the freedom of the French people.
- Louis XVI had a weak-willed character. He allowed himself to succumb to the
influence of those around him i e his wife, Nobility and the Clergy. It was this trio that
blocked the economic reform process of the 1780s and have the economists fired by the
King.
- They are also the ones that persuaded the king to order the meeting of the estates
separately. It was this fateful move that triggered off the French Revolution.
- Louis XVI was careless. He allowed the extravagant expenditure at the court at a time
when the country was nearly on its knees economically.
- He often went hunting with the members of the Court at a time when his presence was
greatly needed. This approach that he took was too relaxed for such a critical moment.
- Furthermore the sending of the French soldiers by Louis XVI to participate in the
American War of Independence also demonstrated the incompetence of the French king.
- This move backfired because it increased the French national debt since the war was
financed from borrowings from the bourgeoisie.
- This in turn contributed to bankruptcy. At the same the participation of the French
troops in the war exposed them to revolutionary ideas. For example the American
Declaration of Independence pointed out that man were created with the alienable rights
namely life and liberty.
- This explains why Lafayette who was the veteran of the American War of Independence
became one of the revolutionary leaders.
- In view of the above it is clear that the people revolted against their king because his
incompetence and stance was costing the country dearly.

Influences

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1. The Philosophers

- The philosophers enlightened the people and made them revolutionary through their
writings.
- For instance Voltaire wrote plays, novels, history and lampoons in which he attacked
the power and the influence of the Catholic Church and attacked all the faults within the
French society. He also preached the idea of religious tolerance.
- The Encyclopediasts produced a collection of all works in the form of a summary on all
the existing knowledge from philosophy, history and science. Such works had the effect
of enlightening the people.
- Another philosopher Montesquieu advocated for the limiting of the powers of the
monarch and the privileges of the nobility. He also advocated for the right to debate and
amend law before it is passed.
- Furthermore Rousseau wrote the Social Contract in which he argued that the General
will of the people should be the ruling force in any society. He further argued that
governments are there because of the people’s consent.
- They also produced works that attacked everything in France hated by philosophers.
Its contributors included Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau. Their attacks were mostly
directed to the Church and the State.
- Thus through their writings, the philosophers enlightened the people thereby creating a
revolutionary atmosphere in France. This was mainly true among the intellectuals and the
wealthier that had access to the writings.

2. England

- The English writings and institutions provided France with a practical example of a
parliamentary democracy.
- This is in view of the fact that the French people had access to English writings. Some
visited England and experienced the English form of democracy i e the French
philosophers like Voltaire and Montesquieu were greatly influenced by the English
writings.

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- Rousseau’s writings had many ideas found in the writings of the John Locke, an
English philosopher.
- All these influences from England resulted in the spread of discontent and free thought
in France and many scholars regard them as the very first causes of the revolution.
- It can then be said that these influences contributed fundamentally to the collapse of the
old system.

3. The American War of Independence

- The participation of the French soldiers in the American War of independence had a
great effect of exposing the soldiers to democratic and revolutionary ideas that in turn
made them revolutionary upon returning to France.
- The war exposed the soldiers to democratic ideas e g the soldiers got exposed to the
American Declaration of Independence that pointed out that all men were created with
inalienable rights namely life and liberty.
- At the same time the soldiers fought on the American side fighting against the British
that taxed the American people that lacked representation in the British parliament.
- After the war the soldiers returned to a France whose people had no control over the
French taxation since there was no parliament.
- That the French soldiers got exposed to democratic ideas has been demonstrated by the
fact that General Lafayette, a veteran of the American War of Independence, became one
of the revolutionary leaders.

Economic

The Financial Crises

1. The French finances were chaotic and the country was on the verge of bankruptcy.
This is in view of the fact that France had huge productive lands but legged
behind the other European countries in terms of economic development.

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 - Such a scenario was due to the system of taxation in which the wealthier were
exempted from paying taxes and the burden of taxation fell on the poorer sections
of France.
- Thus the revenue raised from taxation was not enough for France to meet its
liabilities e g the peasants had to carry the burden of both the direct and indirect
taxes yet they were poor. They had to pay taxes namely taille, poll and tax on all
property as direct taxes while they paid a salt tax and feudal dues as indirect taxes.
- The peasants were not allowed to own mills or wine presses. They had to
depend on their landlords for such services and had to pay taxes to these
landlords.
- Such a system was discriminatory to the Third Estate that had to carry the
burden for taxation. It is therefore not surprising that some evaded taxation
- Heavy punishments were imposed on all those that felt to meet their tax
obligations e g in the year 1783, 11000 people were arrested and some of them
were hanged.
- The Bourgeoisie comprising of traders and industrialists were exempted from
taxation. The same applied to the nobility especially the Greater Nobility who
owned the largest and wealthiest landed estates in France.

2. There was a huge expenditure at the King’s palace. The palace expenses
accounted for one twelfth of the national budget. The Queen Marie Antoinette was
the chief culprit of extravagancy. It is said that she owned 500 pairs shoes.
- The other culprits were the clergy who lived in luxury at the palace and spent
most of the time banqueting and hunting.
- Spending money extravagantly at a time when the situation was extremely bad
demonstrated a lack of commitment by the rulers to the plight of the people. At
the same time spending precious time hunting bears demonstrated a total
disregard of the welfare of the people.
3. The failure of the economic reforms also accounted for the bankruptcy of the
state. The king had appointed a number of economists one after another like
Turgot, Necker, Brienne and Calonne to stabilize the economy.

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 - But all their proposals to improve the revenue base by introducing a system of a
fairer taxation and removing the system of privileges were blocked by the tragic
combination of the nobility, Clergy and the Queen.
- Necker attempted to reduce the expenditure at the palace when he persuaded the
king to reduce the grants of favours and pensions.
- Like all other economists who had made proposals that were centrally to the
wishes of the nobility, clergy and the Queen, Necker was dismissed by the king.
- When Necker was recalled to government in August 1788 he admitted that it
was too late to rescue the situation of bankruptcy into which the government had
fallen.
- Thus the failure by the king to solve the financial crisis in France drove the state
deeper into bankruptcy. It was this situation that forced Louis XVI to agree to the
meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789 that marked the beginning of the
revolution.

Famine

- The famine of May 1789 triggered off the French Revolution. It was a result of a very
bad harvest of 1788 that was aggravated by the harsh winter that froze the French rivers.
- This made transportation of food difficult. Famine caused disorder and distress in the
country side.
- The people in the country side fled to the towns hoping to find work as the famine
spread. The industrialists suffered the effects of competition from the imports from
England under the Commercial treaty of 1786.
- Thus there was an increase in unemployment. Those fleeing the country side could not
find employment as a result the towns like Paris ended up with an idle population that
later became the famous mob during the revolution.
- It was this mob that caused riots and disorder. The government reacted by throwing
them into prisons. This was evidently an act of desperation that failed to improve the
situation.

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- By the time Louis XVI called for the meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789 a
revolutionary atmosphere had been created in France.
- The mob that was to play an instrumental role during the revolution was already in
place.

Social

- The system of privileges that favoured the First and Second Estates was a great source
of anger among the Bourgeoisie and the peasants. It alienated the Third Estate from other
estates and the monarchy thereby leading to a revolution.
- This because the First and second Estates enjoyed and monopolized privileges e g the
Greater Nobility comprised of 100 families that owned the largest and the wealthiest land
estates in France. They were accorded privileges that placed them above the other classes
in the state.
- The highest commands in the army were and navy were reserved for them and they
alone were appointed as ambassadors.
- They were exempted from paying taxation. They were very influential at the palace and
could afford being absentee landlords i e left their landed estates to live in the towns.
- Also benefiting from the privileges is the Lesser Nobility comprising of 99 families.
They had landed estates but could not afford the luxury of absenteeism as compared to
the Greater Nobility. They had little political power and envied the privileges of the
Greater Nobility and were greatly frustrated from being excluded from the higher, social
and political life of France.
- Also bitter with the system of privileges were the Nobility of the Robe whose privilege
was only the title. They envied the privileges of the Greater Nobility.
- This explains why there were a number of supporters of the revolution among the
Lesser Nobility and the Nobility of the Robe.
- Real bitterness with the system was among the bourgeoisie and the peasants. For
instance at the time of the revolution the peasants numbered 23 000 000 out of a total
population25 million.

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- This was the largest group but landless while others owned small patches of land from
which they scraped a very bare living. It was this poor group that was burdened with
direct and indirect taxation with heavy punishment for failing to pay.
- This group was condemned to save in the militia with no possibility for exemptions.
They were denied political rights. They were subjected to control by the nobility on
whose land they lived and were subjected to various forms of feudal dues.
- In view of this scenario the peasants looked forward to the revolution for independence
and freedom from unfair and the overburdening taxation and the control by the landlords.
- The bourgeoisie had a serious cause of discontent. They were almost completely
excluded from the government of France despite their education and wealthy.
- They had no prospects for promotion in the French army and navy where
commissioned ranks were preserved for the Nobility.
- They also had economic grievances. Their economic activities were being frustrated by
the enormous extravagancy and luxury at the palace such that as at 1789 France was on
the verge of bankruptcy.
- From the bourgeoisie point of view the enormous privileges enjoyed by the nobility
accounted for the French bankruptcy.
- That the bourgeoisie were sufficiently educated and united to lead the revolution they
became the fertile seedbed for the revolutionary ideas.
- Due to the above facts it is not surprising that most of the leadership of the revolution
was drawn from the bourgeoisie class.
- The Catholic Church enjoyed a privileged position within France. It was the established
church of France hence it was the only public worship allowed and recognized by law.
- The various forms of protestant faith that existed in France were not recognized.
- Within the church itself there were greater inequalities of income hence there was the
group of poor parish priestly and the higher clergy.
- The majority of the six thousand parish priests received an annual salary of 30 and 70
pounds while the 134 Archbishops received around 2500 pounds.
- Furthermore the higher clergy were appointed to well-paid political posts and they
lived in the palace in luxury and spend much of their time in the pleasures of hunting.
Much of the day to day work in the countryside was left to the parish priests.

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- At the same time the church had enormous wealth. It owned one fifth of the land in
France with a yearly income of 500 000 000 francs of which only some 30 million were
used to maintain hospitals, schools and other institutions.
- It is therefore not surprising that the parish priests who were frustrated with the
privileged position of the higher clergy joined in the revolution alongside the peasants
and the bourgeoisie who also greatly resented the privileged position of the Catholic
Church.

The Course of the Revolution

The Meeting of the Estates-General May 1789

- The meeting of the Estates-General marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
- This is in view of the fact that the king’s action precipitated the outbreak of the
revolution. When it became apparent that the conditions within France had taken for the
worse Louis XVI agreed to the meeting of the Estates-General that had last met in 1614.
- The meeting was expected to chart the way forward in solving the French problems.
The king interfered with the process by ordering that the estates meet separately.
- The Third Estate had hoped for joint meeting with the First and Second Estates. Under
the new arrangement it became clear to the Third Estate that their proposals would be
blocked by other estates since they were expected to present their proposals to the First
and Second Estates before being presented to the king.
- It is at this point that the Third Estate took a more radical move of declaring themselves
as the National Assembly. Under the leadership of the bourgeoisie the National Assembly
took an oath in which it vowed never to disband until a new constitution is agreed.
- Thus the meeting of the Estates-General in 1789 can be regarded as the beginning of the
French revolution under the leadership of the bourgeoisie. It was the reactionary actions
of the king that influenced them to rise for the king wanted to block the reform process.

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The Risings

- The risings by the peasants in the countryside helped in speeding up the revolutionary
process. This makes them the medium of change.
- The peasants rose soon after the news of the dismissal of Necker for the second time
reached them in July 1789. To them Necker was the last hope in solving the French
problems.
- Also joining in the rising was the mob in the towns that demonstrated in the streets of
Paris, other towns and the provinces.
- They were soon joined by the soldiers and stormed the Bastille on 14 July. The Bastille
was a prison famous for housing the political opponents of Louis XVI. To the French the
Bastille symbolized the reactionary rule of Louis XVI.
- Its capture by the revolutionaries signaled the demise of the reactionary rule of the king.
The events of 14 July in turn inspired the peasants in the countryside. They seized land
from the nobility, captured the mansions and castles belonging to the nobility and then
elected communes and councils to represent them on local level.
- Faced by this difficult situation Louis XVI agreed to withdraw his troops from the
streets, recognize the newly created National Assembly and to the establishment of a
National Guard. National Guard was a force created by the National Assembly to
guarantee the revolutionary gains.

- Therefore the risings by the peasants resulted in the revolutionary gains namely land for
the peasants, political participation and representation through the National Assembly and
the Communes and Councils on both the national and local levels. All these gains and
those to come were guaranteed by the newly created National guard.

The Sessions of the National Assembly

a) The August Session

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- At this session the National Assembly under the leadership of the bourgeoisie achieved
equality of all French people by abolishing feudalism.
- The French feudal structure was abolished by a total of 32 resolutions. The disgruntled
elements among the nobility especially the Lesser Nobility and the Nobility of the Robe
were invited to join the assembly.
- Each noble man, one after another rose giving up their privileges. Thus the feudal
system collapsed as the peasants were freed from the control of the nobility. All feudal
dues were abolished but the king refused to accept the resolutions of the August Session
of the National Assembly that abolished feudalism.
- From the above it can be argued that the August Session brought equality within France
by the abolition of the feudal system and its system of privileges. It is however important
to realize that the reactionary tendencies of the king were present since he refused to
accept the resolutions of the session.

b) The Declaration of Rights of Man

- The National Assembly under the leadership of the bourgeoisie pressed forward with the
revolution by issuing a socio-political document that guaranteed the rights and liberty of
the French people.
- This they achieved by modeling their document on the American war of Independence
that declared that all man were created equal with inalienable rights namely life, liberty
and freedom.
- Again Louis XVI refused to sign the document into law. The Third Estate, in particular
its women reacted by demonstrating towards the palace demanding that the king accept
the August Session resolutions, sign the Declaration of the Rights of Man into law and
increase the supply of bread within the country.
- Faced with such a volatile situation the king gave in, accepted the resolutions of the
August Session, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and promised to increase the
supply of bread.

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- Thus through the contributions of the bourgeoisie and the women the right s of the
people were granted and guaranteed and the resolutions of the August session were
confirmed.

c) The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

- Perhaps the most important contribution of the National Assembly to the revolution was
the separation of the church from state affairs.
- This was achieved through the removal of the church influence from politics through
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The new constitution coordinated the administration
of the church, paid the salaries of the Clergy, cut ties with the Pope and made the Clergy
to take an oath of loyalty.
- Again the king refused to accept the constitution pointing out that the revolutionaries
had gone too far. Louis XVI had the support of the in condemning the constitution.
- Louis XVI and members of the royal family attempted to flee from Paris to Varennes
and then escape to escape to neighbouring states to join the émigrés, the nobility who had
fled from France.
- The intent was to fight the revolution from outside with the neighbouring friendly
states. They were detected on their way, arrested and returned to Paris as prisoners.
- The king was suspended from carrying out his duties and it was resolved that his future
would be decided on upon the completion on the constitution of the country.
- Thus the Civil constitution of the Clergy separated the church from state affairs thereby
putting to an end the enormous influence that the church enjoyed during the ancient
regime. At the same time the Civil Constitution of the Clergy exposed the reactionary
tendencies of the king whose actions identified him with the enemies of the revolution.

d) Economy

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- The next task of the Assembly was to stabilize the economy that was in chaos and at the
verge of bankruptcy.
- They attempted to achieve this by issuing paper currency called the Assignats. This
currency was guaranteed by the church lands that had been nationalized. Some of the
nationalized lands were put on auction. In this way the landless peasants were granted
land.
- With time the assignats ended up losing their value and the establishment of the French
economy was not well achieved.
- By attempting to stabilize the economy through money the National Assembly was
attempting to achieve some of the revolutionary aims. The nationalization of the catholic
lands enabled the landless to acquire land.

Émigrés

- These were the former nobility e g the Greater Nobility. They elected to leave France
and settle in the neighbouring states such as Prussia and Austria.
- They vowed not to live in a France under the control of the revolutionaries. They
intended to get help from sympathetic neighbours to fight the revolutionaries and restore
the monarch with full powers.

The Constitution

- The work of the National Assembly culminated in the drafting of a new constitution of
France. The provisions of the new constitution were:

1. Legislative Assembly

- elected members

2. Monarch

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- With limited powers, a suspensive not absolute veto power, control of foreign policy,
appointing the cabinet.
- shared power with the assembly.

3. Elections

- For the Legislative based on a franchise (qualification as a voter or to be voted for)

4. Land Guarantee

- Allowed the peasants to retain the lands gain during the course of the revolution.

5. Equality

- Equality before the law and in terms of appointments.

6. Rights of Man

- Guaranteed by the Declaration of Rights of Man

7. Local Government

- Communes and Councils established following the rising in the countryside and the
provinces retained to represent people on local level.

8. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

- It was incorporated into the constitution.

9. The National Guard

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-retain to preserve the revolutionary gains.

The Jacobin Era: 1791 – 1794

The Jacobins

- These were the bourgeoisie and some section of the peasants. They were the
revolutionaries and were the second most important group in the newly elected legislative
assembly after the feullaints (the royalists – former nobility).
- Within the assembly the Jacobins were highly organized. Among them there were some
sections, The Cordeliers consisting of the working class under the leadership of Madame
Roland, the Girondins that wanted to use war to deal with the anti-revolutionary elements
in and outside France and the Herbertists under Herbert who wanted to do away with
Christianity.

The Threat to the Revolution

- From the onset the revolution in France was under threat from the anti-revolutionary
elements in and outside France. The aim of the anti-revolutionary elements was to
overthrow the revolutionary government and restore the monarchy with its full powers.

Internal Threats

1. Royalists

- They wanted to overthrow the revolution and restore the monarchy to the throne with its
full powers.
- They were the former nobility who chose to remain in revolutionary France. They had
the majority in the legislative assembly where they were known as the feullaints. The

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existing franchise based on one’s income enabled them to gain a majority in the
assembly.
- These royalists aimed at removing the revolutionary government and the legislative
assembly and do away with all the revolutionary changes that were enshrined in the
constitution of September 1791.
- Among the changes were political participation and representation through the
assembly, communes and councils; equality; rights of man and the land gains for the
landless.
- The royalists hoped to restore the monarchy with full powers. They enjoyed support
from the king who was sympathetic to the French situation.
- The fact that the royalists were against the revolution explain why they lacked zeal
during the revolution.

2. Clergy

- They enjoyed enormous privileges during the ancient regime and they wanted to
overthrow the revolution and help restore the king in order to regain their privileged
position.
- They lived at the palace and had much influence in the French politics. They became
alienated from the revolution because it took away their privileges.
- The conflict between the clergy and the revolutionaries was worsened by the provisions
of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy that separated the church from the state.
- The constitution required that the clergy take an oath. During the time of the legislative
assembly and onwards most clergymen refused to take the oath.
- Those refused to take the oath became known as the non-juring priests. The
revolutionaries viewed their actions as anti-revolutionary.

3. Louis XVI

- His reactionary tendencies made him the biggest threat to the revolution.

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- From the onset Louis XVI’s identified himself with the anti-revolutionary elements.
Well before the outbreak of the revolution Louis XVI allowed himself to be influenced by
the anti-revolutionary elements such as his wife, nobility and the clergy to block the
economic reform process by dismissing the economists one after another.
- Initially he refused to accept the revolutionary resolutions of the August Session of the
National Assembly that brought equality to France as well as the Declaration of the
Rights of Man. He only agreed after a women demonstration against him.
- Refused to accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy pointing out that that the
revolution had gone too far.
- He even attempted to flee France in 1791 to join the émigrés in the neighbouring states
intending to fight the revolution from outside.
- During the period of the legislative assembly he used his suspensive veto powers to
block the measures introduced by the legislative assembly to deal with threats to the
revolution.
- The legislative assembly, on two occasions issued decrees ordering the émigrés to return
to France or face death and the non juring priests to take an oath to the Civil Constitution
of the Clergy. In both cases the king vetoed the decrees.
- The king’s actions were interpreted by the revolutionaries as anti-revolutionary.
- Furthermore the papers that were later discovered at the Tulleries Palace in 192
indicated that the king corresponded with the émigrés and even financed their activities.

External Threats

1. Émigrés

- Organized an army with the help of sympathetic neighbouring states such as Austria and
Prussia with the aim of removing the revolutionaries from power and restore the
monarchy.
- These former nobility had elected to leave France because they were not prepared to
live in a France that was controlled by the revolutionaries hence they were considered as
enemies of the revolution.

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2. Prussia and Austria

- These haboured and supported the émigrés much to the chagrin of the revolutionaries.

i) The Declaration of Pilnitz

- Prussia and Austria issued this declaration pointing out that the cause of Louis XVI was
also theirs. They openly declared their support for the French King in his struggle to
regain his power.

ii) The Brunswick Manifesto

- This was another declaration by the neighbouring states in support of Louis XVI. In it
they warned the French people against demonstrating against their king who was
hindering revolutionary progress by using his veto power.
- The French people interpreted this declaration as a direct threat to France as a whole.

iii) The Declaration of War 1792

- The war with the neighbouring states was a threat to the revolution. Through this war
the revolutionaries hoped to defeat the neighbouring states and neutralize the émigrés
threat.
- To them the defeat of these elements outside France would enable them to deal with the
revolutionary elements within France.

Measures Taken Against Revolutionary Threats

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- The Jacobins played an important role in eradicating the threats against the French
Revolution. This they achieved through legislation, imprisonment, executions, war, the
removal of the King and declaring France a Republic.
- It is important to realize that in the process of removing these threats the revolutionaries
ended up eroding some of the revolutionary gains namely democracy, equality and the
rights of man.

Internal Threats

- The Jacobins, through legislation attempted remove threats to the revolution. The
legislative assembly issued a decree that required the émigrés to return to France or face
death.
- They also issued another decree that ordered the non juring priests to take an oath to the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The king then responded by vetoing the decree. The
assembly reacted by reissuing the decree but then the king vetoed it again.
- Although these decrees were vetoed the Jacobins had taken the first step to deal with the
threats to the revolution.
- In dealing with the threats of the royalists the Jacobins through the assembly issued the
Law of Suspects. The assembly was aware of anti-revolutionary elements within France.
- This was clearly evident during the La Vandee peasant revolt. The National Guard that
was sent to suppress it adopted an anti-revolutionary attitude. It was royalist in
composition.
- Thus this law was aimed at the royalists. All those suspect of being anti-revolutionary
were arrested and imprisoned. Also included were all those found to be lacking zeal in the
revolutionary effort.

Executions

- Were used by the Jacobins to eradicate revolutionary threats. A Jacobin leader called
Marat came up with the idea after realizing that the prisons were overflowing with
prisoners.

21
- The prisoners were disposed by being murdered in the streets by soldiers in what
became famously known as the September Massacres.

The Removal of the King and the Declaration of the French First Republic

- Perhaps the most important contribution by the Jacobins was the removal of the
monarch and the declaration of the First French republic.
- This was after singling out the monarch as the main obstacle of the revolution. It was
after the King used his veto power in a move to block the revolutionary process.
- A force called the Commune under Danton, a Jacobin leader was created. It stormed the
King’s palace at the Tulleries. The king was deposed from the throne in 1792 and
executed in 1793 after trial.
- The monarchy was abolished and France was declared a Republic. A new constitution
was agreed on and a new assembly called the convention was elected.
- Among other provisions the new constitution declared a universal male suffrage and
attempted to introduce a number of democratic measures that increased the freedom and
equality of the French people.

The Reign of Terror

- The Jacobins used terror to deal with the revolutionary threats within France.
Committees such as the Committee of Public safety, Committee of General Security and
the Revolutionary Tribunal were established to deal with problems within France.
- The Committee of Public Safety was run by 12 members in charge of government
departments.
- The Committee of General security was responsible for the internal security of France.
These committees identified the enemies of the revolution and all those people suspected
of working against the revolution.
- The Revolutionary Tribunal worked as a court of law. It verdicts were final, there was
no appeal.

22
- Under Robespierre, one of the revolutionary leaders, the two committees and the
tribunal were used to eradicate opposition to the revolution. He execute, in three months
of his reign, more people than those killed in the entire period of the revolution.
External Threats

1. Legislation was also used by the Jacobins within the Legislative Assembly to deal
with the external threats to the revolution.
- A decree was issued by the Legislative Assembly against the émigrés who were
working with the neighbouring states to overthrow the revolution and restore the
monarchy.
- The decree ordered them to return to France or face death. However this
measure was blocked by the King who vetoed the decree on all two occasions that
it was issued.

2. The Jacobins responded to the external threats from the neighbouring states by
issuing the Edict of Fraternity that undertook to give support to any revolutionary
movement within the neighbouring states that were habouring the émigrés.
- It was hoped that the spread of the revolutionary movements through out Europe
would help eradicate threats on the French Revolution.

3. The Jacobins resorted to the use of war to protect the revolution. During one of
the sessions of the Legislative Assembly a section of the Jacobins called the
Girondins pushed for a war with the neighbouring states.
- They hoped that the defeat of the neighbouring states would enable them to deal
directly with the émigrés. The committees came up with a number of measures to
improve on the war effort.
- Through the Law of Permanent Acquisition all Frenchmen were to be
conscripted permanently into the French army.
- All unsuccessful Generals were dismissed and executed. Through the measures
introduced by General Carnot the French army was retrained and equipped.

23
 - All those lacking zeal in the war effort such as the royalists were arrested and
sent before the tribunal that sentenced them to executions.
- Through these efforts the Jacobins were able to post victories on the war front
thereby preserving the revolution.

 However in the process of eradicating the revolutionary threats the Jacobins

ended up destroying some of the revolutionary gains.
- The actions of the Jacobins were a direct violation of the Declaration of the
Rights of Man e g the Law of Suspects imprisoned arbitrary all those suspected of
being anti-revolutionary.
- They were later murdered in the streets in what later became known as the
September massacres orchestrated by Marat one of the Jacobin leaders.
- The activities of the Jacobins compromised the revolutionary ideals. All those
people that were opposed to the policies of Danton and Robespierre were
summarily executed by the tribunal whose verdict was final.
- Robespierre changed the procedures of the tribunal by packing the jury with his
supporters, using one moral reputation instead to charge a suspect and denying
legal representation during the proceedings.
- Thus during the reign of terror number of executions exceeded those of the
entire revolutionary period.
- This means that there was a gross human rights violation. The activities of the
Jacobins compromised the revolutionary ideals such as political participation and
representation of the people.
- The formation of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security as well
as the Revolutionary tribunal led to the establishment of a dictatorship in France.
- Power became centred on a few individuals within the Jacobin Club e g Danton
and Robespierre ended up controlling two of the most powerful institutions in
France namely the Committee of Public Safety and the Convention.

24
The Directory

The establishment of the directory government was a response to some of the problems
that the revolution had experienced before.

Lessons from the Revolution

1. The revolution France experienced a dictatorship by the leadership drawn from

the Jacobin Club e g Danton, Marat and Robespierre. These leaders passed laws
and did things that ended up destroying the ideals and achievements of the
revolution.

2. A struggle for power among the Jacobins resulted in series of executions as the
leadership attempted to dominate the scene e g Madame Roland of a section of the
Jacobins was eliminated by Danto and Marat who were in turn eliminated by
Robespierre.

3. The revolution witnessed a lot of events being controlled by the mob based in
Paris. These mob groups were a source of the Jacobin strength.
4. The Royalists demonstrated that they were anti-revolutionary e g the National
guard that was dominated by them adopted a counter-revolutionary attitude during
the suppression of a peasant revolt in the La Vandee district. The main culprits
were the émigrés that sought the assistance of the neighbouring states to remove
the revolutionaries from power. Thus the Royalists were in full support of the
monarchy.

The Directorate

25
- The Convention responded to the above lessons by establishing a directorate to rule
France.
- It was a government headed by five people called directors. This meant that the days of
the control of the affairs of the state by one person were over.
- Thus gone were the days of Robespierre who ended up dominating state affairs by him
self.
- One director was expec5ted to retire each year, continuity in national policy was
achieved through the remaining four directors and at the same time avoiding a continuous
reign of an individual.
- To avoid individuals dominating a new constitution was established that created an
assembly with two chambers. The first chamber was a Council of 500 that proposed laws.
Its members had an age limit of 30 years and above.
- The second chamber, the Council of Elders debated laws proposed by the Council of
500. Its age limit was 45 years and above.
- The age limits were meant to confine governance to mature individuals. By having a
two chamber assembly, the new constitution introduced a system of checks ands balances
in the politics of France.
- The mob influence was reduced by limiting voting to the tax payers thereby removing
elective powers from the mob.
- To prevent the resurgence of the Royalist because of the new elective laws based on a
franchise two thirds of the deputies in the chambers were elected by the Convention
itself.
- The Convention voted to maintain a Republican form of government thereby removing
any hopes of the Royalist resurgence.
- The Jacobin Club was closed down thereby marking the end of the Jacobin era. This
included all other clubs that existed in France.

Achievements

26
1. The directory reduced dictatorship by the individuals.
- Instead of having extreme views by an individual such as what Robespierre had
demonstrated a panel of five directors was given the control of government.
The directors will check and balance each other’s power.

2. By establishing a two chamber assembly, a system of check and balances was

introduced. Decision making was decentralized.

3. The mob that had dictated the revolution process up to 1794 was silenced. It no
longer had any say in state issues. Thus political stability was achieved.

4. The directory continued with the war effort against neighbouring states e g
Prussia, England, and Austria. This helped in preserving the revolutionary gains.
- It was the directory that gave Napoleon Bonaparte the command of the army in
the highly successful Italian campaign of 1796.
- His victory secured for France a military and morale booster, territory for France
on the left bank of the Rhine and Venetia that enabled France to create the
Cisalpine Republic.

5. The directory made attempts to improve the French economy by making attempts
to reduce inflation. The introduction of the assignats during the initial stages of
the revolution had resulted in inflation. That France was at war meant that the
revolutionaries could not focus on the economy.

The Weaknesses

1. The constitution introduced by the convention was flawed. This was due to the
fact that putting five people to rule at the same time created a bureaucracy.
- This often resulted I too much bickering on important issues. Having one person
retiring each year was in itself an insignificant step on having effective checks and
balances

27
 - The remaining four directors were likely to jell together and continue with
policies otherwise ineffective.

2. By limiting the voting to the tax payers the Convention had in effect deprived the
peasants and the working class from participating in politics.
- This was contrary to the revolutionary ideals that advocated for the political
participation and representation of the people.
- In any case it was the peasants and the working class that formed the Third
Estate that played an important role during the revolution.
- These measures meant to silence the mob were ineffective. It continued to cause
problems. It attempted to remove the Convention through an armed insurrection
in October 1795. It was only through the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte that the
directory survived.

3. By having two thirds of the members of both chambers of the assembly elected by
the Convention demonstrated the dictatorial nature of the Convention. Other
aspirants in some sections of France were excluded.

4. On the economic front inflation was not effectively tamed. It continued to rear its
ugly face affecting the economy.
- Poverty remained the greatest challenge as shown by the rag-tag nature of the
army that Napoleon Bonaparte commanded in the Italian Campaign in 1796.

5. At the war front there was stagnation even though Napoleon Bonaparte had
secured a victory for France in Italy.
- France remained at war with Britain. Russia and Prussia had withdrawn not so
much as a result of the French victories but their own challenges.

6. The directory lacked charismatic leaders who could pull the people to their side
and along with their ideas.

28
 - But having a dictatorship of five people meant a dilution of individual ability.
Thus there was no one to be identified with anything in credit.
- Therefore any misfortune such as the failure to make progress economically and
at the war front was blamed on all the five members of the directory.
The Napoleonic Era: 1799 - 1815

Introduction

- The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte is largely explained by a

combination of factors such as the weaknesses of the directory,
the ability of Napoleon as a soldier and a leader and the
prevailing situation within France

 The weaknesses of the directory (see notes on the directory)

 The ability of Napoleon as a soldier. He was a brilliant soldier. According to

Dennis Richard Napoleon’s presence in battle was worth a hundred men e g the
1796 Italian Campaign remarkable, he transformed a rag-tag army into a strong
force that was able to defeat the Austrian army.
- Napoleon demonstrated his military skill by out-marching and out-maneuvering
the enemy and then strike at the weakest point.
- The campaign brought benefits for France in the form of territorial gains.
Through the Treaty of Campo Formio of October 1797 Austria gave up its claim
on Belgium.
- France got territory on the Rhineland. Through these gains Napoleon created the
Cisalpine Republic that included Venetia.
- These conquests brought a set of benefits for Napoleon. Napoleon forced the
defeated powers to pay indemnities thereby relieving the National Treasury the
burden of funding wars.
- The funds were used to feed and clothe the army and to develop France. In
addition Napoleon looted the works of art from the conquered territory and placed

29
 them in the French museums hence brought prestige as France became an
important cultural centre.
- In view of the above the people of France identified Napoleon as a person who
would bring glory to France in many respects. Hence his popularity was greatly
enhanced.
 Napoleon further enhanced his popularity by helping in suppressing the Babeuf
conspiracy that aimed at removing the directory in a coup d’tat. Babeuf aimed at
abolishing private property and nationalize the land.
- Such a move would have undermined the middle class that had acquired land
following the auctioning of the church lands.
- This could have placed France back to the dominance of the mob and the
peasants, a thing that had been removed by the directory.
- Here Napoleon’s role was to expose the conspiracy and assisted in suppressing
it. Babeuf and his leading supporters were executed and France was saved from
yet another wave of revolution.
- This made Napoleon popular in France.

 Napoleon went on to save the directory from yet another insurrection, this time
organized by the Royalists. By opening fire and dispersing the crowds Napoleon
saved the directory.
- It is therefore not surprising that the directory felt that it owed its survival to
Napoleon and elevated him to the command of the army.

 Napoleon also rose to power circumstantially when he returned from the Egyptian
Campaign fighting the Second Coalition of Britain, Russia and England.
- The coalition had driven France out of Switzerland and the Rhineland thereby
eroding the gains of the Treaty of Campo Formio. At the same time Napoleon
enjoyed the support from among the members of the Council of Elders e g Abbie
Sieyes who backed Napoleon in the coup.
- Napoleon’s brother Lucien used an army to invade the assembly and drive the
members out.

30
 - A new constitution was adopted. France was now ruled by a three consuls.
Napoleon was the First Consul with enormous powers. He alone declared war and
made the key appointments and controlled the legislative process.
- With these centralized powers Napoleon consolidated his position and declared
himself as the Emperor and took the title Napoleon I.
 From the above it is clear that the rise of Napoleon to power to become the
Emperor was a product of a variety of factors that interacted to propel him to
power. With these powers he was able to dominate both the French and the
European politics up 1815.

The Napoleonic Reforms

Aims

- To consolidate his position in France as the Emperor.

- To institute a benevolent despotism, meaning to have policies that benefit the people.
- The peace at Amiens with the British in 1802 gave Napoleon a breathing space to
reorganize France.

1. Administration

- As Emperor all power was centred in his hands. He alone could declare war and make
peace.
- He made the key appointments i e of the local officials such as the prefects, sub-
prefects, mayors and the chief officials of the state in the military and civil posts.
- Proposed laws that were drafted by a special council state and submitted to the
legislative board that voted without discussion.
- Approved the list of candidate to be voted for as members of the legislative board.

(ii) The Legislative Assembly

31
- this was retained from the revolution as it provided for political participation and
representation. it voted on laws submitted to it by the special council.
- it’s members were voted for by the people in elections .
- the list of the candidates was approved by the Emperor

(iii) Local Government

- the revolutionary government was retained though with the addition of Napoleonic
ideas.
- Communes were retained but under mayors appointed by the emperor.
- Old councils of the revolutionary era where retained but as advisory boards
- Districts were created and prefects and sub-prefects were appointed to hear Government
departments.

(iii) Letters de Cachets and The Press Censorship

- These were adopted from the ancient Regime and was introduced to check the level of
opposition to his policies and to bring order
- under the system of letters de caches the letters entering and leaving France had
contents monitored closely.
- Censorship was imposed on all press. Those to the Emperor were closes down.

(iv) Legion of Honour

- this was an idea borrowed from the ancient regime, Napoleon introduced a decoration
known as the Legion of Honour for the distinguished services to the state.
- all those appointed on the merit to official duties and carrying them out efficiently were
rewarded and given titles.
- thus a new type of Nobility emerged, comprising of title holders i. e Dukes, Admirals,
Counts.

The Concodat Treaty

32
- This was an agreement between Napoleon and the Catholics. Through this agreement
Napoleon hoped to reconcile with the church that had been alienated from the State.
- During the revolutionary era under the agreement the Catholics religion was made the
official State religion that was grunted the control of education.
- The Bishops were to appoint the Parish Clergy with the approval of the Government. In
return the church recognizes the sale of the church lands to the peasants.
- Napoleon hoped that this arrangement would heal the breach with the Pope and
Priesthood caused by the CCC. Furthermore Napoleon viewed a church as a valuable and
essential support to his power.
- He also realized that the church had behind it a vast majority of the peasants whose
loyalty he needed most.

7. Code Napoleon

- This was a written classification and summary of the laws of France on topics such as
rights and duties, marriage, divorce, parentage, inheritance and property
- Since in 1789 there was confusion on the laws of France and especially appointed
lawyers was tasked to codify the law.
- Thus no French was in any doubt as to his or her position before the law. The rules
were made uniform and equal for all.
- Under family law the code aimed at strengthening the family as the foundation of the
State. The authority of the father was greatly increased.
- The sons could not marry under the age of 25 without the consent of the father and in
case of the daughters the age was 21. The position of the wife was made inferior to that of
the husband in the family.
- In his private correspondence Napoleon I indicated his insensitivity to gender. He
pointed out that the women’s brain power was far inferior to that of the men and they
were fitted for little education.
- The code confirmed the legal equality of all male citizens. This helped to bring social
cohesion and enabled the French man and others to understand the main principles
underlining the laws.

33
- The code brought toleration of all regions and a trial in public before the jury. The code
was very successful that it was adopted by many countries in Europe

8. Military Reforms

- Napoleon I reorganized the French army that was expected to play a decisive role in the
Napoleonic wars.
- He set up a semi-military squad called lycees. In this squad future soldiers were
produced. The aim was to produce absolutely loyal soldiers devoted to the State.
- The army was reorganized, reequipped and trained. In this way Napoleon I produced a
disciplined loyal, strong and professional army that was entirely devoted to him alone

9. Education

- Napoleon I introduced measures that provided each French man with an equal
opportunity to get educated. Elementary schools were placed in the church.
- The Grant Master of the University of France was put in charge of all secondary
education in France. Much emphasis was put on Maths and Science.
- The University was founded under the Grant Master with branches throughout the
French districts.
- Technical schools were also established. Subjects considered as dangerous such as
history, economics and philosophy were banned.
- Much emphasis was placed on male education

Careers Open to Talent

- This was a revolutionary idea. Napoleon appointed and promoted men to high offices in
the State on merit or talent irregardless of one’s origin or social class.
- For example many of Napoleon’s Generals were men of lowly birth e. g Murat who was
given charge of the Cisalphine Republic was the son of an innkeeper.

34
- The principle of the career opened to talent undoubtedly accounts for much of the
strength of France at this time.

Economic Reforms

Napoleon I aimed at promoting economic stability in France

(a) Established many technical schools with the aim of improving the French industrial
processes and discovering new ones.
(b) In industry Napoleon I increased domestic production by imposing high tariffs on
imports and by encouraging new inventions
(c) Initiated infrastructural development in France canals and ports were greatly
improved and aided the expansion of industry
(d) Promoted business interests by stabilizing the value of the French currency basing on
Gold and setting up the bank of France to aid industrial development.
(e) All the under utilized agricultural land was reclaimed, irrigation was introduced.
(e) Peasants were allowed to retain land gained during the Revolution

Analysis of Napoleonic Reforms

- The reforms of Napoleon were characterized by a mixture of Revolutionary ideas,

Napoleonic and ancient regime ideas.

Revolutionary

- There was political participation and representation through elections legislative council
and completion of the codification of the law started by the Revolution.
- There was guarantee of rights and equality
- Equal opportunities were granted in education.
- Revolutionary methods of retraining, recruitment and reequipping were adopted in the
military reforms.
- Stabilizing the French economy.

35
Ancient Regime

- Centralization of power by Napoleon just like Louis XVI of the ancient regime
- The adoption of letters de caches and press censorship of the ancient regime
- The adoption of the ancient regime system of reward the Legion of Honour.
- The revival of the old State church alliance through Concodat Treaty.

Napoleonic Ideas

- Appointments of prefects, sub-prefects and mayors in charge of Government

departments and communes respectively in administration.
- Gender insensitivity in the code Napoleon and in education
- Establishment of University technical education, emphasis on Maths and Science, the
banning of history, philosophy and economics
- The creation of a professional army loyal to Napoleon himself.
-The establishment of infrastructure, bank of France, new currency, industrial reforms
and schools.

Motive of the Reforms

1 Consolidate his position as Emperor

- Efficiency and order in administration enhanced his
- Popularity
- Centralization enhanced his popularity
- Checking opposition through press censorship and letters de caches enhanced his
popularity
- The Legion of honour enhanced his popularity among the new type of nobility.
- The concordat won Napoleon support and popularity with the Pope and church
followers.

36
 - Code Napoleon enhanced the authority of males by implicating the emperors
authority. It also enhanced his popularity.
- Militarily reforms strengthened his position through creation of army loyal to him
alone.
- Education reforms giving equal access opportunity enhanced his popularity.
- The careers open to talent that brought equality in making appointments enhanced
his popularity
- Economic reforms that stabilizing the economy won him popularity especially
among business class

Benevolence

The reforms were meant to benefit the people through efficiency and order in
administration.
Political participation and representation through elections, legislative assembly local
government, letters de caches, press censorship and centralization brought law and order
in France.
Under the Legion of Honour, efficient officials were rewarded hence promoting
efficiency The careers open to talent gave the French man equal opportunities in terms of
appointments.
The Concordat Treaty reconciled the State and the church after a long period of hostile
and strained relations.
Educational reforms gave French man an equal access to education.
Codified law that granted rights and equality was accessible to all French man.
Military reforms created a professional army for defensive and offensive purposes.
Economic reforms stabilized the French economy
N.B Napoleon was a dictator
- centralization
- legislative council a rubber stamping board
- suppressed liberty

37
- adoption of Legion of Honour to back France to the ancient regime reminded the people
of a new type of Nobility.
- adoption of Legion of Honour to back France to the ancient regime reminded people of
a new type of Nobility.
-The education policy and Code Napoleon showed Napoleon’s gender insensitivity.
- The army was loyal to him.
- He was benevolent.
- He used his dictatorial powers for the benefit of the people (see previous notes)

Foreign Policy

Aims

- To control the density of Europe i. e extending the boundaries of France

- it has also urged that Napoleon could not renounce the excitement of wars after his
victories in the Italian campaign in 1796

Defeat of the Second Coalition

- The members of the second coalition were England, Russia and Austria. Of the three
Austria was easier to attack and at the battle of Marengo, Austria was defeated by a force
of 40 thousand men. France was able to regain territory that had been lost since the gains
of the treaty of Campo Formio.
- Russia withdrew because it was unhappy with the coalition. There were jealousies and
mutual suspicions.
- Against Britain, Napoleon aimed at destroying her overseas trade. He formed the
League of Armed Neutrality with States that were offended by the British policy i. e
Russia, Sweden and Denmark.
- Sweden and Denmark closed the British entrance to the Baltic Sea. Britain reacted by
sending a naval force on Denmark and at the battle of Copenhagen the Danish fleet was
destroyed and the league collapsed

38
Peace of Amiens 1802

- Following the breaking up of the second coalition, It was Britain that remained at war
but the war was causing difficulties for the British trade. Napoleon also needed peace to
consolidate his power in France.
- Thus through an agreement Britain restored the French colonies but retain Ceylon and
Trinidad. Britain also promised to evacuate Malta and Egypt. It also promised to
recognize the French boundaries as at 1802.
Napoleonic Wars

1. Renewal of War

- France and Britain soon clashed mostly because of the French occupation of the
Austrian Netherlands and the French tariff system that hindered British trade. Thus war
was renewed in 1802.

2. Trafalgar

- This was between France and Britain in October 21 1805 the French and the British
navies met at Cape Trafalgar. The British victory left her an undisputed master of the
seas.

3. The Third Coalition

- It was formed by Britain, Austria and Russia. Its aim was to drive France back to the
original boundaries out of Belgium, the German states and Italy.

4. The Battle of Ulm and Austerlitz, 1805

39
- These were battles between Austria and France. Austria was defeated. Under the Treaty
of Pressburg, Austria lost 3 million of her foreign population and Venetia was
incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy that had been created.
- Austria further lost Dalmatia, Tyrol, The Adriatic Coast and the Rhineland.

5. The Battle of Jena

- It was a battle between France and Prussia. Prussia had been neutral between 1795 and
1805. Prussia was defeated at Jena and Napoleon took over the control of Berlin.

6. The defeat of Russia

- Following the defeat of Russia the Treaty of Tilsit was signed between Russia and
France. Under the treaty France took over the control of Finland, Sweden and a share of
the Turkish Empire.
- Russia agreed to enter into an alliance with France in order to enforce the continental
system against Britain.

7. The Peninsula Wars

- France captured Portugal in 1808 following it’s refusal to enforce the continental
system. Portugal was defeated by a combined French and Spanish army.
- Napoleon was able to gain complete control of Spain by enforcing the King to abdicate
the throne. In his place he appointed his brother Joseph.
- Austria re-entered war in 1809 and was defeated at the battle of Wagram.
- Under the treaty of Vienna, it lost her large share of Poland to Russia and some
provinces of the Adriatic to France and was compelled by Napoleon to join his
continental system.
- Napoleon and Austria concluded a marriage alliance. When he married the daughter of
the Austrian Emperor

40
The Continental System

- The French defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar had demonstrated that the French invasion
of Britain was impossible. British wealth in the form of industries and international trade
enabled her to sustain the war. The real danger for Napoleon was the British economic
power.
- Napoleon decided to crush this power by destroying the British overseas trade. He
hoped that this would cause unemployment in Britain that would make the British people
force their government to withdraw from the war.
- Napoleon issued the Berlin in November 1806 that declared a blockade of the British
Isles and forbade French allies to trade with Britain.
- Napoleon announced an immediate confiscation of all British goods on the European
continent.
- Britain reacted by issuing the orders in council that declared an economic blockade on
all the French allies that had accepted the continental system.
- Britain announced that it would use its navy to fight against Napoleon and his allies
interfering with the British
- In December 1807, Napoleon issued more decrees in the form of the Milan Decrees
calling for an economic blockade on Britain.

Effects

- 1807-1810, Napoleon attempted to enforce his decrees by sealing off the whole of the
European coastline on Britain
- 1807, Denmark was forced into the system and in 1809 the French troops occupied the
German States of Hamburg, Bremen, Danzig and Lubeck.
- He deposed Louis Bonaparte form the Dutch throne after he refused to enforce the
system of ground that it would ruin the Dutch merchants. Thus Holland was placed under
the direct control of France

41
- Napoleon was soon involved in a conflict with the Pope. They wished to remain neutral
implying that the British trade could be carried on the Papal States
-Napoleon reacted by imprisoning the Pope and added the Papal States to his Kingdom of
Italy
- The continental system was a disaster for France:

1. Trade declined and unemployment spread widely among his allies especially
those of the Northern Germany.

2. Increase in opposition from the European traders. It was this middle class of
traders that played a major role of arousing nationalist movements that developed against
Napoleon and helped in brining his downfall.

3. France lacked the naval power to enforce the system. The British counter blocked
Napoleon’s plans to use the Danish fleet was failed by the British destruction of the fleet
at the Habour of Copenhagen.

4. The English traders smuggled goods into continental Europe through the
unprotected spots along the coastline such as Heligoland, Portugal, Sicily, and Salonica.

Napoleon’s Dynasty System

- Napoleon established his control over conquered territories by appointing his relatives
and friends to rule on his behalf.
-These rulers were expected to introduce Napoleonic administrative system.
- They also implemented Napoleonic ideas of free trade and the code of Napoleon
- Territories that fell under the dynasty system were:
- The German States were grouped to form the Confederation of the Rhineland
under Francis II of Russia who was forced to renounce his title of the holy
Roman Emperor
- Naples was placed under Napoleon’s brother Joseph

42
 - Holland under Napoleon’s brother Louis Bonaparte
- Spain and Belgium were also placed under Napoleon’s relatives

The Moscow Campaign

- 1811, Tsar of Russia broke away from the continental system due to:
- Napoleon appeared to be no longer interested in fulfilling the promise to
break the Turkish Empire.
- Napoleon seized a North German State of Oldberg that was ruled by the
Tsar’s brother-in-law.
- The Russian Nobility opposed the continental system that destroyed their
lucrative trade in timber and hemp with Britain.
- Russia was secretly trading with England.

- Napoleon reacted to the Russian breakaway by organizing the invasion of Russia in

1812.
- With 600 000 men he marched into Russia in the summer of 1812.
- He was defeated by Russia in a space and time. The Russians evacuated their capital of
Moscow. Napoleon found Moscow deserted and he became isolated in the Russian
capital.
- Russia adopted a scotched earth policy of destroying villages and crops as they
retreated. Thus there was no food for Napoleon’s troops.
- Napoleon now faced the Russian winter. His troops had only brought summer wear
hoping the campaign would end soon. Panic, despair and the cold affected the morale of
the French troops
- The Russians destroyed the bridges built by the French on the Beresina River
- Thousands of the French troops died in the river, only 30 000 men re-crossed the
Niemen River in December 1812

The War of Liberation

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- Napoleon’s humiliating defeat in the Moscow Campaign was a signal for Prussia to take
action.
- Prussia experienced a revival. The Prussian society was re-organized by Prussian
Minister Stend and Hardenburg.
- Serfdom was abolished, elected councils under the control of the middle class and the
landowners were established, a new land distribution that benefited the peasants was
introduced and military reforms introduced in which there was universal military service
and training. A large professional army was created.
- This revival resulted in the rise of a Prussian nationalism. They now called for the
removal of Napoleon in Germany.
- The entry of Prussia into the war opened a second front for Napoleon hence France was
stretched.

The Battle of Dresden (August 1813)

- Napoleon was defeated by Austria that had joined war against him.

The Battle of Leipzig (the Battle of Nations), October 1813

- France fought against allies, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Sweden.

- Napoleon was defeated and fled to the Rhineland but the Confederation of the
Rhineland that he created turned against him.
- King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain was driven out by the British Duke of Wellington who
was now entering Southern France.
- The Russian Tsar and Prussian king entered Paris in March 1814, Napoleon was exiled
to the Island of Elba.
- Under the first Treaty of Paris of 1814, France lost all her conquests in Germany,
Belgium and Italy.
- Louis XVIII who was next in the Bourbon Monarchy was restored.

The 100 Days

44
- At the island of Elba, Napoleon enjoyed a great deal of freedom. He managed to escape
and land in Southern France.
-He then marched to Paris in triumphal procession. The opponents of Louis XVIII
welcomed the arrival of Napoleon I.
- Troops that were sent to arrest him actually joined him. Louis XVIII fled from France.
Within three weeks of regaining power, Napoleon raised a new army and marched into
Belgium.
- At the battle of Waterloo in 1815 Napoleon was defeated by the Fourth Coalition under
the command of the Duke of Wellington. Napoleon’s empire crumbled. He surrendered
and was exiled to the Island of St Helena

Reasons for the Downfall of Napoleon I

- Lack of naval power thus was defeated at Trafalgar in 1805 in the war of liberation in
1814 and the Waterloo in 1815.
- Napoleon’s continental system was doomed from the onset due to lack of a navy. The
Danish fleet that he hoped to use was destroyed by the British.
- The continental system backfired. Napoleon’s allies were actually dependent on the
British trade. Hence his allies like Russia broke away in 1810.
- By taking direct control of Spain and Portugal in order to ensure the success of the
continental system. Napoleon underestimated spirit of nationalism in these countries.
- Napoleon’s poor judgment; Miscalculated that his entrance into the Russian capital
would result in Russian defeat. He thought that the Moscow campaign would end in
summer as he did not prepare for the winter and a low opinion of the Duke of
Wellington’s ability as a soldier.
- The people of France were becoming weary of war especially during the 100 days.

Motives of the Foreign Policy

- To control the destiny of Europe

- Acquired European territory

45
- Italian campaign - Cisalphine alliance
- Treaty of Tilsit - the Russian alliance
- the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw
- Battle of Austerlitz – Austrian Netherlands, Adriatic Coast, Tyrol, Istria, Venetia,
Dalmatia and the Rhineland
- Battle of Jena - Berlin
- Peninsula Wars -Spain, Portugal, German States
- Continental System-an attempt to break the economic power of Britain hence an
outright control of Europe
- By 1807-09 Napoleon at the height of his power was now in control of continental
Europe directly and indirectly
- The dynasty system clearly showed that Napoleon was in control

Territory Falling Under this System

1. Italy -Cisalphine Republic

2. The confederations of the Rhineland in Germany
3. Belgium
4. Spain
5. Portugal
6. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw

- After 1810 Napoleon now aimed at keeping his alliance and the control of Continental
Europe
- He was facing rebellion from his allies and an attack by the fourth coalition against him.
- Thus he fought:
- Moscow campaign 1812
- Wars of Liberation1814-1815
- Waterloo 1815

Methods used by Napoleon I

46
- Diplomacy
- Military campaigns
- Dynasty system

Diplomacy

- Piece of Amiens provided Napoleon with a breathing space in order to re-organize

France
- Treaty of Tilsit – Napoleon secured the Russian alliance that was valuable in making the
continental system effective
- Marriage alliance with Austria. Napoleon managed to secure an alliance with Austria
that was important in his fight against the third coalition
- Continental system – Napoleon put together an alliance of continental Europe to enforce
an economic blockage against Britain

Military Campaign

- Napoleon embarked on a series of wars to conquer Europe

- Battle of Trafalgar – defeated
- Battle of Jena – brought him Berlin
- Battle of Austerlitz –acquired Austrian Netherlands , Rhineland , Tyrol ,Adriatic coast,
Venetia, Istria , Damaltia
- Peninsula wars enabled Napoleon to gain the control of continental Europe
- After 1810, he used military campaigns to deal with rebel allies and to defend France
from the fourth coalition
- Moscow Campaign
- Battle of Dresden and Leipzig
- Battle of Waterloo

The Dynasty System

47
- Napoleon placed relatives and friends to control and administer conquered territories on
his behalf
- They implemented Napoleon’s forms of administration and ideas.

Contribution of the Fourth Coalition to the defeat of Napoleon 1

Britain
Played a decisive role. Only member of the Fourth Coalition that had not been defeated
by Napoleon 1. Victory against Napoleon 1 at Trafalgar kept the hope of defeating
Napoleon 1 alive. Used its powerful navy to defeat Napoleon. Destroyed the Danish fleet
that Napoleon hoped to use.
Destroyed the Continental System of Napoleon. Issued the counter Orders in Council in
which it imposed a trade embargo against Napoleon’s allies. Realised that it was actually
the allies of Napoleon that needed her trade most. For example the Russian traders found
the trade in timber and hemp with Britain quite lucrative.
Used its navy effectively to ensure trade was carried out to those allies of Napoleon that
were willing to. Hence it ensured the continental system was disastrous for Napoleon.
At the Battle of Waterloo Britain played a crucial role. The British Duke of Wellington
stood his ground against Napoleon 1 despite the fact that Napoleon regarded him has ‘a
bad general commanding bad troops.’ The French attacks could not penetrate the thin
British lines whose rifles were so deadly thereby forcing Napoleon to surrender and
abdicate the throne before being exiled to the island of St Helena.

Russia
Contributed to the breakup of Napoleon alliance. Secretly continued trade with Britain
before eventually walking out of the alliance hence weakened Napoleon’s alliance.
Played a crucial role for the eventual defeat of Napoleon. Their victory in the Moscow
campaign signaled the demise of Napoleon.
Adopted superior tactics; strategic withdrawal from Moscow left Napoleon isolated and
demoralized; harassed Napoleon troops while camped in Moscow; helped to delay the

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French in Moscow until winter of which Napoleon was ill-prepared; deprived Napoleon
and his troops of food through the scorched earth policy; destroyed bridges built on the
Niemen River and attacked the French hence of the 600 000 soldiers that Napoleon
started with only 30 000 made it back to France.
Also took part in the battle of Nations along with Austria, Prussia and Sweden in which
they defeated Napoleon and forced him to flee to the Confederation of the Rhineland
which in turn turned against him. Along with the Prussia King, the Prussian Tsar entered
Paris in 1814 thereby forcing Napoleon to abdicate and flee to the island of Elba.

Prussia
Had been involved against Napoleon as a member of the first, second and third coalition
though suffering defeats. But as a member of the Fourth Coalition Prussia scored
significant victories against Napoleon. This was after it underwent a revival of its army
and re-organization of its society.
Serfdom was abolished, elected councils under the control of the middle class and the
landowners were established, a new land distribution that benefited the peasants was
introduced and military reforms introduced in which there was universal military service
and training. A large professional army was created.
This revival resulted in the rise of a Prussian nationalism. They now called for the
removal of Napoleon in Germany. Also encouraged other nationals under the dynasty
system to fight against Napoleon promising them independence. The entry of Prussia into
the war opened a second front for Napoleon hence France was stretched.
Also took part in the battle of Nations along with Austria, Russia and Sweden in which
they defeated Napoleon and forced him to flee to the Confederation of the Rhineland that
turned against him. Along with the Russian Tsar, the Prussian King entered Paris in 1814
thereby forcing Napoleon to abdicate and flee to the island of Elba.

Austria

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Also been involved in the struggle against Napoleon 1 as a member of the first, second
and third coalitions. As a member of the Fourth Coalition it scored a significant victory
that contributed to the defeat of Napoleon 1.
At the battle of Dresden of August 1813 Austria defeated Napoleon 1.
Also took part in the battle of Nations along with Prussia, Russia and Sweden in which
they defeated Napoleon and forced him to flee to the Confederation of the Rhineland that
turned against him.

NB:
Also consider the fact that Napoleon 1 contributed to his own downfall. Disastrous
continental system, poor judgment etc.

Vienna Settlement 1815

- To maintain peace through a balance of power and a prevention of a further French

aggression
- To maintain an effective alliance of the great powers
- To distribute disputed territories in an acceptable way.

Features

- The principle of a balance of power

- Expediency
- The Principle of legitimacy

Principle of a Balance of Power

- At the Vienna Settlement a balance of power was achieved through the following:
- The prevention of a further French aggression
- The prevention of a domination of Prussia and Russia of the northern part of
Europe

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 - The distribution of the disputed territories in an acceptable way.
- The concept of a balance of power is whereby other powers form an alliance against a
power that attempts to dominate others.
- It was an alliance of great powers in form of the fourth coalition that defeated Napoleon
in 1815.
- It was highly possible that France could be aggressive in Europe.
- This is in view of the fact that at one time Napoleon escaped from exile in 1815and
attempted to reassert his authority in Europe by invading Belgium in his 100 days rule.
- It is against such a scenario that the Statesman at the Vienna Settlement came up with
defensive arrangement in order to prevent the re-occurrence of a further aggression in
Europe.
- Under the arrangement Austria was placed in Italy by being granted control of the rich
provinces of Italy namely Lombardy and Venetia and indirect influence in the Italian
States namely the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily , the Papal States the duchies of Parma
Modena and Tuscany whose rules were connected to those as the Austrian Habsburg
Monarchy
- It was hoped that the presence of a powerful Austrian would help strengthen the
Southern Italian Frontier with France
- After all Bonapartism was born in the Italian campaign. It would therefore not be
surprising to see a further France aggression beginning in Italy
- Austria was also granted the control of Germany confederation under the President of
Austria
- It was judged that a unified and independent Germany would be able to withstand a
French aggression thus the presence of Austria in Germany would strengthen the French
frontier in addition to Prussia that was given control of Rhineland
- In order to strengthen the Frontier of Belgium in France, Belgium was united with
Holland. The events of 1815 in which Napoleon escaped from exile and landed in Europe
for 100 days was a signal to the statesmen at Vienna that an independent Belgium would
not able to resist a further French aggression.
- From the statesmen point of view it will be a betrayal of Europe to leave an independent
Belgium at the mercy of France.

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The Prevention of a Domination of Prussia and Russia

- Russia and Prussia secretly arranged that Prussia would get the whole of Saxony while
Russia will get the whole of Napoleon’s creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.
- This arrangement would result in these two powers dominating the northern part of
Europe. Thus an alliance of the rest of the great powers namely Britain and Austria was
formed against Russia and Prussia.
- In the end a balance of power was maintained when Russia and Prussia agreed that
Russia would get two thirds of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw while Prussia would get two
fifth of Saxony.

The Distribution of Disputed Territory

- The Napoleonic Wars had created disputes in territorial distribution. This resulted in
France having more territory than the rest thereby causing an upset in the balance of
power in terms of territorial distribution.
- Thus the statesmen at Vienna sought to restore and maintain a balance in terms of
territorial possession.
- At Vienna territory was distributed among the victors as spoils for their war effort.
However care was taken to ensure that a balance was achieved.
- Therefore where others like Austria gained in the south in Italy through direct
control of Venetia and Lombardy and an indirect control of Italian states like Naples,
the Papal States, Modena, the Duchies of Parma and Tuscany who were all
connected to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy.
- Others like Russia gained in the north through the control of the whole of
Bessarabia, Austria gained in Germany by being given the Presidency of the German
Confederation of 39 states while Prussia gained the control of the Rhine provinces.
- While Austria, Prussia and Austria made territorial gains in continental Europe,
Britain secured the naval bases in the Mediterranean, Malta and Heligoland. She

52
 also secured colonies like the Cape, Ceylon, India and the West Indies. All these
gains enabled Britain to have a decisive influence in international affairs.
.

The Principle of Legitimacy

- The statesmen at Vienna were well aware of the fact that all the rulers deposed by
Napoleon needed to be restored to their thrones since they were the legitimate rulers.
- When Napoleon conquered the European territory he removed the rulers and appointed
his friends and relatives on their throne to administer the areas on his behalf.
- At Vienna the rulers were restored. The statesmen realized the importance of restoration
as they saw in it the means of maintaining European peace.
- They reasoned that these legitimate rulers would be relied upon to stamp out a
revolution in Europe since it was a revolution that had brought war in Europe.
- The restored rulers were Louis XVIII of France, Ferdinand of Spain, Ferdinand of
Portugal, Ferdinand of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily and the King of Piedmont.
- Even though the majority of these rulers were reactionary the Vienna Settlement did not
specify how they should rule though they suggested a rule through a constitution.

Expediency

- It was an important feature of the Vienna Settlement. It was whereby something is

sacrificed in order to achieve another. Thus at the Vienna Settlement the statesmen
decided to sacrifice the forces of change namely nationalism and liberalism in order to
achieve European peace.
- The principle of a balance of power was sacrificed during the maintenance of a balance
of power. For instance in maintaining a balance of power through the prevention of a
French aggression by making a defensive arrangement.
- Italy was denied the opportunity to get unified. Austria was given a direct and indirect
control of Italy.

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- Germany was also denied unification. Instead more than 200 German states were
regrouped to 39 and created a German Confederation whose Presidency was given to
Austria.
- Belgium lost its independence by being united to Holland that was powerful enough to
dominate her.
- Poland and Finland were given to Russia as part of a compromise that prevented the
dominance of Russia alongside Prussia in the northern part of Europe.
- Norway lost its independence as it was given to Sweden as part of compensation for
losing Finland to Russia.
- The principle of legitimacy resulted in the sacrifice of liberalism in order to achieve
peace.
- During the Napoleonic era all the European territory falling under Napoleonic rule had
experienced some liberal policies of the Napoleonic administration.
- But then the Vienna Settlement restored the reactionary rulers and that implied the end
of the liberal phase in these areas such as Spain, Portugal, Piedmont, France under
Charles X and the Kingdom of Naples.

Realistic

- The Vienna Settlement can be considered as realistic meaning that the statesmen made
practical decisions. They considered the situation as it stood in 1815 and made decisions
accordingly.
- For instance in 1815 the prevailing situation was that France could not be trusted. A
further French aggression was a reality considering the escape of Napoleon from Elba
and his landing in France and attempt to reassert his authority in Europe during the 100
days of his rule.
- The members of the Fourth Coalition such as Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria had
fought against Napoleon and needed spoils as the victors.
- Napoleon’s conquests and the subsequent imposition of his dynasty system resulted in a
number of disputed territory. The statesmen were faced with a reality of the need to
distribute the disputed territory in an acceptable way.

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- Napoleon’s dynasty system resulted in the legitimate rulers being deposed. Thus the
statesmen were faced with rulers needing to be restored onto their thrones.
- Thus the restored rulers were expected to stamp out any revolutionary movements.
- Thus the statesmen at Vienna took measures to prevent a further French aggression even
if it meant ignoring the principle of nationality.
- The victors were rewarded with spoils even though it meant the ignorance of the
principle of nationality.
- A balance of power was maintained through the equal distribution of territory though
the principle of nationality was ignored in the process.
-The legitimate rulers were restored to their thrones even though it meant the restoration
of Europe’s worst reactionary rulers thereby going against the forces of change such as
liberalism.

Reactionary

- The Vienna Settlement was reactionary. It was against political progress. This was in
view of the fact that it was against the forces of change namely nationalism and
liberalism.
- Nationalism was ignored on the maintenance of a balance of power when the rulers
introduced some measures to prevent a further French aggression, prevented an attempt
by Russia and Prussia to dominate northern Europe and distributed all the disputed
territory in an acceptable way.
- Nationalism was ignored when spoils were handed over to the victors.
- Liberalism was ignored when restoring the legitimate rulers, thus Europe witnessed the
restoration of the worst reactionary rulers.
- By ignoring the forces of change the rulers faced revolts later. For instance the 1819 –
20 revolts in Spain, Germany, Portugal and Italy; 1830 Belgian revolution that put the
union between Holland and Belgium to an end; the French revolution that removed the
restored Monarchy of Charles X from power; the revolutions in Germany, Poland and
Italy that aimed at unification and independence.

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THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

- It was a system in which the Great powers would meet to solve international problems.
It was not an international organization such as the United Nations Organization that was
formed by general consensus.
- This was because the Great Powers had different or divergent interests and aims such as
Britain that was concerned with herself interests while other powers like Prussia, Austria
and Russia aimed at preserving their states from revolutions.

Origins

- The Congress System originated from the transformation of the Holy Alliance by
Metternich of Austria into a European alliance.
- Alexander I of Russia had suggested a Holy Alliance that would create a brotherhood of
European rulers and protest religion, peace, justice and treat their subjects in the light of
religious principles.

The Quadruple Alliance

- Most European rulers did not take the suggestion of Alexander I of Russia but then
Metternich took up the idea to transform the Holy alliance into an alliance of the Great
powers known as the Quadruple Alliance.
- Generally the alliance was aimed at preserving peace and promoting cooperation of the
Great Powers but then the self interests of the Great Powers took priority.
- The alliance agreed to meet regularly should there be any international problems.

The Congresses

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Aix la Chapelle

- From the onset the Congress System was doomed because of suspicion, jealous and
mistrust on the surface of all agreements made.
- The congress re-admitted France into an alliance of the Great Powers which was
renamed the Quintuple Alliance.
- This was after the Great powers became convinced that France was no longer a threat to
European peace. In any case France had paid all its indemnity.
- But then the original members of the alliance secretly agreed to form an alliance against
France should it prove to be an aggressor in future.
- On the issue of revolutions Fredrick William of Prussia proposed that an army under the
British Duke of Wellington be stationed in Belgium to crush revolutions in Europe.
- Castlereigh, the British Secretary of State objected to this proposal by pointing out that
Britain should not be dragged automatically into European conflict.
- On piracy and the slave trade there were further disagreements. The members of the
Quintuple Alliance objected to the proposals by Britain and Russia to use their fleets to
stamp out the slave trade and piracy respectively.
- This was because they were against the Russian presence in the Mediterranean and they
were jealous of Britain because she would gain too much power considering the fact that
it had the largest navy.

Troppau
- This meeting was called following the outbreak of revolutions in Spain, Germany,
Naples and the South American colonies of Spain and Portugal.
- At this meeting serious disagreements arose between Britain and the rest of the allies
over the course of action to take place regarding revolutions.
- It was proposed that the counter revolutionary police system be established in Europe
and that an expedition be sent across the Atlantic to force the colonies there to revert to
being the subjects of their mother countries.

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- Britain opposed this proposal and advised Austria that if she felt that the events in Italy
were of direct domestic concern to her then she should intervene on her own
responsibility. In the end the meeting was adjourned.

Troppau Protocol

- It was the continuation of the Congress of Troppau. The purpose of the meeting was to
lay down the procedures to follow in the event of a revolution.
- At this meeting it became clear that the difference between Britain and her fellow allies
were sharp.
- Britain did not attend but sent an observer. At the meeting the allies agreed to only
accept a revolution from above. The one from below was considered guilt and should
therefore be suppressed.

Laibach, 1821

- At this congress the provision of the protocol were carried out. Austria crushed the
revolution in Naples and restored Ferdinand to the throne with full despotic powers.
- Austria, with Russian army in reserve, suppressed the revolution in Piedmont and
restored the king to his throne with full powers.

Verona, 1822

- At this congress it became clear that the collapse of the congress system was certain. An
offer by Russia to suppress the revolution in Spain was rejected by other powers who did
not wish to see a Russian force marching into the heart of Europe.
- In the end it was France that suppressed the revolution in Spain restored Ferdinand with
full powers.
- Now that the revolution in Spain had been suppressed attention now focused on the
Spanish colonies in American.

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- It was at this point that the British intervened because their interests were involved. She
was now able to trade freely with these former colonies.
- The USA government issued a warning to the allies in the form a Monroe Doctrine that
warned them against their military presence on the American continent.
- As a result the expedition to America was called off and a revolution from below was
allowed to triumph thereby violating the Troppau Protocol.

The Greek War of Independence

- The Greek War of Independence was the final blow to the congress system. Alexander I
of Russia had been succeeded by Nicholas I upon his death.
- Nicholas I was determined to assist the Greeks in gaining independence from Turkey.
But then Britain and France did not wish to see Russia acting alone thus they assisted
Russia.
- Turkey was defeated by a combined force at Navarino Bay in 1827. This was once again
a direct violation of the Troppau Protocol that did not accept a revolution from below.
- Thus the congress system collapsed.

THE BOURBON MONARCHY

Restoration in France: 1815 – 1830

Louis XVI: 1825 – 1824

- Louis XVIII did not forget that a revolution had taken place in France. Thus during his
reign he did not rewind the clock back to the pre-1789 period.
- Even on his death bed, he advised his brother Comte d’Artois who was to succeed not to
rewind the clock back to the pre-1789 period.
- Because of his policies Louis XVI was successful in maintaining himself on the French
throne.

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Charter

- Louis XVIII ruled by the charter that had been suggested by the European statesmen at
the Vienna Settlement.
- It provided for equality before the law, liberty, and land guarantee for the peasants, a
franchise, an assembly and cabinet ministers appointed by the king, appointment by merit
and a free press.
- Because of these provisions France had perhaps the most liberal government in Europe
with the exception of England.

Choice of Chief Ministers

- Louis XVIII had a good choice of ministers. In his reign he had two Ministers,
Richelieu and Villele who shared the some aims as him.
- They both aimed at maintaining the liberties guaranteed by the charter. Like their king
they both recognized that a revolution had taken place.

Contained the Forces of Reaction

- Restoration in France meant the return of the émigrés under Comte d’Artois. Louis
XVIII came under pressure from these former émigrés demanding revenge against the
revolutionaries and the Bonapartists.
- They assassinated some Bonapartists like Ney, Carnot, and Marshal Brune. They also
demanded the return of a system of privileges, press censorship and Catholic Church
influence in state.
- Louis XVIII realized the dangers of giving in to these demands. Most of these demands
were being done in the assembly dominated by the ultra-royalists due to the franchise
system.

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- Louis XVIII reacted by dissolving the assembly and called for fresh elections in 1816
that returned a majority in the assembly that favoured the king’s policy.

Re-integration of France into a Great Power Alliance

- Louis XVIII policies enabled France to be re-integrated into the alliance of the great
powers at the congress of the Aix la Chapelle.
- This was after Louis XVIII followed a moderate foreign policy that was acceptable to
the great powers.
- France had paid off the war indemnity and the occupation force of the great powers had
to be withdrawn.
- Thus the great powers were convinced that a threat of a further French aggression no
longer existed.

Contained the Forces of Change

- The 1819 elections brought moderate liberals and extreme republicans into the assembly
in large numbers.
- Taking advantage of their greater numbers they demanded extreme measures. To make
their demands more serious they murdered Duc de Beri the son of Comte d‘Artois.
- Such a move was viewed as an attempt to extinguish the Bourbon line. In order to deal
with this challenge Louis altered the franchise to give the landowners two votes instead
of one.
- In this way a majority of the royalists was brought into the assembly.

CHARLES X: 1824 – 1830

- Charles X succeeded his brother Louis XVIII as the next French King. He was the
leader of the former émigrés formerly called Comte d’Artois.

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- On his enthronement he took the title Charles X. As the king Charles X learnt nothing
about the revolution. This was hardly surprising considering the fact that he was an
émigrés leader who had fought against the revolution.
- In any case during the reign of his brother Louis XVIII he became the leader of the
Ultra- royalists who among other things demanded revenge, compensation and the
restoration of the system of privileges.
- Furthermore he was among those that organized the assassination of the Bonapartists i e
Marshals Brune and Carnot.

The Reasons for the failure of Restoration under Charles X

1. Refusal to rule through a Charter

- Charles X did not follow the advice of his brother Louis XVIII of not rewinding the
clock back to the pre-1789 period.
- He refused to rule by a charter pointing out “I would rather chop wood than rule in the
style of the king of England.”
- In the end Charles X ruled by decree.

2. Reactionary Policies

- Upon his enthronement Charles X adopted a reactionary rule. He started off by

compensating the former émigrés for their losses during the revolution using money
raised among the middle class.
- He revived the Catholic Church influence in state affairs. Coronation ceremonies were
revived and presided over by the church.
- Monastic orders were reintroduced and the Jesuit society was allowed to return the
church was granted the control of elementary education.
- The National Guard was disbanded. It had been created during the revolution as a
guarantor of revolutionary gains. Its disband by the king was seen by the people as signal
that the days of the revolution were coming to an end.

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- Villele, who was the chief Minister resigned because he could not stand the rate at
which the reactionary policies were being implemented by the king.
- Martgnac who succeeded Villele as the Chief Minister was soon dismissed
because he was considered not reactionary enough.
- He appointed a reactionary Minister, Polignac who had the same policies as
himself.
- Polignac aimed at creating a powerful aristocracy and then surrounds it with
privileges hence wanted to rewind the clock back to 1789.
- Charles X adopted a rule by decree. The elections of 1829 brought a majority of
the liberals into the assembly.
- Charles X reacted to this by issuing a decree in the form of the Ordinance of St
Cloud that set aside the election results. This was a final straw that spanned the
people into action.
- A revolution broke out in July 1830 and removed Charles X from power thereby
marking the end of restoration and the Bourbon Monarchy in France.

THE ORLEANS MONARCHY (THE JULY MONARCHY): 1830 - 1848

Introduction

- Louis Philippe, the Orleans Monarch, had a middle class background. He was
unspectacular and led a simple life. He mixed freely with the people walking down the
streets with an umbrella in hand. He indeed was a Citizen King.
- He was France’s first elected king by an assembly that was dominated by the middle
class. He was a compromise candidate as he was likely to be accepted by the liberals on
the one hand and the royalists on the other.
- Being an elected placed Louis Philippe in a difficult position. Having been elected by
the middle class he was expected to dance to their tune.
- This proved difficult considering the fact that France was politically divided. The
liberals demanded freedom through a more radical reform programme, the socialists
wanted a socialist government, the republicans wanted a republican form of government,

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the legitimists wanted the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy, the Bonapartists wished
for the return of Bonapartism and the Catholics aimed the full return of the Catholic
Church into state affairs and in education.

Domestic Policy

- In his domestic policy Louis Philippe promoted the interests of the middle class of
France. This resulted in him being alienated from the rest of the Frenchmen thus leading
to his downfall.

The Charter

- Louis Philippe ruled through a charter. It provided for an elected assembly, a franchise,
guarantee on land gained during the revolution, the national guard and the equality of all
French people.

The Middle Class Domination

- The rule of Louis Philippe was mostly characterized by the middle class domination of
his domestic and foreign policies.
- Being an elected king it meant he had to follow a policy prescribed by the middle class.
This had an effect of antagonizing the rest of the groups that existed in France.
- The franchise system favoured the middle class hence they were elected a large
numbers into the assembly and commanded a majority.
- Using their majority in the assembly the middle class gained the control of the National
Guard that became a middle class in composition. Thus it was often used to serve the
interests of the middle class.
- For example the National Guard was used on several occasions to suppress revolts
against the middle class domination i e 1834 strike by the Lyon workers.

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The Law of Association

- Louis Philippe passed the Law of Association that banned political association or any
discussion of an alternative form of government.
- Such a law was evidently directed against the legitimists, socialists and the republicans.

Refusal to Extend the Franchise

- The existing franchise mostly suited the middle class and disadvantaged the working
class and the peasants.
- On three occasions the disadvantaged group petitioned the assembly for the extension of
the franchise. On all occasions the petitions were rejected.
- The Chief Minister Guizot opposed the extension pointing out that those demanding an
extension must work hard and earn and save money in order to qualify as voters.

The Foreign Policy

-It was the middle class that dictated the foreign policy of Louis Philippe. The policy was
peaceful and cautious especially to Britain.
- Such a policy resulted in France policy playing second fiddle to the British. This
antagonized the Bonapartists who wished for a glorious foreign policy and the liberals
who expected the king to champion the liberal cause in Europe.

The Revolutions in Belgium, Italy and Poland

- A cautious and peaceful policy by Louis Philippe on the revolutions in Belgium, Italy
and Poland antagonized some sections of France.
- Antagonized were the liberals that expected the king to assist a liberal cause in these
countries that drew inspiration from a successful revolution in France in 1830 that
removed Charles X a reactionary ruler from power.

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- The Bonapartists hoped that Louis Philippe would revive the French glory and bring
back the glorious days of Bonapartism.
- But then Louis Philippe was well aware that following the wishes of the liberals and the
Bonapartists meant a direct challenge on the Vienna settlement and its architects and it
was also contrary to the wishes of the middle class that wanted to maintain peaceful
relations with the European powers especially Britain.
- Thus in the Louis Philippe opted for peaceful and cautious foreign policy that resulted
in France playing a second fiddle to the British.
- The Belgians, hoping for the French support offered the throne to the son of Louis
Philippe. Britain was against this offer since it would revive the old union between
Belgium and France.
- To maintain peaceful relations with Britain Louis Philippe turned down the offer. In the
end it was Britain that had a decisive influence on the terms of the Belgian independence
at the London Conference in 1839.
- Furthermore, on the revolution in Italy and Poland the liberals in France, Italy and
Poland were looking forward to France giving assistance.
- But granting the liberals their wish would have resulted in France clashing with the
Great Powers especially Britain.

The Affair of Mehemet Ali, 1839

- The liberals and Bonapartists expected Louis Philippe to assist Mehemet Ali in his
struggle against Turkey. Thiers, the Chief Minister wanted France to intervene and help
Ali.
- But Britain did not wish to see the intervention of France that would result in the
increase of the French influence in the Mediterranean. AS a result Louis Philippe
restrained his Chief Minister from intervening as he wanted to maintain a peaceful policy
with the Great Powers especially Britain.
- Thus once again France played second fiddle to the British thereby antagonizing the
liberals and Bonapartism.

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The Policy on Spanish Marriages

- Until 1846 the position of Louis Philippe as king was secure. What then led to his
downfall was his policy on the Spanish marriages that resulted in him losing the support
from the middle class.
- The Queen of Spain and her sister were both unmarried. An agreement between France
and Britain stipulated that Queen would marry a German Prince while the younger sister
marries the son of Louis Philippe.
- It was further agreed that the second marriage of the son of Louis Philippe would only
take place after that of the Queen and the German Prince and after they produced an heir.
- In this way Britain hoped to prevent an old union between France and Spain. France,
however, violated the marriage by celebrating the marriage on the same day.
- It later emerged that the German Prince was unable to produce children. Thus Louis
Philippe achieved the very thing that Britain wanted to prevent, a union between France
and Spain.
- The British government reacted by ending its friendship with France. With that Louis
Philippe lost the support of the middle class.

The Civil War in Switzerland

- An attempt by Louis Philippe to switch over to the Catholics through a successful

intervention in the civil war in Switzerland on the side of the Catholics against the
liberals failed.
- Britain scored yet another diplomatic victory over France thereby ensuring the victory
of the liberals.
- His intervention antagonized the liberals because his action was an attempt to block the
liberal cause.
He also antagonized the Catholics as he failed to ensure a Catholic victory in
Switzerland.

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Conclusion

- Thus Louis Philippe’s domestic policy and foreign policy by 1846 meant that he did not
have support in France. Thus France was bored.
- Until now opposition to his policies had been driven underground. This time it emerged
in the form of reform banquets organized by the socialists under Louis Blanc.
- Thus the French took a collective effort against the Orleans Monarchy between
February 20 and 22 in 1848.
- The National Guard that was sent to suppress the revolt fraternized with the
revolutionaries.
- The king abdicated the throne and fled to England. Thus the reign of 18 years of the
Orleans Monarchy came to end through a revolution.

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY

Introduction

- The unification of Italy was contribution of Mazzini, Cavour, Foreign powers,

Garibaldi, Piedmont and the Italian people.
- Mazzini inspired the movement for the unification of Italy. Cavour was the brain behind
the unification process, Garibaldi was the body i e the soldier that fought for unification,
the state of Piedmont provided the leadership, military and economic resources for
unification and the people of Italy supported all efforts to get united.

Background

- The Vienna settlement of 1815 denied Italy the opportunity to get unified. It left the
Italians divided into separate states, in the north was the state of Piedmont and Lombardy
and Venetia.
- At the centre were the Papal States and the Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscarny
and in the south was the kingdom of Naples and Sicily.

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- Of all these states Piedmont was free from Austrian domination while Lombardy and
Venetia were under direct control of Austria and the rest of central and southern Italy
indirectly controlled.

Early Attempts to Unify Italy

- Attempts to unify Italy through revolutions and revolts in 1819, 1820, 1830 and 1848
failed.
- This was because unification lacked popular support as most people were unaware of
the revolutionary ideals. The revolutionary leaders had little idea of how to conduct an
effective revolution. Also local rivalry prevented unification. Modena and Bologna could
not work together.
- The policy of “Italia fara da se!” meaning Italy will do it alone failed as Italy was not
strong enough to unify itself without foreign help.
- Austria was too strong for Italy hence crushed all the revolutions.
- The people of Sicily were more concerned with their local needs than a total unification
of Italy.
- Mazzini had an uncompromising attitude that made it difficulty for others to work with
him.
- The Pope, an influential figure, condemned the 1848 war on Austria that could have
resulted in the unification of Italy.

Mazzini

- He was the soul of the movement hence inspired the movement. He achieved this by
preaching the idea of unification through written and spoken word.
- He founded numerous societies and newspapers and used them to invoke the spirit of
unification among the Italian people.
- He believed in the use of the ordinary people in the process of unification. Thus he
founded the Young Italy Society to lead the movement for the unification of Italy.

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- Its programme involved a constant rising that would unsettle Austria and stir the people
to become nationalist and drive the Austrians out of Italy.
- He argued that the Italian people have spiritual faith in unification and that it was God’s
will for Italy to be united.
- His slogan was “Italia fara da se!” The foreign powers had no room to play in the
unification of Italy.
- He believed that the involvement of the foreigners would bring with it political bargains
since they would never assist Italy for nothing.

Activities

- 1830s and 1840s Mazzini and his followers engaged in constant risings that were easily
crushed by Austria.
- Some of his followers got concerned that blood was being split unnecessarily. Mazzini
insisted that the more the people die the more the movement would be taken seriously.
Such an uncompromising attitude resulted in him losing a huge following in the 1840s.
- Mazzini was active in the 1848 revolutions along with Garibaldi when they led a
revolution in Central Italy. They deposed the Pope and took over the Papal States and
proclaimed the Roman republic.
- The Republic was short lived. Mazzini and Garibaldi did not appreciate the fact that the
Pope was an international leader.
- Thus a combined force of Russia and the Catholic powers namely France, Austria and
Spain with Russia crushed the Republic and restored the Pope to his throne with full
powers.
- Thus Mazzini failed in his objective to unify Italy. His policy of “Italia fara da se!” was
a complete failure since Italy was economically and militarily weak and divided. External
help was evidently required.

Legacy

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- Though a failure in the short term, Mazzini left a legacy that proved significant during
the period. Through his inspiration, the Italian people participated with great enthusiasm
in the unification of Italy.
- The efforts of Mazzini are seen by the greater participation of the Italian people in the
risings in central Italy, in the Austro-Piedmontese War of 1859 and the Austro-Prussian
War of 1866.
- The people also voted positively in the plebiscite of 1860 that brought Italy into a union
with Piedmont.
- Mazzini’s inspiration made a thousand people volunteer to join Garibaldi in a rising that
brought the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily into unification.

Cavour

- Played a central role in the unification process. He strengthened Piedmont economically

and militarily so as to the lead in unification. He also brought in the foreign powers to
give support and assistance.

Reforms in Piedmont

- Piedmont was the only state that was free of Austrian domination be it direct or indirect.
This made the state of Piedmont a natural leader of the unification process.
- Cavour was aware that the efforts to unify Italy in 1848 failed because Italy was too
weak to unify itself. Thus he embarked on a reform programme to strengthen Piedmont.

Commerce and Industry

- He promoted the interests of the middle class manufacturers and traders. He established
state banks that invested in railways, shipping lines and in agriculture.

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- Free trade treaties were signed with European states such as England. Infrastructural
development was initiated through the construction of roads and railways.

Military Reforms

- A strong and professional army was built. It was reequipped and the promotion of the
middle class officers was made easier.

Aims and Activities of Cavour

- Originally Cavour aimed at unifying Italy in the North under Piedmont. His plan was to
drive Austria out of Lombardy and Venetia and then unite these two states with Piedmont.
- To achieve this Cavour relied on planning. His methods were war and diplomacy.
War and Diplomacy

- Participated in the Crimean War of 1853-5. This war provided him with an opportunity
to make the Italian cause known to the Great powers. He fought on the side of the Great
powers against Russia. The Piedmontese army was very impressive. At the Paris Peace
Conference, Cavour made the Italian cause known to the Great powers and earned the
sympathy of Britain.

- Used diplomacy when he met Napoleon III at Plombieres in 1815. The two leaders
agreed to drive Austria out of Italy to create a loose Italian Confederation made up of
Piedmont (that would be given Lombardy and Venetia), Tuscany, the Papal States, the
Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and the Duchies of Parma and Modena
- The Confederation was to be headed by the Pope. France would get Nice and Savoy for
its efforts.

- Cavour and Napoleon III used war to drive Austria out of Italy in 1859. Austria was
provoked into declaring war on Piedmont in 1859 there by making it the aggressor in the
eyes of the European powers. France joined the war on the side of Piedmont. Austria was

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driven out of Lombardy following its defeat at the battle of Magenta and Solferino. But
then the French suddenly withdrew form the war before the full implementation of the
agreement with Cavour. Cavour felt betrayed and resigned as the Prime Minister of
Piedmont.
Nevertheless Piedmont gained Lombardy for unification with the help of France..

- The next to be united under Piedmont was Central Italy comprising of the Duchies of
Parma, Modena and Tuscany and part of the Papal States of Umbria and Marches. Central
Italy was not part of Cavour’s original plan as he only wanted to unite Northern Italy
under Piedmont. Central Italy was included into union with Piedmont by Cavour by
chance. The defeat and the forced withdrawal of the mighty Austria out of Lombardy
inspired the people of Central Italy to rise against their rulers who were all connected to
Austria.
- Cavour, who had been recalled to office, took advantage of the risings to include
Central Italy in the union under Piedmont. Once again he got the help of the foreign
powers. Britain stopped Austria from intervening through her “hands off Italy policy”
This was because she was sympathetic to the Italian cause. Napoleon II also got involved
and came up with the idea of a plebiscite in which the Central Italian people were given
an opportunity to decide on their future. Cavour worded the plebiscite in such a way that
a vote for a union with Piedmont was certain. The people were given two choices- to
revert to Austrian rule or to unite with Piedmont. The result was that they voted
overwhelmingly for a union with Piedmont. Thus the Duchies of Parma, Modena and
Tuscany, the Papal States of Umbria and the Marches all joined the union with Piedmont
in 1860.
- Cavour also brought the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily into union by chance in 1861.
This was after taking advantage of Garibaldi’s conquest of Naples and Sicily and his sail
into the mainland. Upon his arrival onto the mainland Garibaldi handed over Naples and
Sicily out of loyalty to King Victor Emmanuel for them to be included in the union. What
remained out of the union was Rome. Until Cavour’s death in 1861 the issue of Rome
and that of the Pope was still a delicate one. Unlike the nationalists of 1848 Cavour
avoided confrontation. He took precautionary measures to prevent Garibaldi from

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attacking Rome during his sail into the mainland. Garibaldi intended to attack Rome and
possibly proclaim a Republic. In this way Cavour was able to unify Italy in a way that did
not attract the intervention of the great powers.

Role of the Foreign Powers

France

- Played a twin role of aiding and obstructing the process of unification. In aiding France
under Napoleon III signed an agreement with Piedmont in which they agree to drive
Austria out of Italy and then form a Confederation of the Italian states under the
presidency of the Pope. The agreement was implemented in 1859 when France and
Piedmont fought against Austria. Austria was driven out of Lombardy following its defeat
at the battle of Magenta and Solferino. However due to some reason such as the fear of
the great powers Napoleon III suddenly withdrew from the war. This move can be viewed
as being an obstacle in that Napoleon III failed to honour his part of the bargain I e the
complete withdraw of Austria from Italian affairs.
- France assisted in the acquisition of Central Italy to be part of the union. Following the
risings in Central Italy in 1860, napoleon III came up with an idea of the plebiscite for the
people of Central Ital to decide on their future. Napoleon III presided over the plebiscites
and the people voted for a union with Piedmont.

- However France played the role of being an obstacle to the process of the unification of
Italy. In 1848, France along with Russia and other catholic powers such as Spain and
Austria crushed the Roman Republic proclaimed by Mazzini and Garibaldi during the
1848 revolutions. They restored the Pope back to his throne with full powers. A French
garrison was then permanently stationed in Rome to protect him. The continued presence
of the French garrison in Rome to protect the Pope remained an obstacle to the
unification of Italy until 1848 when it was eventually withdrawn.

Britain

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- Supported the unification process through giving moral support as well as her “hands
off Italy” policy. The British policy on Italy began at the 1856 Paris Peace Conference on
the Crimean War. It was after Cavour presented the Italian cause to the conference.
- Britain stopped Austria from suppressing the risings in Central Italy through her
“hands off Italy” policy. She was also active in 1860 plebiscites for Central Italy in
which the people overwhelmingly voted for a union with piedmont.
- Assisted in the Garibaldi‘s sail into the mainland by providing him with a cover in
the form of the British fleet. The sail of Garibaldi culminated in him handing over
Naples and Sicily to be drafted into the union.

Prussia

- Prussia assisted in the unification of Italy through the acquisition of Venetia in 1866. It
had earlier on entered into an agreement with Piedmont in 1865 in which it promised to
give piedmont Venetia if its army fights on the side of Prussia in the impending war
between Prussia and Austria. Thus in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Piedmontese
army under Garibaldi fought on the side of Prussia. Austria was defeated and under the
treaty of Prague Venetia was handed over to Piedmont.

- Prussia also had a hand in the acquisition of Rome in 1870. The Franco-Prussian war of
1870 necessitated the withdrawal of the French garrison from Rome. The Italians took
advantage of the withdrawal and included Rome in the union. With the acquisition of
Venetia in 1866 and of Rome in 1870 the unification of Italy was completed.

Austria

- It was an obstacle to the unification of Italy. In 1815 the Vienna settlement gave Austria
the direct control of Lombardy and Venetia and indirect control of Naples, Sicily and
Central Italy.

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-It suppressed all the movements for the unification of Italy in 1819, 1820, 1830, 1840s
and 1848.

Piedmont

-It provided the leadership role. It provided leaders such as Cavour and King Victor
Emmanuel. These leaders used diplomacy to bring foreign aid as well as making use of
opportunities that came their way i e the Crimean war, risings in Central Italy, Austro-
Piedmontese War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. They also adopted a
cautious approach when dealing with the delicate case of the Papacy.

- Piedmont provided an army to enable the Italians to participate in the Crimean War of
1853-5 at whose peace conference Cavour highlighted the Italian cause before the great
powers. The army also enabled Piedmont to fight in the Austro-Piedmontese War of 1859
that led to the acquisition of Lombardy and the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 that resulted
in the acquisition of Venetia.

- Piedmont provided the financial resources for unification. At the same time its
infrastructure in the form of transport and communication enabled the movement of
goods, weapons, troops and information during unification.

Garibaldi

- Garibaldi was the body of the movement for the unification of Italy. He was the soldier
needed in the unification process. He fought in the wars that led to the acquisition of
Italian territory to be included in the union. He led the Piedmontese army in the 1859 war
with Austria that led to the acquisition of Lombardy and the Austro-Piedmontese War that
led to the acquisition of Venetia.

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- Garibaldi was instrumental in the acquisition of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily that
he then handed over to King Victor Emmanuel to be included in the union in 1861. He
conquered Naples and Sicily and then sailed into the mainland. Upon his arrival onto the
mainland Garibaldi handed over Naples and Sicily out of loyalty to King Victor
Emmanuel for them to be included in the union.

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A-LEV EUROPEAN HISTORY

STUDY GUIDE

SYLLABUS D; PAPER 1:EXAM FOCUSED NOTES

ALPHA INSTITUTE
2016 PRO……….
BY. W. GURUMBADZA

FT [email protected]

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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

WHAT’S A REVOLUTION?

-It is a complete change in the system of a government.

-The French revolution was a dramatic extract even in modern history

for it had a greater impact not only in France but throughout Europe &
the world.

-This is acknowledged by several historians who accept that it marked a

great turning point not only in the history of France but the entire world
e.g. P.G Wright observed that ; the revolution launched an assault on the
aristocratic priviledges, feudal dues & dercalism.He maintained that it
also brought fundamental changes in the nature of warfare & was a
challenge to the whole system of the Ancient Regime.

-Also the revolution marked an end of the middle ages & saw the
beginning of the modern ages i.e. an end to tyranny & dictatorship by
the King & the Church.

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-It also resulted in considerable change of political ,economic & social

conditions throughout Europe.

-Moreso the period witnessed the introduction of a population of ideas

such as democracy & equality.

-It must also not be forgotten that, the revolution was the most complex
phenomenon which no one single fact can explain i.e. it began as an
effort to solve the administration & financial crisis, but during the course
it revealed deep seated discontent running through the people of France.

CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION:

THE ADMINISTRATION CRISIS:-The system of government in France was

very corrupt ,oppressive & inefficient. France was ruled by an absolute
monarchy who stood at the centre of the administration machinery &
had all the powers centred in his hands.

-His position has been referred by D .Thompson as “the hinchpin of the

established political & social order.”

-France had 12 provincial courts & these were controlled by officer

handpicked & appointed by the King.They had strict instructions to pass
judgements in the interest of the king.

-The king ruled with divine rights & had unquestionable authority.He is
regarded to have been quoted saying; “the state is myself” & “the thing is
legal because I wish it.” All this goes to show how through the arrogance
& corruption of the King this system of government displayed the seeds
of the revolution. These were decisive factors that contributed largely to
the 1789 revolution.

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THE SYSTEM OF PRIVILEDGES:-it is displayed in the division of the

French society into 3 Estates i.e.

(a)THE FIRST ESTATE(THE CLERGY): -

-out of a total population of 23 million ,this class had 13 000 Priests &
monks only yet they enjoyed plenty of priviledges & had great influence
on society. Their church the Catholic was the state religion.

-It was responsible for the registration of marriages, births & deaths. It
also controlled education. It had it’s own administration apparatus &
operated like a state within a state.

-therefore it is clear that the church exerted greater influence in

determining the attitudes & actions of the king. The king had the right to
appoint Bishops & Archbishops & all these offices were filled only with
members of the Nobility

(b)SECOND ESTATE(NOBILITY):

-most people joined the nobility through marriages or bought

administration posts by corruption.

-The greatest priviledge of this class was that it was exempted from
paying tax.

-they were also tried in special courts & not in ordinary courts. They also
monopolized certain administration posts e.g. in the military,
government, church & diplomatic service.

(c)THIRD ESTATE(Bourgeoise, peasants & urbanites)

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-They were the most exploited class & each group within this class had
it’s own grievances.They were highly underpriviledged.They paid direct
tax to the government(Taille),property tax & the notorious gabelle
tax.The unfairness of it was that they were forced to collect the tax
themselves & if they failed they had to topup the difference or to be
imprisoned.Above all these taxes took most of the peasants’s income.Yet
the Nobility especially greater nobility owned large pieces of land but
were exempted from paying tax & were few in number. The major
problem of the system of priviledges was that it manifested itself in the
unequal distribution of wealth.They wanted equality with the other 2
classes especially political,legal &social priviledges.

-This treatment beyond humanity provoked a crisis which manifested as

an explosive revolution in 1789.

THE SEVEN WEEKS WAR(1775-1783):

-It is also known as America’s war of independence.Louis XVI

participated in this costly foreign adventure which he funded using
borrowed money.

-the war plus other aggressive foreign policies adopted by the king
emptied France’s coffers & set the government on the road to
bankruptcy.

THE INFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHERS:

-these were great writers & thinkers whose ideas influenced parts of the
French society especially the middle class.

-they criticized many of the established systems of Louis XVI’s

government & the church. Examples of these philosophers are:

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(i)VOLTAIRE(1694-1778)

-he wrote satirical novels & poems. In these writings he exposed the
unjust treatment of the peasants. He also denounced the despotism of
the government.

As a result he became a great enemy of the church & it never forgave him.

(ii)MONTESQUIE(1689-1755)

-he criticized the principle of divine rights of the king & the despotism of
the government. He advocated that government departments should
work as checks on the other to end corruption & enhance efficiency.

(iii)JEAN JACQUES ROSSEAU(1712-78)

-he condemned the oppression of the peasants & sought for the
justification of the fact that people were born free & equal in rights yet
they were bound in chains everywhere.

(iv)THE ENCYCLOPEDIASTS(1751-72)

-they were led by Dennis Diderot. They compiled an Encyclopedia which

contained all existing knowledge including the evils committed by Louis
XVI’s government.

-as their work went on it became offensive on the government especially

the economists who advocated for the abolition of taxation.

-the words of the philosophers were mearnt to advice the King on the ills
of the Ancient regime.

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-eventhough the majority of the French people were illiterate, the

contribution of the philosophers in precipitating the revolution should
not be underestimated-The works of the philosophers sowed the seeds
of the revolution especially in the oppressed third estate. It was because
of the philosophers that the bourgeoisies ended demanding a fair share
of the political cake e.g. positions in the navy & diplomatic service.

-they also ended up demanding political & economic reforms & the
abolition of priviledges.It was inturn the middle class that relayed the
messages of the philosophers to the underprivileged & illiterate
peasants.

THE DISMISSAL OF CAPABLE FINANCE MINISTERS:

-This was another factor that prepared a fertile ground for the revolution
as it exposed the inefficiency & corruption of Louis’ government. Louis
XVI with the pressure of his arrogant wife Marie Antoinette & the royal
class dismissed & booted out of office capable finance ministers like
Turgot & Necker. This was after they had advocated for an end to the
exemption of taxation on the Nobles & other radical reforms that were
intended to revive France’s struggling economy.

-Given such a situation the French people were furious & a revolution
was to occur in the near future as this dismissal dismissed an hopes of
economic improvement government but led to mounting discontent &
agitation among the people.

REVOLT OF THE NOBLES:

-The revolts were a response to effort to the introduction of a fair

taxation system.This resistance set in motion a series of events that gave
an added impetus to the spirit of the revolution.

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POOR HARVESTS:

-these were engineered by a series of droughts & they precipitated a

crisis in 1789.The catastrophe led to serious shortages of bread & other
basic commodities,inflation rose to unrealistic levels while rural-urban
migration intensified.All this provoked the Paris Mob which marched to
Versailles to demand food.

-worse still the rivers froze making the movement of food & basic
commodities by the king impossible.

-Infact the misery caused by the drought created an explosive situation

that resulted in the Paris Mob becoming restless & ready to move into
action.

THE CALLING OF THE ESTATES GENERAL MEETING:

-the calling of the meeting exposed the king’s incompetence. Louis XVI
called each Estate to come up with a list of grievances(cahiers).The
problem occurred when the estates set down to discuss & solve the
grievances. The estates argued on the procedure of voting.

-the king hoped that the old system of voting by estate would carry on
but when the third estate demanded voting by head, the king became
reactionary. The 3rd estate broke the deadlock by converting itself into a
National Assembly , with full powers.

-the king’s effort to disband the Assembly provoked the Paris Mob which
stormed into the Bastille Prison freeing prisoners & looting guns.

-the storming of the Bastille was symbolic to the fall of the Old Regime as
the prison stood as a sign of oppression.

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THE SAN-CULLOTES

Were patriotic citizens of the lower & middle classes who

-Were part of the paris mob involved in...

-storming of the bastille.

-formation of the National Asembly.

-drafting of the 1791 constituiton.

-reign of terror.

THE COURSE OF THE REVOLUTION

-The revolution took 10 years 1789-1799.Throughout this revolutionary

period there were 4 successive governments:

THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY(1789-91):

EVENTS THAT LED TO THE CREATION OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

(i)The May 1789 Riots:-these were generated by the economic crisis

caused by the poor harvests of 1788-89 & they spread throughout the
provinces of France.

-public opinion during the period demanded an end to priviledges & the
calling of the Estates General meeting to solve the crisis.

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(ii)The Calling of the Estates General/State General Meeting

-the cahiers submitted indicated that all the estates needed a monarchy.
They condemned despotism & absolutism. They also desired a
constitution. Other grievances expressed the needy for equality, legal
reforms, simple court procedures, abolition of life appointment of
judges, decrease in tithes & religious freedom.

(iii)The issue of voting procedure:

-the 1st & 2nd Estates refused to accept the new system of voting
demanded by the 3rd estate.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

-it came up with the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

-it laid the foundation for a new government. It laid down the basic
principles such as equality, sovereignity, freedom & equality in taxation.

-the position of the church was transformed.

-they introduced a new law called The Civil Constitution of the

Clergy(CCC).

- under this law,

-Church property was seized , nationalized & it issued paper

money(assignats) as security.

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-the number of Bishops was slashed from 135 down to 83 which

fitted the number of departments.

-Every Priest & Bishop had to take Oath before the CCC.

-every member of the clergy was to become a civil servant & had to
be

elected into office by people.

-the CCC abolished tithes & renounced feudal rights.

-religious orders were also banned.

-it abolished the tax priviledges of the clergy & nobility.

-the local government was also revolutionalised – it divided the

government into 83 departments. Each department had 6-7 districts.
Cantons were subdivided into municipalities.

-the powers of the executive were reduced.

=These changes by the Assembly had far reaching impact on the Clergy &
the Nobility. Many feared for their lives & ran into exile & became known
as Emigres.

-The King having signed the CCC unwillingly tried to flee from the
country but failed.

THE 1791 CONSTITUTION

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-By September 1791 a new Constitution was drafted.

-it was a set of laws that were to give France a new look.

Contents of the Constitution:

-the king’s powers were revised.

-France was to be ruled by a Constitutional Monarchy(powers limited by

the Constitution).

-he was to rule by the grace of God & by the will of the people i.e. powers
were delegated to him by the people.

-he was given powers to appoint Ministers,Ambassadors,members of the

diplomatic service & to control finances.

-he was put in charge of foreign policy.

-he was to be assisted by an executive of 145 MPs who paid tax & were
voted into office by people.

-the Legislature made laws,controlled government expenses & fixed

taxes.

-the judiciary was made democratic.

-a new system was established from district up to department level.

-judges & magistrates were to be elected by people.

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-the jury system was introduced.

-torture,letters de carthel & exposure of offenders to public humiliation

were all abolished.

-offenders were give the right to seek lawyers.

-all aristocratic priviledges were banned.

-4 000 cantons/communities were established & these were self-

governed by Mayors & Councillors.

#The National Assembly dissolved after completing the task of drafting

the new Constitution.

THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

-it began work from end of 1791 to September 1792.

It was also met with several challenges from neighbouring countries

which were wedging a war against France to reinstate Louis XVI back to
his position.

-historic events that occurred during the period include; the abolition of
the monarchy , the execution of Louis XVI , intensification of the war with
the 1st coalition & the drafting of the Constitution of 1793.

-it was dorminated by club politics of the middle class & therefore the
L.A did not introduce significant domestic reforms.

-the clubs that dorminated the Assembly were:

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(i)JACOBINS:

-they were leftists from the National Assembly.They put a lot of pressure
to the L.A from outside.

-Well known members include people like Maximillan Robspierre &

Marat.

-The Jacobins had branches countrywide & very strong support in

Paris.It consisted mainly of the middle class.

-They wanted to dispose the monarchy & therefore carried out violent
activities.

(ii)CORDLIERS:

-it was a small group based in Paris.It was made up of the working
class.They wanted a Republic led by the middle class.

-Well known members include Danton.

(iii)FEUILLANTS:

-They were rightists & were more in number than the Jacobins in the
L.A.They were conservative & wanted to maintain the monarchy.

-Lamentably they were very disorganized & confused as compared to the

Jacobins.

#The L.A passed a law which condemned to death all Emigres if they did
not return by January 1792.

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#It also passed a law which severely punished all Priests who refused to
take oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

#The first ministries appointed by the King were dorminated by

Feuillants but these were dismissed after violent public demonstrations
when the king refused to accept the law concerning Priests &
nobles.These actions were interpreted as a sign of sympathizing with
enermies of the people.

-A new ministry dorminated led by Girondins was appointed -these

wanted a new constitution & to despose the monarchy.

-Moreso pressure for war with Austria & Prussia intensified.

-The L.A also fought the 1792 war.

THE 1792 WAR

Causes of the War

(i)-The growing ideological differences between the Revolutionaries &

the monarchs in Europe.The monarchs feared that if the revolution was
not crushed in France it would spread across Europe.

(ii)-the different clubs also hoped to use war for different advantages e.g
the Jacobins wanted it to export the Revolution outside France &
overthrow all monarchs.

(iii)-the revolutionaries hoped it would divert attention from home &

face foreign enermies & Emigres.

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(iv)The Declaration of Pillnitz:-it was passed by the Prussia & Austria

after being requested by Louis XVI & Emigres.

-The Declaration gave Austria & Prussia the powers to control events
inside France from August 1791.

The declaration was received differently in all the countries:

-In France the new Girondins ministry wanted war & used the
Declaration as an excuse to declare war.This strengthened patriotism & a
move towards republicanism.

-In Austria the new Emperor wanted war.

(v)The Brunswick Manifesto of July 1792-it was written by the Duke of

Brunswick with the support of Austria & Prussia.

The manifesto stated that any further action against it’s demands would
be taken as a revolution & this would lead to a drastic punishment of
Paris.

-the manifesto resulted in violent demonstration by the Paris Mob & it

went ahead to demand the removal of Louis XVI from power.

-France declared war against Prussia & war began.

-Louis removed the Girondins accusing them of starting a war.The

Cordiliers led by Danton accused the king of stabbing France in the back.

-In August Danton staged a coup & took over power.The king was
suspended.

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The September Massacres:

-In September 1792 Danton & the Cordiliers in 5 days brutally killed all
Priests & Royalists imprisoned in various prisons in Paris & they
demanded all Communes to do the same.

-Louis was disposed as the king of France & was found guilty of treason.

-On the battle front the French Army was crushing Prussia & this revived
the spirit of the revolutionaries.

-On the other hand the Jacobins led by Robespierre worked hard to
dissolve the L.A so as to establish a new convention to draft a new
Constitution.

-They went ahead & declared that France would help any country in
Europe to overthrow tyranny.

THE NATIONAL CONVENTION

-It was the 3rd revolutionary government in France.It was dorminated by

the Jacobins .As soon as they got into office they abolished the system of
the monarchy & declared that France was now a republic i.e from Sept
1792.

-They went on to draft a new Constitution for that Republic.

-Under this Constitution all male adults were given the right to
vote(although in reality this never happened).

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-The N.A was very aggressive,brutal & used force & dictatorship.It also
used it’s several Jacobin Clubs countrywide to implement it’s policies.

-The government was put under a special committee known as The

Committee of Public Safety (C.P.S)set up in 1792.The C.P.S was led by
Danton.

-It controlled the police & the National Guard(army).

-In 1793 Danton was accussed of not being brutal enough & was replaced
by Robespierre ,an extremist who was prepared to use any force
necessary to achieve the aims of the C.P.S.This resulted in what has been
referred in history as the reign of terror.

THE REIGN OF TERROR

-it was a period under which the Jacobin led Convention used brutal
methods to get rid of all people against the Revolution in France.

-The policy of terror was designed to instill fear on traitors,royalists &

anyone who did not support the cause of the revolution.

-During the period of the terror normal function of the government was
suspended.

CAUSES OF THE TERROR

(i)-Internal revolts aimed at overthrowing the Jacobin government that

broke out in about 60 departments around France, made the Jacobins to
use force to suppress them & establish order.

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(ii)-In Paris & elsewhere the price of bread,having stabilized for a year
rose sharply.Other basic commodities became scarce.Food shortages hit
the nation & the assignats dropped in value while inflation
multiplied.Instability increased as people resisted conscription & there
was unemployment

(iii)-The external threat as France suffered defeats in it’s foreign

adventures.

-In the face of these threats the government resorted to drastic

measures, repression & the guillotine to safeguard the interest of the
revolution.

THE INSTRUMENTS OF TERROR

-The terror was systema tically implemented using several methods:

(i)The Committee of Public Safety:

-It controlled the course of the revolution from September 1792.It was a
forceful instrument that sent many people to the guillotine.

-It controlled the police & national guard.It also appointed ministers ,
sentenced suspects who were finally sent to the guillotine.

-It also sent many intelligence agents(spies) on special missions.

(ii)The Revolutionary Tribunal:

-it was set up to try suspects or those who were accused of betraying the
revolution.The Tribunal in the end fed up many people to the guillotine.

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(iii)The Law of Suspects:

-It allowed the C.P.S to put suspects in prison without trial.In the end it
caused many to be imprisoned & executed because they were suspected
of not supporting the revolution e.g. revolts in the department of La
Vendee were ruthlessly crushed by the army which fired live bullets
directly into people.

(iv)The Law of Maximum:

-it reduced the price of wheat & bread.It was beneficial to the mass as the
people were able to buy bread & flour.However it was a loss to the
farmers who got little from the sales.

(v)The Law of 22 Prairial

-the law punished to death all people who were accused to be of bad
moral character.It made many people to loose their lives.In the end it
increased opposition against Robespierre.

RESULTS OF THE TERROR

-Many historian have summarized the terror as a necessary evil which

was designed to overcome a national state of emergency.

-It’s instruments were extremely brutal & the impact far reaching.

-The main results were;

(i)-it resulted in the death of many innocent lives which were brought to
Tribunal & passed on to the guillotine.

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(ii)-the spirit of opposing the revolution began to die e.g. after the
ruthless crushing of internal revolts in the department of La Vendee.

(iii)-the external enemy was contained & pushed far away from France’s
borders.

(iv)-the destruction of Christianity by the Herbertists created disunity in

the country.

(v)-it resulted in the Thermodorian Convention- it agreed that the terror

had reached a climax & had to be stopped.This resulted the arrest of
Robespierre & his supporters in July 1794.They were also guillotined.

IMPACT OF THE DEATH OF ROBESPIERRE

-the terror stopped

-The C.P.S lost power & the Tribunal was abolished.

-All Jacobin clubs were ordered to close.

-Religious freedom was reintroduced.

-the drafting of a new Constitution began-The Directory

THE DIRECTORY(1795-99)

-It was the last revolutionary government in France.It was to be under a

Directory of 5 men & the Assembly was to have 2 houses .i.e. a Council of
500 plus a Council of 250 Elders.The 250 chose the Directory from the
names submitted to it by the Council of 500.

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-Directory was faced with several challenges .e.g. it continued to fight

foreign armies & the internal revolts that continued.

-Therefore from 1795 the army became an important organ in the

politics of France. .e.g. -A royalist revolt was crushed by Napoleon
Bonaparte.

-1797 revolts were also crushed by Napoleon.

-historians are agreed to the fact that the Directory did not bring
anything significant in France.It was corrupt & full of scandals as the
leaders were self-seeking politicians who did not have the wishes of
people at heart.

-The people continued to hate the war with foreign armies & wanted it to
end so that the domestic problems could be solved.

-In 1799 Napoleon who had gained popularity from the Italian campaign
(1797)staged a coup & took over power.

QUN.THE WEAKNESSES OF THE DIRECTORY FAR OUTWEIGHED ITS

SUCCESES,DO YOU AGREE/DISCUSS?

WEEKNESSES OF THE DIRECTORY

-They failed to solve the financial crisis in France.

-continuos political instability.(wars)

-failed to get rid of the ghost of corruption.(corruption resurfaced).

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-was weak militarily therefore faced many coups.

-failed to put down social disorder.

-economic crisis resurfaced (limited/low investment)

-failed to stamp out inflation

-slow and ineffective decision making

SUCCESSES OF THE DIRECTORY

-was the longest serving government of the four in France during the
revolution.

-succeeded to overthrow dictatorship (SELFISH RULE).

-Improved on food crisis to some extent

-partially reduced corruption and inflation even though these resurfaced

rampantly at a later stage.

-leaders were dertermined as they initially tried to please the masses in

the early days but later became self centered as they tried to safe guard a
longer stay in positions of leadership.

-France developed some relatively uniform administration during the

time of the directory.

BENEFITS OF THE FR. REVOLUTION

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-The Revolution brought equality before the law, administration

reforms ,fair taxation, liberated industry & commerce, abolished
feudalism, land redistribution, transference of power from the Nobles &
Clergy to the bourgeoisies, expansion of schools, colleges, museums &
libraries.

IMPACT OF THE FR. REVOLUTION

-It wiped out the old orders in politics, economics & social life.

-many people began to demand Constitutional reforms & an end to

monarchial governments in their countries

THE RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

-He was born in Prussia. Attended a military school in France in 1784.

-1785 he was appointed a Lieutenant & commanded an artillery brigade

1793.

-In 1795 he crushed internal revolts in Paris & was promoted to

command the army.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE RISE OF NAPOLEON

-Napoleon was a military genius as displayed by successes in his military

genius & this won him support from people.

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-the people of France were tired of the war & wanted peace. Therefore
they were prepared to support anyone who promised this peace. This is
supported by historians who argue that “the time was ripe for a soldier
with genius for organization to take over authority.”

-The Directory had proved to be a total failure for it failed to bring

significant solution to France’s problems.

-The people wanted a new government led by a strong leader which

would rescue them from the problems & guarantee the gains of the
revolution. Napoleon by that time had proved to be the right candidate
with such qualities.

-Napoleon’s extra-ordinary character showed that he had the brains to

handle all kinds of situations .e.g. with very limited resources, small
army & poor equipment he fought successful battles.

DOMESTIC POLICIES/MEASURES

(i)LOCAL GOVERNMENT:

-He organised the local government along revolutionary lines although

he included his own ideas.

-He placed himself at the top of the state administration machinery

-As 1st Consulate he had all powers centred in his hands.The final
decision laid in his hands.He made laws,appointed & dismissed officials
& could declare war or peace.

-He maintained the system of departments & these were led by Prefects-
who were personally handpicked & appointed by him.
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-Districts were changed to become arondishments & these were led by

sub-prefects who were also appointed by him.

-Communes/Municipalities were led by Mayors but these were chosen by

Prefects.

#It is therefore evident from his reorganization of the local government

that Napoleon centralized all power of the structures of the local
government & controlled French life from his base in Paris.

(ii)EDUCATION:

-He revised the education system of France.He left primary education in

the hands of the church but the government controlled
secondary,tertiary & university education.

-The government designed syllabi,appointed teachers & enforced

regulations through education inspectors.

-History & Philosophy were banned.These subject were accused as

dangerous subjects as they encouraged critical & independent thinking.

-He introduced 6 400 education rewards(bursaries) for best

students.However 2 400 of the bursaries were reserved for sons of his
government friends.This sidelined the majority if ordinary citizens .

-He went on to establish semi-military schools(lyceers).These schools

trained students to be royal citizens & helped to spread Napoleonic
propaganda.

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-The University of France was established & it had 16 branches

throughout the country.It was controlled by a Grandmaster chosen by
Napoleon & was answerable to him.

(iii)THE CONCORDAT:

It was a treaty between the state & the church.It was after Napoleon
realized that religion was very important in improving relations which
had been destroyed by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in the country.

-The Concordat allowed Catholism to be the state religion & since the
majority of the people in France were Catholics they were needed for
support.

-However other religions were also allowed to continue to function

thereby promoting freedom of religion.

-Church land which had been sold or distributed to peasants was not
returned.

-Bishops were to be chosen by Napoleon eventhough they were to be

blessed by the Pope.

(iv)THE NAPOLEONIC CODE:

This was the Codification of the Law. It was the interpretation of the law
as it affected every citizen.

-This was because since 1789 people were so much confused & not
aware of the Law that governed France.

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-Everyone was to be equal before the Law.

-It produced a Civic Code which looked at marriage, divorce &

inheritance. This Code was mearnt to improve family life which
Napoleon believed was the foundation of constructing national unity.

-Sons were not allowed to marry under the age of 25 & girls under the
age of 21 without their father’s approval.

-After the death of a father inheritance went to the first born son.

-Other Codes looked at aspects of French life as they were applied in

other European countries.

-However a close analysis of the new law indicated that it gave too much
authority on men & sidelined women thereby ignoring the principle of
equality.

-But despite this it preserved a lot of changes brought about by the

revolution .e.g. equality of people before the law as well as freedom of
religion.

(v)LEGION OF HONOUR(1802):

-It was a recognition of people’s talents.The L.H gave people from all
parts of the society the opportunity to display their talents & make them
useful to society. This went along way in promoting equality before the
law & created a priviledged group loyal to Napoleon.

-Moreso through the L.H he created a well of friends around such that if
disaster struck he would have support.

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(vi)PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMMES:

-several projects were established to solve unemployment .i.e the

construction of bridges, railway lines, roads e.t.c

-this resulted in Paris becoming the most beautiful city in France.

-The works boosted the people’s support for Napoleon as he was seen as
having the people’s wishes at heart.

(vii)INDUSTRY & COMMERCE:

-to please the business sector Napoleon established a stable economic

environment. He stabilized currency, imposed high tariffs to encourage
the growth of the local manufacturing industry.

-The currency was stabilized on a gold basis.

-The bank of France was established to give aid for development.

-the result was industrial expansion & an economic boom.

FOREIGN POLICIES

1.THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN

The importance of the Italian Campaign

-In 1796-7 he led the French army on the Italian Campaign during which
he brutally defeated the Austria & made them to sign a peace treaty, the
Treaty of Compo-Folmos in 1797.
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-It gave Napoleon the opportunity to display his military genius. With a
small , ill-equipped army he brutally defeated the Austrians.

-France gained a lot of territory-.i.e .the land between Belgium & the
Rhineland.

-He acquired a lot of treasure & artefacts which he used in the

restoration of France.

-The defeat of Austria during the campaign resulted in the creation of the
Republic of Northern Italy.

-it made him to be sent on the Egyptian Campaign in which he displayed

his military genius by defeating the British at the Battle of Pyramids.

2.EGYPTIAN CAMPAIGN

-Between 1789-90 led the army on the Egyptian Campaign. The aim of
the campaign was to destroy Britain economically before attempting to
destroy it on land.

-It was during these campaigns that he earned popularity among the
people of France & in 1799 he abandoned the Egyptian campaign &
returned home were he successfully staged a coup & got into power.

-He went on to establish a Consulate of 3 & he became the 1 st Consulate.

According to the Constitution the Consuls were appointed for 10 years.

-The first Consul had the absolute power, make laws, appoint & dismiss &
could make peace or war.

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-He further took a giant step to consolidate his position by creating an

imperial dictatorship as Napoleon 1.

3.THE PEACE TREATY OF AMIENS(1802):

-In 1802,Napoleon reached a peace agreement with Britain as they

couldn’t effectively attack each other during the war.

-Under the agreement Britain was to return all the colonies she had
conquered to their original countries except Celon & Trinidad.

-France was to restore Egypt & evacuate Rome & Southern Italy.

-However, it was a good agreement but it failed to realise that France &
British imperialism can not co-exist together & in1803 war broke out
again.

4.THE WAR WITH BRITAIN(1803)

-The war broke out again because the 2 failed to keep the terms of the
Peace of Amiens.

-Napoleon violated the terms of the agreement by refusing to accept

British colonial & economic supremacy.This was because Britain was too
powerful such that France could’nt exercise economic control of Europe.

-Britain who had hopes for free trade with France was angered by
France’s high tariffs.France also continued to sent spies to Egypt &
Britain got suspicious.War broke out in May 1803.

5.THE TREATY OF TILSIT(1807)

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-It was signed secretly between France & Russia.

-According to the treaty Russia was forced to recognize Napoleon’s

territory in Italy &Germany.

-Napoleon’s brother Jarop was recognized as the King of the new

Kingdom of Westaphalia.

-Louis Bornaparte was recognised as the King of Holland & Prussia.

6. THE PENINSULAR WAR(1808)

-It was fought with Spain & Portugal.The spirit of nationalism in these
countries united the people who resisted Napoleon’s Continental system.

-these 2 countries had hoped to establish very profitable trade with

Britain.

-France attacked the 2 countries at the same time. Fierce resistence by

the Spanish guerrillas made France to surrender.This encouraged other
countries to abandon the Continental System.

7.THE MOSCOW CAMPAIGN(1811)

-The campaign was motivated by Napoleon’s desire to enforce the

Continental System in Russia after Russia had dropped the system
because it was not profitable.

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-Napoleon mobilized an army of more tha 600 000 soldiers & invaded
Russia.France suffered severe defeats & in the end a remnant of 20
000survived & returned home to tell the sad tale of the bloody conflict of
Borodino,the Flames of Moscow ,the ravaging diseases & the chilling cold
as well as the harassement of the Russsian forces.

-Napoleon deserted his troops & fled back home as he knew that Europe
would be encouraged by his defeat & rise against him.

NAPOLEON’S DOWNFALL

THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM:

-It was France’s strategy of trying to isolate Britain after military

methods had failed.

-Through the system Napoleon hoped to suffocate Britain’s export

markets by discouraging other European countries from trading with
Britain.This would then deal an economic death blow to Britain.

-He issued the Berlin & Milan Decrees in certain European countries to
achieve his system.

-However the system failed to affect Britain significantly because;

(i)Britain had vast financial resources &naval power which she used
to develop

a system of smuggling & underground trade & her economy

continued to

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survive.

(ii)many European countries remained committed not to implement

the system

as this would have destroyed their economies which also heavily

depended

on Britain.

-As a result Napoleon’s efforts to enforce the system dragged him into 2
disasterous campaigns .i.e. the Peninsular war & Moscow Campaign.

THE EXHAUSTION OF FRANCE:

-The above campaigns made France very tired & she became unable to
supply enough troops to replace those he lost in the wars. As a result he
lost support at home.

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM:

-Napoleon’s attempts to enforce the system in Spain & Portugal as well as

to force the 2 to supply him with troops & resources backfired & fuelled
nationalism in these two countries. It was this force of nationalism that
united the people to fight & defeat him.

THE LARGE FRENCH EMPIRE

-the French empire by 1814 had become too large for one man to
effectively handle. He ended up depending too much on foreign armies
for his war adventures.

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THE FORMATION OF THE FOURTH COALITION:

-It was made up of Russia, Britain, Austria & Prussia.It was the first time
France faced 4 European political giants.

-The coalition successfully divided Napoleon’s forces & brutally harassed

them.

-He was defeated in several battles in 1813 & was captured in 1814 &
was sent to the island of Elba.

THE VIENNA PEACE SETTLEMENT

BACKGROUND:

-The dormination of Europe by Napoleon forced the major European

powers i.e the 4th coalition(Britain,Russia,Austria & Prusssia),to unite to
defeat him.

-This alliance was carried into the peace time period with the aim of

(i) preserving the dynastic states in Europe.

(ii) settling any disputes peacefully.

-Because of this, the 4th coalition later agreed on the idea of the “Concert
of Europe” through which they were to act as a Congress.

-The settlement was based on different but interlocked agreements.

-The agreement signed were;

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(i)THE TREATY OF CHAMOUNT(March 1815)

-It was signed by the members of the 4th coalition.

-They agreed to overthrow Napoleon.

-They also agreed to maintain the alliance for 20 years so as to guard the
territorial arrangements made after the overthrowing of Napoleon.

-Moreso they agreed to restore the Bourbons in France i.e Louis XVIII
who had fled upon the arrival of Napoleon.

(ii)THE FIRST TREATY OF PARIS(May 1815)

-It was a lineant agreement signed by the coalition with France so that
she would not keep a grudge & that the new King Louis XVIII would not
loose popularity.

-According to the agreement France’s borders were reduced to those of

1792.She lost Belgium & the left bank of the river Rhine.

-She was to keep her colonies.

-No army of occupation was stationed inside France.

-She was not to pay reparations.

-She was allowed to attend discussions at the settlement but not as a

member of the settlement.

(iii)THE HOLY ALLIANCE(Sept 1815)

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-The leaders agreed to rule on christian principles i.e acting as brothers

to each other & as fathers to their people.

-This was proposed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia who was inspired by

strong religious emotions.

-As quoted by D. Richards Castlereigh disapproved the alliance & called it

“a piece of sublime mysticism & nonsense” while Metternich called it “a
loud sounding nothing”.

(ivTHE SECOND TREATY OF PARIS(Nov 1815)

-Whilst the powers were busy preparing a settlement Napoleon escaped

from Elba but was later defeated by the 4th coalition at Waterloo.

-The coalition was angered & therefore they signed a harsh second treaty
with France.

-According to the term of this treaty,

-France’s borders were reduced to those of 1790.

-She was to pay reparations & a joint allied army was stationed inside
France until the reparations were paid.

-Napoleon was sent to the isolated island of St Helena were he later died
at the age of 56years.

(v)THE QUADRUPPLE ALLIANCE(Nov 1815)

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-The powers agreed to work together as a Congress inorder to suppress

France.

-They also agreed to promote common interests & to discuss any

important matters affecting Europe.

THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA(Nov 1814- June 1815)

-The Big 4 that met at Vienna to discuss the future of Europe were:

(i) Austria was represented by Prince Clemens von Metternich.

(ii) England --- Lord Castlereigh.

(iii) Russia --- Prime Minister Handernburg.

(iv) Prussia --- Tsar Alexander I .

(v) France was represented by Talleyrand while other smaller nations

were represented by their Kings , Ministers & Princes but these were not
allowed to attend on the most important issues.

-Almost all European nations were represented.

AIMS OF THE CONGRESS:

(i)- to redraw the map of Europe while sharing the spoils as rewards to
the allies without causing conflict.

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-While they attempted to share the spoils, the powers disagreed on the
sharing of Poland & Saxony & this Poland – Saxony question almost
divided them into 2 camps.This was because Prussia & Russia demanded
the 2 states while Britain & Austria on the other side opposed the
move.France supported Brtain & Austria.

-However to avoid an explosive confrontation a peaceful arrangement

was agreed.

-Prussia had territorial gains in the North i.e ½ of Saxony , Sweden,

Pomeramia & the Rhineland.

-Austria gained in the South & West i.e Holland ,Lombardy ,Venetia ,
Parma , Tuscany , Modena & Venice.

-Russia gained in the North & the Balkans.

-Britain gained Islands in the West Indies, Ceylon , the Cape of Malta &
Heligoland.

(ii)- creating a stable Europe in which there would be a balance of

power.This was mearnt to avoid future trouble because through the
balance of power there would be no power , powerful than the others.
This was to be achieved through creating a ring of powerful nations
around France which would act as barriers against future France
aggression e.g the formation of the confederation of Germany states on
the eastern side of France.

(iii)- to maintain an effective alliance of the big four so that they would
keep acting together as a Congress in matters affecting Europe.

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(iv)- to discuss the principle of legitimacy i.e the restoration of true

regimes. This was mearnt to guard against the spread of ideas of the
French Revolution & the effects of Napoleon’s rule. This was
spearheaded by Metternich & Talleyrand who hated nationalism &
liberalism.

-the principle led to the restoration of some of the rulers in western

Europe e.g. the rulers of Spain & Naples as well as those of Parma ,
Tuscany & Modena.

CRITICISM OF THE VIENNA CONGRESS

-With regard to it’s intended aims the Vienna settlement has been
regarded to a larger extent as successful. This was because;

(i)- The Congress was justified in it’s search for stability & indeed that
stability prevailed for the 40years that followed. This is supported by A.H
Herder who observed that ,the diplomatic skills laid in 1815 were like a
small path cut through a jungle of international relations that proved
useful throughout the 19th century.However It’s failures were not in
terms of the settlement but the type of leaders who for the decades that
followed were entrusted with the application of the terms.

(ii)-The concept of the balance of power which was the principal aim of
the settlement became the most successful achievement of the
settlement. This is evidenced by the fact that this B.O.P became a
prominent feature of the period as no one power achieved any kind of
domination that France had achieved before 1814.

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(iii)-The Holy Alliance coined by Tsar Alexander I of Russia despite it

being regarded as a cheap document in European diplomacy, was
regarded & used by Metternich as a weapon of direct intervention in the
affairs of smaller states & in support of the idea of the monarchy.
Therefore the Holy Alliance & it’s interventionist policy preserved the
ideological & territorial arrangements at the settlement in the period
after 1815.

(iv)-According to the Congress , repression both in ideology & force had

to be used first to maintain stability. This principal was later adopted at
the Congress of Troppau(1820) & was applied successfully against
liberal risings in Naples & Piedmont in 1821 & Spain in 1822.

(v)-The cornerstone of the settlement was the future of France herself.

The allies were concerned about the Bornapartist resurgence & the
containment of France. Thus to attain this they were successful in forcing
the French to accept the restoration of the Bourbons.

(vi)-The establishment of the Quadrupple Alliance also sowed seeds of

international co-operation as it saw France being admitted in 1818.

(vii)-It’s idea of the Concert of Europe was perhaps the most lasting
achievement of the settlement & according to commentators it earns
comparison to the League of Nations(1919) & the United Nations(1945).

-However Napoleon’s wars of liberation had been a crusade of the people

, but the people & their desires were kept out of the discussions. Because
of this the Congress therefore stored up future trouble.

-Moreso eventhough the arrangements made were mearnt to guard

Europe against future France aggression it ignored one of the most
important factors that had helped to defeat Napoleon i.e. NATIONALISM.

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-This was because the Big 4 shared smaller nations at the expense of
human rights & these nations ended being placed under foreign
governments which they disliked. This growth of nationalism later
proved to be a force behind wars in the 19th century.

-This is supported by Peacock who observed that the settlement was

more concerned with defensive arrangements than with nationality.

-A . Ramm in agreement says the peacemakers restored the old order

because they were untouched by the new ideas & did not understand
their effects.

-Finally the Congressmen agreed to meet in future Congresses.

THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

-According to the Quadrupple Alliance the powers were to work together

so as to suppress France.

-They also agreed to hold periodic meetings to discuss.

THE CONGRESS AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (1818)

-The Congress renewed France’s position by restoring her as a great

power leading to the reformation of the Quadrupple Alliance to become
the Quintiple Alliance.

-The powers also agreed to withdraw the army of occupation that was
stationed in France.

-Also France’s co-operation was accepted in Congress.

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-They also agreed to protect the Jews in Europe.

-However the congress also witnessed a lot of disagreements that

threatened the smooth operation of the alliance. This is supported by D.
Richards who commented that “there were genuine efforts to produce a
unified policy among the powers but their interests were too diverse for
this effort to have much success.”

e.g. (i) the powers could not agree on a joint operation to punish the
Barbary Pirates operating in the Mediterranean because of the fear of
Russian ships in the same area.

(ii) Prussia & Russia wanted the alliance to guarantee the territorial
arrangements made at Vienna as well as to intervene wherever there
was a revolution in Europe. This was not supported by Britain who was
against the policy of intervention in other countries’ affairs.

(iii)-Other powers opposed Britain’s proposal to send a naval force to

search ships for slaves.

THE CONGRESS OF TROPPAU(1820)

-Britain & France were not present at the Congress. It was attended by
Austria , Prussia & Russia.

-It was a reaction to the revolts that broke out in Naples & Piedmont.
They wanted to discuss whether it was necessary to send an allied army
to suppress the revolts as well as the way forward in suppressing liberal
revolutions throughout Europe.

-The absence of France & Britain was a reflection of the increasing

differences among the allies.

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-As observed by A. Ramm, Castlereigh of Britain even declared the

Congress a “destitute of common sense.”

-The result of the Congress was the signing of the Troppau Protocol
which reinforced unity among the powers.

-The Protocol stated that “…the powers bind themselves by peaceful

means to bring back the quity states into the Great alliance…”

THE CONGRESS OF LIABACH (1821)

-The Congress gave Metternich authority to send an army to suppress

revolutions in Naples & Piedmont.

-The army managed to restore the overthrown Kings back to their

positions.

-Also revolts broke out in Greece against their Turkish rulers & they
hoped to get help from Russia.

-Towards the end of 1821 Britain & Austria met & agreed to call for a
meeting to stop Russia’s intervention in Turkey.

-However before this Congress there were political disturbances in

Spain. France began to talk of interference.

-Castlereigh committed suicide & was replaced by Canning who had the
determination to break up the alliance.

THE CONGRESS OF VERONA(1822)

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-Discussions were centered on Spain. France wanted support to

intervene but Britain refused.

-A. Ramm noted that “this was a bombshell that prevented the alliance
from acting by armed force in Spain.”

-However France got promising support from the 3 other members.

-As noted by Peacock from thereon Canning’s policy was “Every nation
for itself & God for us all”. This was a blow to the solidarity of the
Congress System

-In 1823 France restored the old government in Spain but Spain was
facing rebellions in her Latin American colonies.

-In December 1823 the USA passed the Morae Doctrine which warned
Europe that America was no longer open to European colonization.

-The same month a Congress was called to discuss Spanish America.

-Britain did not send a representative.

-Austria , Prussia ,France & Russia abandoned the idea after USA &
Britain had shown each other support to fight the alliance if it interfered
in the revolutions in America.

-As observed by D. Richards “the alliance was at it’s last legs”

THE FAILURE OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE SYSTEM

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(i)-vital issues arose on which Britain could not agree with her partners
e.g revolutions in Spain , Italy & Greece

(ii)small powers were not present & therefore they did not feel like
giving the territorial arrangement much support. The Congress violated
their rights & this shows it was never universal.

-Infact as observed by Peacock the system after 1820 became a trade

union of Kings to suppress the liberty of the people.

(iii) According to D. Richards Britain destroyed the alliance because she

thought it threatened her interests & pocket-touching matters such as
trade with the Spanish Congress.

(iv)Other historians such as LCB Seaman argue that there was no such a
thing as the Congress but rather it was a creation of historians. He
however notes that if they were there , there was little systematic about
them.

(v)-according to Seaman the alliance had no tangible principle on co-

operation.The self interests on the powers destroyed the Congress.

THE METTERNICH SYSTEM

-Prince Metternich had been a great advocate of the Congress System as

he felt it provided a good platform for political negotiations.

-he wanted members of the Quadrupple Alliance to use the necessary

force to suppress the emergency of revolutions in any other European
country as had happened in France.

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-however by 1825 the system had collapsed & future peace in Europe
depended on individual leaders.

-the centre stage of such a situation in Europe was dominated by

Metternich.

WHO WAS METTERNICH

-An Austrian born from one of the popular upper class families. By
tradition he had come to hate everything in the words liberalism (e.g.
equality of class & all freedoms) & nationalism.

-He called these national poisons & democratic rubbish & this increased
his hatred for the French Revolution.

-From the Congress of Vienna to the death of Francis 1 he directed the

policies of the Habsburg (Austrian)empire & his influence affected the
government policies of other European countries

PRINCIPLES OF THE SYSTEM

A principle is the basic truth used as a measurement for common thinking.

(i)-he believed that the only true type of government was that led by a
Monarchy.He hated governments elected by people. To him this was a
sign of democracy. To him democracy was an element of violence & a
poison to the security & political stability of the empire.

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(ii)-he believed in a highly centralized government in which every citizen

should be answerable to the king.

(iii)-he believed the chief duty of the government was to preserve the
social order. This government was ruled by divine authority.

(iv)-such a social order was to be protected by the unity of all

monarchies in Europe against political & social revolutions .

(v)-to achieve this monarchs should support the idea of the Concert of
Europe, balance of power & employ a police force & army to crush any
revolution by irresponsible citizens.

(vi)-he also believed revolutions were created by power hungry citizens

for personal benefits & power which they did not have.

HOW DID THE SYSTEM OPERATED

-It used 2 methods;

(i) Direct Control

(ii) Indirect Control

WHERE DID THE SYSTEM OPERATED

(a)THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE:

-In the Austria empire Metternich used direct control.

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-With support of Emperor Francis I ,Metternich introduced reforms to

achieve his aims.

-The system maintained the autocratic type of government so that there

was no possibility for the eruption of any revolution in the empire.

-He introduced extensive censorship in his efforts to suppress the

spread of the national poison. Through censorship he hoped to arrest the
spread of liberalism & nationalism in the empire.

-All books , newspapers , pamphlets & University education material

were censored to silence propaganda which spread the revolutionary
ideas of equality , freedom & nationalism.

-In addition Austria was declared a Catholic State thereby erasing any
hopes for freedom of religion. All other religion were not tolerated.

-Only Catholics were allowed to hold positions in public offices. This

became a source of irritation for many especially the Slav people who
belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church as well as the Protestants in
Bohemia & Moravia.

-However it is sad that, despite all these efforts,the system did not bring
any significant results in the empire.

-His ideas were never accepted to a greater extent & Austria moved on
bankrupt with limited economic achievement & therefore remained a
laughing stock of Europe throughout the period 1815-48 according to
Peacock.

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-Economic conditions became worse, the grievances of the bourgeoise

increased & this kept industry & trade in a poor state as compared to
European nations like Britain , France & Prussia. This is evidenced by the
discontent of the Germany capitalists in the empire who agitated for
economic reforms.

-Moreso the middle class began to prove their hatred for the priviledges
of the Austrian Nobility which they accused of monopolizing the control
of economic resources, government positions & exemption from the
military.

-Furthermore in Hungary social & economic conditions worsened as the

Magyars who dominated the Hungarian Diet clashed with the Emperor
as they resisted elements of the system.

-Other Hungarian nationalities such as the Croats began to clamour for

political independence.

-In a nutshell the failure of the system in the empire can largely be
attributed to the inability of the empire to hold the empire together &
effectively manage it’s affairs.

-Infact as observed by Peacock, he was too active a mentally defective

man to manage the affairs the empire given that it consisted of a
hotchpotch of nationalities.

-The result of the failure of the system was the socio-economic & political
discontent which led to the 1848 revolutions.

(b)ITALY:

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-In Italy he used both direct & indirect rule in an attempt to dominate the
Italian Confederation.

-In an effort to maintain Austria’s domination in Italy & keep Italy

divided , he kept his grip on the Lombardy & Venetia which belonged to
Italy(these 2 were important because they provided Italy with ¼ of her
revenue).

-In this region Austrian rule was ruthless. Criticism to the system was
punishable with torture, imprisonment & even death.

-Political meetings were banned & Italy stayed with no standing

parliament.

-Street names were Germanised , German was declared the official

language, there was extensive censorship & most industries were
operated to the benefit of Austria.

-In Italy the system was met with some degree of success as evidenced by
the above developments & Metternich’s success in stationing Austrian
troops in Lombardy & Venetia.

-the success has also been attributed to the fact that ,the rulers of the
Italian provinces of Parma , Tuscany & Modena were connected with the
Austrian Hapsburgs.

-Even the Pope himself according to Peacock looked for support from
Austria which he believed was the most important of Catholic states in
Europe.

-Lastly the system also proved to block the Unification of Italy for
sometime.

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(c)THE GERMANY CONFEDERATION:

-Between 1815 & 1850 Germany was made up of 39 states restored by

the Congress of Vienna.

-These were disunited & this pleased Metternich who hoped take this as
an advantage to implement the system.

-it should also be remembered that he was the President of the German
Confederation (a parliament of all German states).In this parliament he
had a decisive voice.

-Also the period saw many people beginning to clamour for liberalism &
a move towards nationalism.

-It was this desire for equality , freedom & national unity that unsettled
Metternich. He therefore hoped for a chance to move in & implement his
system.

-In 1817 events occurred inside German & he moved in:

(i) The Wartburg Festivals

-It was the celebration for the Germany reformation & the 1813 Battle of
Leipzig that saw the defeat of Napoleon.

-during the celebrations, university students burnt remains of France’s

domination & anti- liberalism material. Metternich was angered &
treated these actions as treason & conspiracy.

(ii)The Carlsbad Decrees

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-These were passed after the assassination of Kotzebu a secret agent of

Russia & an anti-liberalism journalist.

-Metternich seized the opportunities & convinced the Germany Diet to

take action.

-The Decrees introduced resulted in;

(a) extensive censorship throughout the German Confederation & by

1820 censorship was in full force that political progress ceased.

-All political meetings were declared illegal & the Germany colour code
of red ,black & gold was banned.

(b) government education inspectors were placed at every university .

(c) informers were also placed at all universities.

(d) all student unions were banned.

-In 1820 more measures were introduced & these allowed the Germany
Diet to use force to suppress any revolts in the Confederation.

#The system in the German Confederation was fairly successful for it

managed to check the development of both liberalism & nationalism for
30 years.

-However underground political discontent survived & fuelled further

growth of nationalism & liberalism.

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE SYSTEM

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(a) The existence of several nationalities within the Austria empire

fuelled political divisions among the different nationalities & this
accelerated nationalism & liberalism.

(b) Metternich’s intolerance of religious freedom created hatred of the

system by Protestants & the Greek Orthodox Church.

(c) The government system of the Empire was too complex such that
even internally many government officials detested the system.

(d) above all even though he prevented reforms in Prussia for sometime ,
Prussia later turned out to be Austria’s worst rival.

#In the end the system defeated itself as evidenced by revolutions that
exploded & finally led to the unification of Germany & Italy.

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY

-The movement towards the unification of Italy can be divided into 2

phases;

(a) The Initial phase-(1815-1848)

(b) The Final phase- (1848-1870)

THE INITIAL PHASE:1815-1848:

-During this period Italy was not united. In this divided Italy, Austria had
remarkable influence in the affairs of the Confederation.

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-The period saw the first steps towards unification by the Italians.
Throughout this phase the Italians were guided by the slogan “Italia fara
da se” which meant Italy was to free herself from foreign domination
without foreign aid.

-This was because the French revolution had had a negative impact in
Italy.

-After Napoleon III’s Italian Campaign the Italians had welcomed

Napoleon III as their saviour from Austrian domination but his policies
soon led to French domination that erased any hopes of liberty & unity.

-Moreso the Metternich system had made them to also loose all hopes on
liberal reforms. The system exercised direct control in Lombardy &
Venetia as well as indirect control throughout the Confederation
especially in Parma , Modena & Tuscany.

-Above all at the Congress of Vienna(1815) ,the statesmen were very

reactionary & divided Italy into 9 states which were ruled by despotic
governments implementing Austrian interests.

ITALIAN RESISTANCE 1815-1830

-The Metternich system in Italy made the possibilities of opposition

obvious.

-Without freedom of publication & speech the idea of unity & freedom in
Italy lost its platform.

-This suppression of individual freedom created intense discontent

which resulted in the formation of secret organizations determined to
oppose Austria influence in Italy.

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-A good example was the Carbonari/Charcoal Burners. With their slogan

“freedom & Independence” they became very influencial in inciting
opposition & revolution against Austria especially in Piedmont & Naples.

-However it is sad that by 1832 the heroism of the Carbonari had failed.
It led to a lot of bloodshed as their rebellions were ruthlessly crashed by
Austria, each in isolation.

-The failure of the 1820 revolutions have largely been attributed to a

lack of sound leadership , committment & experience in organization by
the societies. Moreso Austria was too powerful a force to deal with the
rebellions.

-Nevertheless despite the failures, important lessons & conclusions had

been learnt by many of these secret societies.

GUISEPPE MAZZINI & THE YOUNG ITALY MOVEMENT

-He was an important figure & activist of nationalism & liberalism. He

inspired many people to work for the unification of Italy between 1830 &
48.

-Because of his hatred of the way the 1820 revolts had been
suppressed ,he formed The Young Italy Movement in 1831. He felt the
young generation had to be well prepared if unification was to be
achieved.

-By 1833 his membership rose to above 60 000.

-The movement did a lot of work spreading the need to undertake a

revolution & the idea that Italy had enough resources to achieve national
unity.

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VINCENZO GIOBERT

-He was a writer & a Priest who advocated for liberal Constitutions in
every Italian state. He hoped that if that was achieved Italy would be
united as a federation under the Pope.

-He also hoped to revive Catholicism throughout Europe

CAMILLO DI CAVOUR

-He was a Piedmontese & had powerful liberal ideas. He preached in his
newspaper IL Risorgimento. He hoped to see the independence of Italy
under the leadership of Sardinia.

-Because Piedmont-Sardinia was the only state free from Austrian

domination, the people of this region felt they were the true Italians.
Therefore after 1848 the state lead the movement towards unification.

THE RISOGIMENTO

-This was the revival of nationalism by the 3 men above.

THE 1848 REVOLTS/UPRISINGS

-The revolts were motivated by the news of the fall of Metternich in

Austria & forceful activities in German & France.

-As a result a new wave of nationalism swept through Italy. Revolts

erupted & swept through Sicily ,Naples ,Piedmont & the Papal states with
all these states gaining liberal Constitutions .In Sicily the King Ferdinand
II granted a Constitution which meant automatic independence.

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-The King of Piedmont Charles Albert ,who was a leading opponent of

Austria finally resorted to war with Austria. It is unfortunate that he was
defeated & he abdicated & his son King Victor Emmanuel II took over
power.

-In all other states the revolutions were finally crashed ruthlessly.

-This failure of the 1848 revolutions has been largely attributed to;

(i) The supremacy of Austria which proved to be a decisive factor over

the Italians.

(ii) there was divided opinion in Italy between the republicans &
monarchists who supported king Albert. This led to a lack of a proper
strategy to defeat the Austrians.

(iii) The Pope also defected & this discouraged the Italians who had
pinned their faith on him.

(iv) In addition, Napoleon III intervened against Italy & this affected
Mazzini & Garibald the mercenary negatively.

-However the failure of the 1848 revolutions had its own advantages;

-important lessons had been learnt especially that Mazzini & the Pope
had shortfalls.

-most Italians learnt that the slogan “Italia fara da se” had failed.

-Above the real enemy Austria had been identified.

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#It was Cavour who by this time introduced the idea that the Austrians
could only be driven out with foreign help & between 1848 &1871 this
new approach dominated all efforts towards unification.

THE FINAL PHASE(1848-1871)

-the 1848 lessons made the Italians to identify that Piedmont-Sardinia

must take the leading role towards the unification of Italy with foreign
help.

PIEDMONT’S ADVANTAGES OVER OTHER STATES;

She was the only state free from Austrian influence.

She was the centre of all liberation movements & this made her a
liberation machine.

It had powerful people to lead the Italian cause e.g. Cavour , Charles
Albert & King Victor Emmanuel II.

She was economically powerful to finance the process.

She had a standing army which was prepared for future wars especially

against Austria.

-Prior to this a fertile ground had been created especially maintaining

the liberal constitution & building a very strong economy.

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-This is supported by Peacock who observed that political liberalism &

economic success were to give a driving force needed for the unification
of Italy.

-the man to lead the way was Cavour.

Cavour’s aims

-He wanted to unite Italy under Piedmont i.e it was to be the centre &
engineer of the unification.

CAVOUR’S DOMESTIC REFORMS:

TRADE: -He expanded Piedmont’s trade through the introduction of

several company reforms. Co-operatives were established as well as state
banks through which money could be invested in railway , shipping &
agriculture.

-To support this he signed several trade agreements with foreign

governments(Britain , France & Austria).It was through these treaties
that in future Piedmont acquired essential industrial goods.

TRANSPORT:-several transport systems were established & these

allowed Piedmont to be connected to France & Germany. All these
allowed the flow of essential goods & services.

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RELIGION & EDUCATION:-Changes were introduced in religion. He

introduced the Siccadi Laws(1850) which prevented the Clergy from
acquiring too much land. Also church land was taxed & the number of
Holy days were reduced to allow activity. Infact he hoped to reduce the
political power of the church so as to make sure that government policy
would not be influenced by the political influence of the Pope who was
the Governor of Rome , Romagna , Umbria & Marche.

AGRICULTURE:-New scientific methods were introduced & irrigation

shemes were expanded for he hoped in future Piedmont was to be the
breadbasket of the country.

ARMY:-Transformations were brought also in the army. He created a

large & powerful standing army of 90 000 soldiers. This was
revolutionalised ,strengthened & made professional. It was to play a
significant role in the unification process.

FOREIGN POLICIES:

(i)THE CRIMEAN WAR(1854-56): It was his first effort at getting foreign

assistance. When the war broke out he supported Britain & France
against Russia. -The war was short & the allies (Br & Fr) won. At the
peace agreement Cavour elaborated his grievances. Eventhough he did
not get immediate help ,an effort had made.

(ii) In 1858 during the attemted assassination of Napoleon III –The

Orsini Incident (Orsini was an Italian). Orsini & his party suspects were
arrested.He signed the Plombieres Agreement with France ,through
which Napoleon III allied with Piedmont against Austria. In return Italy
offered Savoy & Nice. Piedmont was also to provoke Austria into a war.

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(iii)THE PIEDMONT –AUSTRIA WAR(1859):-The war was caused by

Austria who demanded Piedmont to disarm. Piedmont refused & war
broke out. France joined the war & defeated Austria at the Battles of
Solferino & Magenta. Austrian troops were driven out of Lombardy.
France made a quick withdrawal & signed a peace treaty with Austria.
Eventhough Cavour was disappointed the first step towards unification
had been achieved.

THE INCORPORATION OF CENTRAL ITALY (THE DUCHIES)

-The successes above created a national spirit in the people of central

Italy. Revolts broke out in Parma , Modena , Tuscany & Romagna & these
led to freedom from Austria & the Pope. They declared their own
independence.

-Northern Italy was created & it was made up of the 4 above.

THE INCOPORATION OF NAPLES & SICILY

-By 1860 conditions in the 2 were miserable. The population remained

illiterate & living s standards were poor. In 1859 Mazzini encouraged the
people to revolt & with the assistance of Garibald- a hired mercenary,
they overthrew the government in Naples.

-the people in these areas voted to be incorporated with Piedmont.

-In 1866 the Italians contributed towards the Seven Weeks War.(Prussia
vs Austria).Austria was defeated & in the treaty of Prague ,Austria
surrendered Venetia.

-At this point the whole of Italy had been incorporated except Rome.

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THE INCORPORATION OF ROME

-before Rome could be incorporated two problems had to be solved.

(a) the French army protecting the Pope had to be defeated.

(b) the Pope was not willing to surrender power.

-In 1870 the Franco- Prussian war broke out. Napoleon withdrew his
forces to face Prussia. This left a power vacuum in Rome.

-Italian forces took advantage & invaded Rome defeated the Pope &
declared Rome the capital city of Italy.

-The Pope finally surrendered & that led to the final unification of Italy.

-A last a united Italy was created.

THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

-The unification of German like that of Italy can best be studied by

breaking it down into 2 phases;

(a) The Revolutionary Period.

(b) The Bismarckian Period.

BACKGROUND:

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-The idea of a united German was first raised at Vienna Congress in

1815.The reduction of the 200 Germany states to 39 was a theoretical
move towards that unity. However in practice this failed to satisfy the
hopes of those who expected constitutional reforms in the individual
states.

-Moreover the states created later proved to be an unsatisfactory &

unworkable compromise.

-It should be remembered that the Congress besides reducing the states
to 39 , it had also magnified the influence of Austria & Prussia in the
Confederation & throughout the unification period the 2 proved to be
rivals.

-However comparatively Austria was less influencial than Prussia, who

consolidated her power after acquiring the Rhineland in 1815.

(a) THE REVOLUTIONARY/LIBERAL PERIOD (1815-48)

-The creation of the German Confederation angered nationalists who had

looked forward to real unity as well as liberals who had hoped for the
election of Parliaments & responsible governments in every state.

-An atmosphere of frustration enveloped these 2 groups. Despite the

government’s use of force from time to time to suppress their activities,
they managed to keep the liberal spirit alive.

THE 1830 REVOLTS

-The 1830 revolutions against Charles X in France revived the spirit of

nationalism & liberalism in Germany.

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-Violent revolts erupted in Brunswick & Poland & the Diet’s reply to this
was very serious.

-Political meetings & the student colour code of red, black & gold were
banned.

-Moreso repression became stronger than ever before in Germany

political progress ended.

THE ZOLLVEREIGN

-It was a customs union created between Prussia & the 28 states that she
traded with. The union simplified their tariff system.

-Infact it was introduced in 1818 but revised in 1834 to include South

German states.

-By 1845 all German states except Austria had joined the Zollverein. In
1852 when she tried to join she was denied membership.

-The Zollverein was politically significant in that;

(i) It prepared Prussia for the future leadership of Germany.

(ii) It led to the expansion of the Germany industry & modernized its
transport system.This led to economic co-operation which later turned
into greater political co-operation in which Prussia was to act as a guide
to which many Germany patriots turned to for greater political unity.

THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS:ATTEMPTS AT UNIFICATION

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-The 1848 revolts in France against Louis Phillipe revived the spirit of
nationalism in Germany.

-Revolts erupted in many states & this resulted in the granting of liberal
Constitutions. Many people thus began to demand the creation of a single
Germany with one parliament.

THE FORMATION OF THE FRANKFURT PARLIAMENT(MARCH-1848)

-It was a provisional parliament formed by of representatives of all

Germany states to discuss possible political union.

-Even though nothing significant was achieved it was the 1 st victory for
the liberals.

-Sadly by 1849 it had become clear that the 1848 revolts had not
achieved their main aim of changing the political systems in the
Confederation.

-The Frankfurt parliament collapsed & the King of Prussia gave up

support for the creation of a united Germany under Prussia, when he
signed the Treaty of Olmutz with Austria that made him give up his
support to The Prussian League that demanded for the creation of a
united Germany state. As a result, the old Germany Confederation was
revived.

-However important lessons had been learnt;

(i) It became clear that Austria was the greatest threat towards
unification. She therefore had to be eliminated.

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(ii) Unity was not to be achieved through peaceful means ,but violent
actions would bring co-operation.

(iii) Problems have to be solved practically. The Frankfurt parliament

had been too theoretical in approaching the Germany cause for unity. A
forceful leader was therefore needed to map the way forward.

(iv)The humiliation at Omultz was a result of a weak & ill-organised

army.A formidable & organised army was therefore needed.

THE RISE OF OTTO VON BISMARCK & THE FINAL UNIFICATION OF

GERMANY(1862-71)

THE RISE OF WILLIAM I TO POWER

-He succeeded his brother Fredrick William IV who died in 1861.

-He was a military genius who wanted to see a united Germany under
Prussia.

-When he came into power he made significant reforms in the army.

(i) von Roon was made Minister of War.

(ii) von Moltke was made the Chief of staff.

-The 2 immediately expanded the army to 700 000 & to support this they
demanded an increase in taxation.

-The parliament refused & William I resigned.

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-The resignation gave Bismarck the opportunity to be recalled to replace

William & he was appointed Prime Minister.

OTTO VON BISMARCK’S ADVANTAGES AS PRIME MINISTER

(i)The Zollverein had laid a perfect foundation for future political unity
& co-operation.

(ii)A good transport network had been established & this was to be an
essential tool for future wars.

(iii)Rapid industrialization due to plenty of natural resources especially

coal & iron ore created economic stability.

(iv)An efficient & professional army had been created. It was this army
which was to be responsible for foreign adventures.

(v)He enjoyed the support of King William I.

BISMARCK’S POLITICAL AIMS

-He wanted to create a united Germany with Prussia as the head.

-To use force i.e. a policy of blood & steel in achieving this unification
since he expected a lot of internal & external opposition. Diplomacy had
failed & war was inevitable.

-To eliminate Austria from the affairs of Germany.

-To make Germany the most powerful country in Europe.

BISMARCK’S FOREIGN POLICY

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-Bismarck’s foreign policy was guided by the above aims.

THE POLISH REVOLT(1863)

-The revolts provided Bismarck with the first opportunity to take action
abroad. In 1863 the Poles revolted against Russian domination.

-Many countries sympathized with them but Bismarck moved in to help

the Tsar to crush the revolts.

-Despite the ability of the Tsar to have crushed the revolts himself, his
help went a long way in establishing a long lasting relationship between
Prussia & Russia.

WAR WITH DENMARK-Schleiswig-Holstein Question:

-The question had been a long standing problem which was revived
when Bismarck came to power.

-Schleswig & Holstein were ruled by Denmark eventhough they had their
own Constitutions. Historically they could not be ruled separately.

-The problem in this region was centred around land disputes & mixed
nationalities. Schleswig was dominated by Danish people while Holstein
by Germans.

-In 1848 Denmark attempted to incorporate the 2 but the German

nationalities in the region rebelled violently.

-A peace conference was held & Denmark was given the right to rule the
2 but never to incorporate them.

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-The SHQ gave Bismarck the opportunity to extent Prussian territory.

-He agreed with Austria to settle the dispute.

-They called for a European Conference to solve the dispute & when the
Danish people refused to attend , a joint Austria-Prussian army marched
into these areas & defeated Danish.

-A peace treaty the Treaty of Vienna was signed & Denmark handed over
the 2 to Prussia & Austria.

-However the joint administration later proved to be an unworkable for

it led to threats of war.

-In 1865 The Convention of Gastein was held & it resolved that Prussia
was to administer Schleswig & Austria , Holstein.

NB: Holstein was surrounded by German territory & therefore this made
it difficult if not impossible for Austria to administer.

SEVEN WEEKS WAR

-The war was caused by administration problems of Holstein &

Schleswig.

-Prussia accused Austria of stirring trouble for Prussia in Schleswig by

protecting refugees from harsh Prussian rule as well as violating
neutrality agreements.

-In June 1866 Prussia invaded Holstein & took over control.

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-Austria declared war on Prussia. After only 7 weeks Bismarck won his
first victory by defeating the Austrians at the Battle of Sadowa.

-The victory marked a turning point in the movement for the unification
of Germany. At the Treaty of Prague Austria agreed to dissolve the
Germany Bund & a Confederation in which Austria was not to be a
member was established.

-At last Bismarck had managed to exclude Austria from German affairs.

-Prussia annexed the 2 regions.

Effects of the war;

-The elimination of Austria had been a long cherished ideal & practically
the whole Europe was affected;

(i)Prussia emerged from the war as a great power which more territorial
gains.

(ii)The 22 states in the North united to form the North Germany

Confederation even though each was to retain it’s own government.
Bismarck was to be President.

(iii)Bismarck consolidated his position as Chancellor & was answerable

to the King only.

-The established North Confederation took the unification process to a

new height & only South Germany states had to be included for the
unification to be complete.

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-However eventhough Bismarck’s policy went a long way in eliminating

Austria , strong separatist forces remained especially in the South.

-Historically ,the only major connection between the North & the South
had been a few military treaties & these positioned Prussia as a
protector of the South.

THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR(1870-1)

Causes of the War;

(i)In 1866 Napoleon demanded compensation from Prussia for being

neutral during the Seven Weeks War. Bismarck published the demands
to expose Napoleon’s aggression to the South were Napoleon had
interests.

-As a result the Southern states signed an agreement with Bismarck &
agreed to have their armies put under Prussian control if any war broke
out.

(ii)The Spanish Succession Question;

-In 1869 a revolution broke out in Spain & the Queen fled leaving a
power vacuum. The throne was offered to Prince Leopold a relative of the
King of Prussia.

-Bismarck encouraged the Prince to accept the position but against the
King who argued that acceptance would threaten France who feared
Germany encirclement.

-The King sent an EMS Telegram to Bismarck stating France’s demands to

stop the succession.
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-Bismarck changed the words of the telegram to make it appear as if the

King of Prussia had refused to negotiate with the French ambassador.

-The ‘new’ telegram was published in France & Prussia.

-The publications led to protests & a war hysteria broke out in France &
she declared war in 1870.

-Bismarck formed an alliance with the South & won decisively over
France.

-A treaty was signed & France surrendered Alsace & Lorraine & a
Germany army was stationed in France so she can pay war damages .

-In Germany the North & South finalized the terms of unification & a new
Imperial Germany was created with Bismarck as the Chancellor.

THE SECOND REPUBLIC OF FRANCE 1848-1870

THE RISE OF NAPOLEON III

-Napoleon III was a nephew of Napoleon I, the Great Emperor of the 1 st

Republic of France.

-Thus in France he enjoyed a lot of support from different social classes

for a variety of reasons.

-He wrote several political works .e.g. The Extinction of Pauperism in

which he emphasised the need to eradicate unemployment , establish
planned development & the reorganization of the French army so as to
win the lost prestige.

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-Therefore in the light of this vision it is clear that he wanted to seek the
Napoleonic Legend of order , progress & national dignity.

NAPOLEON’S DOMESTIC POLICIES/MEASURES

(i)LOCAL GOVERNMENT:

-In his reorganization of the local government he borrowed a lot from his
uncle though he blended this with his own ideas.

-As Emperor he fixed himself at the top of the state administration. He

alone could control the army , initiated foreign policies & appointed or
dismissed public officials.

-All Ministers were answerable directly to him & not to the Assembly.
Prefects became the most important officials in his government. They
were controlled by the Interior Minister & could exercise great powers.
As observed by Peacock , they became little Emperors with powers to
appoint teachers in state schools or dissolve local councils which
opposed the Emperor’s wishes.

-All candidates for election were personally handpicked by Napoleon.

(ii)CENSORSHIP:

-He made great efforts to control the press. He established an extensive

censorship system throughout France.

-All newspapers were forced to practice good behaviour. The Interior

Minister was given the powers to close any newspaper which
misbehaved after giving it 3 warnings & all cases involving newspapers
were tried without the jury system.
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-activities at the University of Paris were strictly monitored.

-Censorship was enforced using a wide network of spies who moved

around hunting for people opposing the government.

(iii)EDUCATION:

-The government controlled the education system. Secondary , Tertiary

& university education was put in the hands of the government.

-More secondary schools were built & by 1866 there were 60 000
secondary schools throughout France.

-The curriculum was widened but History & Philosophy were banned as
they were regarded as dangerous subjects.

-Elementary education was made free & compulsory by 1863.

-All teachers in state schools were by appointed or dismissed by Prefects

of Departments.

-The University of Paris was strictly monitored & controlled by the

Grandmaster who was chosen by Napoleon III.

(iv)REBUILDING OF PARIS:

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-Slums were destroyed in Paris & all other big cities. The central part of
Paris was rebuilt with sets of boulevards it has to this day. The streets
were widened. Paris became the city of entertainment , imperial
hunting ,operas &military parades all which gave Paris a new look , new
significance ,a taste of culture & glory. As a result Paris became more
than a political & economic centre.

-Old towns were also restored to give them a new look & fresh taste. This
resulted in increased rural-urban migration especially among peasants
who sought employment.

(v)INDUSTRY & COMMERCE:

-he created several investment opportunities in industry &

communications.

-There was rapid development in transport & communication networks

as well as trade throughout France.

-Special banks were established to give loans to manufacturers &

farmers.

-Loans were given for canal development & to improve navigation of the
Rhine & Siene Rivers.

-As a result of these economic policies France experienced a period of

outstanding economic progress among European countries. Productivity
rose, national wealth increased & the cost of living decreased
significantly.

(vi)THE GREAT EXHIBITION:

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-In 1855 France undertook a great exhibition in Paris to advertise her

industrial products & arts. It was a great event that put France on the
world map thereby restoring her long lost glory & prestige.

#To a greater extent many historians have embraced Napoleon III’s

domestic measures as a success as they brought about valuable benefits
to the people of France. Added to this was a wide range of foreign policies
which however because of differing opinions with his advisors ended up
being half accomplishments & downright failures.

NAPOLEON’S FOREIGN POLICIES:

Aims of the foreign policies:

-carry out a series of revolutions that would civilize & liberate oppressed
classes of Europe.

-restore France’s prestige & glory abroad while consolidating his

position at home.

-expand France’s territory by acquiring more strategic territories for

France.

(i)THE CRIMEAN WAR(1854-6):

-The war was caused by France’s demands to control the Holy places in
Jerusalem which she had abandoned during the French Revolution.

-Russia had taken over the control of the Holy places on behalf of the
Greek Orthodox Church.

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-Desperate to win the support of the French Catholics Napoleon allied

with Britain & declared war against Russia in 1854.

-According to historians the effects of the war were greater than the
causes.

-France won the war ,signed the treaty of Paris &

(a)Napoleon III gained prestige & became the hinchpin of international

diplomacy.

(b) it divided Russia & Austria who had had a longstanding partnership
since 1815. To Napoleon this was a long cherished achievement.

(ii)THE ITALIAN ADVENTURE(1858-59):

-In 1858 Napoleon promised to help Italy in her struggle for Unification.
This was to be achieved by liberating her from bondage by the Austrians
i.e by driving the Austrians out of Lombardy & Venetia.

-Napoleon offered his support to the Italians & defeated the Austrians at
the Battles of Solferino & Magenta.

-The Treaty of Villafranca was signed & it gave much favour to France.

-However despite the victory the people of France were not happy about
it .Napoleon had offered held to the Italians without the approval of the
people of France. The war had drained France’s financial resources &
many people had died fighting the war.

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-This earned him a lot of opposition at home & mistrust abroad as he had
not completed the adventure but went on to demand & annex Savoy &
Nice which belonged to Italy. The Catholics were humiliated & labeled
him a betrayer.

(iii)THE MEXICAN ADVENTURE(1861):

-In 1861 Napoleon accompanied by the Britain & Spain invaded Mexico
with the aim of forcing Mexico to pay debts.

-After negotiations Britain & Spain returned home but Napoleon

unsatisfied & determined to achieve greatness & win the support of
Catholics remained in Mexico.

-However it is regrettable that the Mexican adventure ended up an

expensive fiasco as the French army suffered defeats from the Mexican
guerrillas.

-In the end the adventure damaged the Emperor’s reputation his
selfishness & half hearted engagement in foreign affairs.

SECTION D

THE VERSAILLES SETTLEMENT

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June. The German delegates

had not been allowed to attend any of the meetings at Versailles.

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When they saw the terms, they were horrified. The Treaty was heavily
influenced by Clemenceau's desire to 'make Germany pay'. The German
delegates considered restarting the war, but this was impossible.

THE VERSAILLES TREATY

The main terms of the Treaty were as follows

Land - Germany lost about 10 percent of her land. Alsace-Lorraine was

given back to France. The Polish Corridor was created.

Colonies - all German colonies were taken away and were handed to
Britain and France.

Armed forces - the German army was reduced to 100,000 men and
conscription was banned, the navy was reduced to six ships and
submarines were banned, the airforce was to be completely destroyed.

The Rhineland - this was to be demilitarised.

The Saar - this was to be occupied for fifteen years and France would be
able to mine coal in it for those years.

Reparations - Germany was to pay £6,600,000,000 for the damage

caused by the war.

The War Guilt Clause - Germany was to accept the blame for causing the
war alone.

The Treaty was the result of bargaining between the allies.

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-Italy was not given the Adriatic coast that had been promised by Britain
and France at the Secret -Treaty of London in 1915.

-France was not allowed to occupy the Rhineland

-Woodrow Wilson was not able to achieve freedom of the seas

-Lloyd George was unable to achieve a moderate settlement.

Gross error over the Treaty of Versailles

The Germans were not consulted about the terms of the peace treaty but
just called to sign the final document. It was called by them a 'Diktat' - a
dictated peace. The reaction of Germany was a cry for vengeance. Field
Marshall Hindenburg of Germany said the following:

"In the event of a resumption of hostilities we can . . . defend our frontiers

in the east. In the west, however, we can scarcely count on being able to
withstand a serious offensive . . . The success of the operation as a whole is
very doubtful, but as a soldier I cannot help feeling that it is better to die
honourably than accept a disgraceful peace."

Territorial terms of the Treaty of Versailles

Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. (It had been taken from France
in the Franco-Prussian Wars)

The Saar (part of Germany, with an important coalfield) was taken from
Germany and given to France for 15 years. After 15 years a referendum
would be held to decide which country the Saar would join.

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The left bank of the Rhine was to be occupied by the Allies.

The right bank of the Rhine (50 km wide) was to be demilitarized. No

forts, army bases, weapons or soldiers were to be allowed into the
region.

Poland was made independent and given a corridor to the Baltic Sea.
This Polish Corridor cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

Danzig, a city with both Polish and German citizens was placed under
international rule as a 'free city.'

Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia formerly part of Russia, were

made independent countries.

Czechoslovakia, formerly part of Austria-Hungary was made an

independent country.

Austria and Hungary were made into two separate countries.

Yugoslavia was created as an independent country out of a much

enlarged Serbia.

South Tyrol and Istria were given to Italy, but not Dalmatia as she had
been promised in the secret Treaty of London.

Romania, Greece, Belgium and Denmark all received small pieces of land
from the defeated countries.

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The German Empire was divided among the victors. Tanganyika was
given to Britain, the Cameroon to France, and South-West Africa to South
Africa and the Pacific Islands to Japan.

The German army was to be a maximum of 100,000 men.

All wartime guns and weapons were to be melted down to scrap metal.

The German Navy (once second only to Britain) was to be reduced to 36

shops.

Germany was banned from having any submarines and an air force.

Germany was forbidden to have an alliance with Austria ever again.

Germany had to accept full and total blame for the war.

Reparations were set at 6,600 million pounds sterling.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS:

The League of Nations formally came into existence on January 10, 1920.
It had its headquarters in Geneva.

Aims of the League of Nations

The League was the brainchild of Woodrow Wilson of the United States.
Its ideas were optimistic and noble.

Its aims were;

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to deal with disputes among nations.

to prevent war.

to protect the independence of countries and safeguard their borders.

to encourage each country to reduce its armaments

Membership of the Great Powers

Britain 1920 -

France 1920 -

Italy 1920- 1935

Japan 1920 - 1933

Germany 1926 - 1933

USSR 1934 -

USA never joined

The founding of the League of Nations in 1919 marked the beginning of a

new method of diplomacy. Before that, governments relied exclusively on
ambassadors or ministers as representatives positioned in different
countries worldwide.

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The new system,promoted arbitration and collective security as the

surest way of avoiding future armed conflict. It emphasized on open
cooperation between nations to resolve international political,
economic, social, humanitarian, and technical problems.This led to
creation of the League of Nations.

However the concept of the League of Nations was not new. The idea of
collective security, for example, can be seen in the Quadruple Alliance, or
"Concert of Europe," formed by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and
Russia after the final defeat of Napoleon (France) in 1815. Although it
later collapsed, the Alliance was intended to preserve the peace and
status quo in Europe through the collective action of its members, and
did initiate the use of conferences(Congress System) convened to deal
with important international political issues. These conferences met
periodically throughout the nineteenth century and into the early
twentieth.

Although the League finally collapsed, its early years did witnessed some
successes.

SUCCESSES OF THE LEAGUE

Political Disputes;

COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES

International Labour Organization

- was developed and worked to improve working conditions all over the
world. They persuaded governments to set maximum working day and
week, specify adequate minimum wages and introduce old age pensions,
unemployment and sickness benefits.

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Refugee Organization

- solved the problem of the thousands of prisoners of war marooned in

Russia at the end of the war; about half a million were returned home.
After 1933 valuable help was given to thousands fleeing from Nazi
persecution in Germany.

Health Organization

- did good work in investigating the causes of epidemics and was

particularly successful in combating typhus in Russia which endangered
the rest of Europe.

Mandates Commision

- supervised the government of the territories taken from Germany and

Turkey according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. (Another
committee was responsible for the Saar, which worked very efficiently.
The 1935 plebiscite had a large majority vote to return to Germany.

FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE

- Although the idea of the League was an excellent and noble idea, it was
fatally flawed from the onset by the non participation by the United
States. Other failures are outlined below.

1923 France & Belgium marched into the Ruhr by force to force Germany
to pay reparations.

1923 Italy invaded Corfu & league failed to solve the case.

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Britain continued to allow Italian ships to move arms through the Suez
Canal.

It failed to punish Japan for the invasion of the Chinese province of

Manchuria.

1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia & the league put poor & ineffective sanctions.

1935 Germany continued to rearm.

1935 Hitler marched his troops into the demilitarised zone of the
Rhineland which was a violation of the terms of the treaty of Versailles.
France protested but took no action. Britain remained silent.

1938 Germany invaded Austria.

1938 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia.

1939 Germany invaded Poland & this brought the Great powers to World
War 2.

Political Disputes

Poland and Lithuania

- The two countries had rival claims to Vilna. The League of Nations was
over ruled by the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. The Conference of
Ambassadors was formed to deal with problems arising out of the
Versailles Treaty.

Corfu Incident

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- A group of ambassadors was working on a boundary dispute between

Greece and Albania. An Italian General was sent to investigate and he
was shot in Greece. The reasons for the shooting were never clear, but
Mussolini immediately ordered the invasion of Corfu, a Greek island and
demanded heavy compensation. The League offered a solution, but the
Conference of Ambassadors rejected it and rewrote one in favour of Italy
upon heavy pressure from Italy and Mussolini.

Japanese Invasion of Manchuria 1931

-In 1931 Japan controlled most of the economy of Manchuria. It owned

the important mines, railroads, factories and ports. It kept a large army
in the port city of Kwantung to protect these assets. The world wide
depression had hit Japan hard and many people within Japan saw
conquering new territory as a way out of the depression. During the
night of September 18, Japanese soldiers blew up a section of the
Japanese railroad and blamed the explosion on the Chinese and so had
an excuse to occupy the city of Shenyang. China asked for the Leagues
help. The League ordered the troops to withdraw. Japan agreed to order
the withdrawal of the troops, but the Japanese government did not have
control over their troops. The Japanese army continued to advance into
Manchuria. By the end of 1931 the Japanese troops had control of the
entire province of Manchuria which they renamed Manchukuo.

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The League of Nations was meant to keep the peace through 'collective
security'. If persuasion did not work, the League could use economic
sanctions (a ban on trade with the attacker) or military sanctions (a
League army) against the attacker. Although these were options, none of
the members of the League of Nations wanted to use sanctions against
Japan. First, because the Depression had damaged the world’s economy
no nation wanted to worsen the damage. Second, the powerful members
of the League, Britain and France, did not think that they could enforce
the sanctions. They believed that if they tried to enforce them that Japan
would seize Hong Kong and Singapore.

The solution that was reached was to set up a commission. In October of

1932 the Lytton Commission recommended that the Japanese should
leave Manchuria and it should continue as a semi-independent country
instead of returning to China. The League approved the Commission’s
recommendation, but by 1933 Japan left the League and went on to
occupy the Chinese province of Jehol. The Japanese justified the invasion
of this mountainous province because it was vital to the defence of
Manchuria.

The Manchuria affair damaged the reputation of the League. One of its
leading members had gone to war with another member and the League
had failed to stop it. By the end of the affair in 1933, even the League's
strongest supporters had doubts about its ability to maintain world
peace.

Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935

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-- The most serious failure of the League of Nations was the Italian
invasion of Abyssinia. Italy wanted to expand its overseas colonies and in
October 1935 invaded Abyssinia. The League condemned Italy and
introduced economic sanctions which however did not include a ban on
exports of coal, oil and steel to Italy. (These are vital to modern warfare.)
So half-hearted were the sanctions that Italy was able to complete the
conquest of Abyssinia by May 1936. A few weeks later sanctions were
abandoned and Mussolini had flouted the League. Britain and France had
not wanted to antagonise Mussolini and had even tried to form a secret
deal with him during the invasion to give him two thirds of Abyssinia.
They did not want to push him into an alliance with Hitler. Mussolini was
annoyed by the sanctions anyway and began to draw closer to Hitler;
small states lost faith in the League; and Hitler himself was encouraged
to break the Versailles Treaty. After 1935, the League was not taken
seriously again.

Commissions and Committees

Disarmament Commission

- this committee made no progress in persuading the member states to

reduce armaments, though all had agreed to do so when they agreed to
the covenant of the League of Nations.

WHY DID THE LEAGUE FAILED:

Strengths and Weaknesses of the League of Nations

All of the leaders who signed the Covenant in 1919 had experienced the
war and wanted to avoid any repetition.

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At the beginning there was a great deal of good will to make the League
work. The idea of ‘Collective Security’ was also very sound.

From the very beginning of the League, however, an insidious pattern

emerged with regard to Council intervention in international disputes.
Dominated as it was by the great powers, the Council seemed more
willing to settle disputes involving small powers than those which
involved one or more great powers, or which involved the interests of
any great power. This double-standard ultimately proved disastrous for
the long-term success of the League and helped undermine confidence in
the organization.

Extra-League security arrangements, like the "Little Entente" (1920) and

the Locarno Pacts (1925), emerged not only as manifestations of eroding
confidence in the League's ability to maintain peace and security, but
also had the effect of further sabotaging the League by indicating a
regression into the Old Diplomacy

Russia was not allowed to join after the Bolshevik seizure of power in
1917.

The USA did not join, even though the League was Woodrow Wilson's
idea. Congress voted against membership.

Americans believed that the United States would be drawn into internal
conflicts in other countries. Most people in the United States wanted to
concentrate on domestic issues.

Even before its first meeting, the League of Nations suffered what some
historians have characterized as a death blow: the U.S. rejection of the
Treaty of Versailles and with it, the League of Nations. The United States
never became a member of the League of Nations.

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Without the United States as a member, the chief powers in the League
before 1926 were Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. The way in
which each of them viewed the new international organization is of
paramount importance in understanding the future demise of the
League.

The majority of the British public supported the ideals of the League, but
the British government viewed the League differently. After 1922,
successive British governments saw the League as a useful tool for
pursuing some foreign policy objectives, but failed to embrace the
"League ideas" in its totality. They were staunch advocates of the Old
Diplomacy.

The French shared the attitude of the British towards the League of
Nations, but for different reasons. French representatives at Paris had
had very little to do with the framing of the Covenant, and they did not
share much of the document's ideals. The French therefore saw the
League primarily as a tool which could help protect France from any
future German attack—une agression de l'Allemagne—and not as an
instrument of international goodwill.

Before the fascist takeover in 1922, Italy's attitude toward the League
was one of skepticism. At the Paris Peace Conference, the Italian
government had sought territorial gains, but due to Woodrow Wilson's
opposition, was unable to obtain them. Facing increasing problems at
home, and the frustration of their ambitions abroad, many Italians
turned to fascism and Benito Mussolini disliked the League because it
represented the winners & as a result remained sour towards the
organization until the mid-1930s.

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Like the Italians, the Japanese were somewhat disappointed by the

Covenant. Japan's delegates the Paris Peace Conference, proposed that
the members of the League accept the principles of the equality of
nations and races, and the just and equal treatment for nationals of all
countries. While most of the members supported the principle, Woodrow
Wilson (U.S.A), Australia, and New Zealand, all opposed its idea. Each of
their countries had imposed restrictions on Japanese immigration and
wanted to avoid including anything in the Covenant that might affect
those restrictions. Despite this initial setback, the Japanese fully
supported the League of Nations. However when the militarists took over
power in Japan in 1930, the attitude of the Japanese toward the League
quickly became hostile until the advent of the Manchurian Crisis.

Germany was not allowed to join, but did become a member in 1926.

Italy broke the Covenant in 1923 when Mussolini occupied Corfu, which
was owned by Greece. He was forced to back down but no sanctions were
applied. A Permanent Council Member had been allowed to escape when
it had broken the Covenant.

The League soon came to be seen as a club for the victors of the First
World War and was mostly European.

Sir Eric Drummond, the Secretary-General, was a representative of one

of the Permanent Members of the Council and this made countries
outside Europe believe that the League was pro-European.

The League had no army; it had to rely on member countries declaring

war on countries that broke the Covenant.

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STRENGHTS & WEAKNESSES OF THE LEAGUE(Summary):

STRENGTHS OF THE LEAGUE WEAKNESSES OF THE LEAGUE

It worked using a Constitution (the The USA which helped to form it didn’t join
League Covenant). from the beginning.

It was prepared to defend the interests Britain & France were no longer powerful.
of all members.
It paid too much attention to European
It was supported worldwide. problems & forgot other parts of the world.

Most countries were willing to co- Many members were the smaller powers
operate. which made it difficult to guarantee peace.

It had the potential to punish It was used like a burglar bar against
aggressors. German & others countries which disliked
the peace settlement.
It was united as compared to the
system of alliances.

It carried out a lot of activities.

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WHAT WERE THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF THE LEAGUE OF

NATIONS IN THE 1920S?

Summary

However, there were also failures. The League sometimes failed to

enforce the Treaty of Versailles (e.g., the Poles captured Vilna in 1920,
and Lithuania seized Memel in 1923). The League could not stop
powerful nations (e.g., in 1923, when France invaded the Ruhr, and Italy
occupied Corfu). Also, the ILO failed to bring in a 48-hour week and both
disarmament conferences failed – in 1923 (because Britain objected)
and in 1931 (because Germany walked out).

The League of Nations aimed to stop wars, improve people’s lives and
jobs, encourage disarmament and enforce the Treaty of Versailles.

Judged against these aims, the League was quite successful in the 1920s.

It stopped border disputes turning into wars. In Silesia in 1921 it

held a plebiscite and suggested a partition, which stopped a war between
Germany and Poland. It arbitrated between Sweden and Finland over
the Aaland Islands in 1921 – its investigation showed that the islands
belonged to Finland. When the League rejected Turkey’s claim to Mosul,
a part of Iraq (a British mandate), Turkey agreed. Finally, when Greece
invaded Bulgaria in 1925, the League ordered Greece to withdraw, which
it did. The highest point of the League’s work was the Kellogg-Briand
Pact of 1928, an Act of the League’s Assembly, supported by 65 nations,
which outlawed war.

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The League also improved people’s lives. It took 400,000

Prisoners of War home. It set up refugee camps after the 1922 war
between Turkey and Greece. The Health Committee worked against
leprosy and malaria. The League closed down four Swiss companies
which were selling drugs, and attacked slave owners in Burma and Sierra
Leone, setting free 200,000 slaves. Finally, its economics experts helped
Austria (1922) and Hungary (1923)

These successes, however, are balanced by some failures.

The League sometimes failed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles. In

1920, the Poles captured Vilna (the capital of Lithuania) and refused to
withdraw when the League ordered it to; the League could do nothing.
And when, in 1923, Lithuania seized Memel, a German port under
League control, the League told Lithuania to leave, but the Conference of
Ambassadors gave Memel to Lithuania.

The League could not stop wars when powerful nations were
involved. Turkey drove the Greeks out of Smyrna in 1922 – all the
League could do was agree.

EUROPE UNDER DICTATORS

MUSSOLINI & HITLER

-a dictator is a ruler who has unlimited power. He is ruthless & his

authority is unquestionable & undisputed.

-this rule is characterised by violation of human rights.

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FACTORS THAT LED TO DICTATORSHIP IN EUROPE;

-payment of reparations caused bitterness among the defeated nations

e.g the payment of reparations by Germany to France .France also debts
to Britain while Britain paid the U.S.A.

-EVERYWHERE THERE this resulted in losses.

-Also most post war countries were led by very young & inexperienced
very old leaders who resorted to extreme measures to bring order i
their countries such that by 1930 most countries were under dictators.

FACISM IN ITALY:

-fascism was a form of dictatorship that emerged in Italy after World War
One. It was developed to counter communism. It was characterised by
violence & intimidation against opposition supporters, control of all
aspects of Italian life ,work,religion,politics,culture & even social aspects
such as birth rates.

-from 1919 Mussolini joined the fascists & was supported by various
discontented groups such as ex-combatants, disgruntled youths,
industrialists & landowners.

-these fascists believed it was their right & duty to rescue Italy from post
war problems.

FEATURES OF FACISM

-Mussolini’s domestic reforms just like in his foreign policies were

guided by very clear principles that is;

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Totalitarianism – a system whereby a government has a high level of

control over almost all aspects of a citizen’s life. . This was necessary to
promote the greatness of the state, which was more important than the
interests of the individual.

Militarism, Violence & Imperialism-which were aimed at achieving

national pride. These guided mainly his foreign policies.

Economic Self-sufficiency - (autarchy) was vitally important in developing the

greatness of the state; the government therefore directed the economic
life of the country.

One-Party State - there was no place for democracy. Fascism was

particularly hostile to communism, which accounts for much of its
popularity. The fascist party members were the elite of the nation and
great emphasis was placed on the hero who would win the support of the
people.

Extreme Nationalism – this was aimed at building up the greatness and

prestige of the state, with the implication that Italy was superior to
others.

THE RISE OF BENITO MUSSOLINI;

-the rise of Benito can be attributed to a mixed bag of political, economic

& social problems that bedevilled Italy after the First World War.

ITALY’S PROBLEMS

(a)POLITICAL PROBLEMS:
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-an unpopular government because it had failed to obtain the promised

territories after the war.

-too many political parties e.g-liberals (greyshirts),fascists (black

shirts),nationalists (blue shirts),communists (red guards),catholic
party,socialists

-a weak government & parliament which was confused, failed to solve

unrest & had no clear political direction.

-too many successive governments between 1919 & 1921 because of

unstable coalitions

-attempted coup de tats

-Bandits- thousands of Italian unemployed war veterans terrorized rural

& urban

areas.

-political violence, demonstrations & strikes organized by communists.

-the fear of communism.

-tension between the state & the church.

-political disunity which made other political parties to unite against

fascism.

(B)ECONOMIC PROBLEMS:

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-a huge war debt.

-bankruptcy.

-companies & people paid high taxes to the government.

-Inflation which caused a high cost of living.

-low production in industries.

-low production in agriculture.

-low trade.

-closure of banks.

-closure of factories.

-outdated machines used in industries.

-unemployment.

-poor wages.

-demonstrations & strikes by workers.

(C)SOCIAL PROBLEMS:

-poverty, hunger & starvation.

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-lack of basic social services e.g hospitals, clinics & schools.

-poor sanitation.

-disease outbreaks.

-prostitution, drug trafficking & abuse.

-many people died.

-many people took violence as a normal way of life.

-homelessness i.e shortage of shelter.

-orphans & widows.

STEPS TAKEN BY MUSSOLINI TO RISE TO POWER.

-Mussolini took advantage of the problems at home to campaign & win

the support of people e.g- the government was weak & failed to solve
political problems.

-the people feared communism & the government ended up using the
fascists to crush the communists e.g they controlled the 1922 strikes.

-In 1919 he formed the Fascist Party which was made up of the
unemployed & organized along military lines.

-1921 he participated in elections standing for the Fascist Party. The

Party won 35 out of 535 seats.

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-he formed a private army which wore attractive uniforms, symbols &
used propaganda.

-he attacked opposition supporters using violence & force.

-he used propaganda on discontented groups & as a result he won the

support of liberals, socialists etc.The war-veterans saw him as a saviour.

-1922 during the March to Rome, he took over the police job to bring
order during the strikes organised by communists. He crashed the
communists & won support of the military.

-the fear of a civil war made King Victor Emmanuel to invite Mussolini to
form a government of national unity.

-In this new government Mussolini was given the position of Prime
Minister, Home Affairs Minister & Foreign Affairs Minister.

DOMESTIC REFORMS:

Overview

Mussolini's domestic policies focused mainly on national interests and

production, with the aim of creating a self-sufficient and modernized
Italy. Although private property was maintained and some degree of free
market continued, the economy was primarily controlled by the
government through both direct and indirect means.

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Just like many governments of the time, opposition was crushed without
hesitation by a broad-reaching and powerful secret police. The Lateran
Treaty, between the Vatican and Italy as a whole, finally settled land
issues and political disputes between the Church and Italy as a whole.
Mussolini also established himself as a public figure—'Il Duce'—and
utilized a combination of terror tactics, indoctrination and propaganda
to ensure his continued command. Ultimately, Mussolini desired a more
ordered and efficient Italian lifestyle.

Question; “Fascism had no clear principles.” Is this borne out by the

history of Mussolini’s regime in Italy?

-Mussolini’s domestic reforms just like in his foreign policies were

guided by very clear principles that is;

Totalitarianism – a system whereby a government has a high level of

control over almost all aspects of a citizen’s life.

Militarism & Imperialism which were aimed at achieving national pride.

These guided mainly his foreign policies.

Self sufficiency – this was known as AUTARKY in Italy.

POLITICAL POLICIES;

In 1923 Mussolini passed this law which allowed any party that won
more votes in elections to occupy 2/3 of seats in Parliament. This was
followed by the 1924 elections that he organised & the fascists won the
elections.

-the fascists victory was a giant step politically towards totalitarianism

as it gave them political freedom to created more laws in their interest.

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The assassination of Matteoti – this was the murder of a popular &

leading opposition supporter after he revealed that the fascist victory in
the 1924 election was through rigging. The assassination was followed
by countrywide victimisation of opposition member including M.Ps.

Opposition clubs & offices were closed & became useless.

Mussolini used the fascists as a private army (militia) & used force &
violence to intimidate opponents such that force & violence became
important tools to bring order as defined by fascist principles. They
carried door to door searches & newspapers taken over. Opponents were
bitten & marched in public & at times were forced to eat live frogs.
Others were given fascist baptism by being dipped in paint or forced to
drink castor oil to cleanse them from the sins of opposition.

In 1925 an elaborate system of censorship was introduced to reinforce

his control by using the media as a weapon to demonize his enemies and
promote his own interests. He also made use of propaganda promote
him as the great 'Il Duce' ('The Leader'). He appointed a Minister of
Propaganda since he believed everyone had to think like him.

He also introduced national youth service programs (just like the Hitler
Youth) to indoctrinate the youth into his military and political beliefs.
Through these methods the fascist government controlled the radio,
newspapers, and T.Vs, cinema & textbooks books.

In 1926 the opposition was outlawed as he began to make Italy a one

party state & by 1928 opposition parties & Trade Unions had
disappeared.

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In 1927 a secret police called O.V.R.A.Its job was to hunt, intimidate &
even kill opposition supporters. Those who were lucky were exiled to the
Mediterranean Islands under his control.

Lastly fascists were given all positions of decision making in all

government departments & they supervised life in Italy.

To reinforce his control, Mussolini used the media as a weapon,

demonizing his enemies and promoting his own interests. He also made
use of propaganda as an effective tool, framing himself as the great 'Il
Duce' ('The Leader') and attempting to indoctrinate the youth into his
military and political forces. This was done through introducing national
youth service programs (just like the Hitler Youth) and a complete
reorganisation of the educational system throughout Italy.

ECONOMIC POLICIES:

-economically he established a good foundation for a strong economy.

Land distribution

Battle for Lira;

Another 'domestic war,' the Battle for the Lira was essentially aimed at
both increasing morale and heightening Italy's prestige both nationally
and internationally. Mussolini declared that Italy's currency, the Lira,
was worth substantially more than its actual market value. At first, this
was viewed very positively by the Italian people, as it represented an
aggressive example of their nation's power.

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However, it quickly began to create major problems. Foreign trade,

already reduced by high protective tariffs and a reduced export rate,
took a sharp decline as other nations realized their buying price on
Italian goods was too high. Within Italy, the few remaining smaller
companies and independent businesses closed or were rapidly
overtaken by larger ones, thereby creating massive unemployment.
Broadly speaking, the Battle for the Lira was a complete failure, although
it did slightly increase morale throughout Italy during the first few
months of its implementation.

The 'Corporate State'

Mussolini's efforts to increase the productivity and self-sufficiency of

Italy began in 1921, when he imposed protective tariffs on all foreign
imports to reduce competition and help Italian industry to grow. In 1927,
the Labour Charter was passed, promising to bring 'government,
employers, and workers together into one group.' In effect, this Charter
reorganized all of Italy's industry into 22 massive corporations; each
specialising in one 'field' of industrial production e.g so all metal-works
became a single corporation, etc. The workers and individual employers
within each corporation were given representation in the government,
and all workers were automatically provided with health and accident
insurance by whichever corporation they were serving.

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However, the workers could not go on strike, relying instead on an

elaborate appeals process to make any changes to working hours, wages,
or conditions. These changes were rarely, if ever, implemented due to the
system of representation in the government - workers would often be
discriminated against by employers and government officials, both of
whom could stop any proposed alterations to existing conditions.
Ultimately, the Labour Charter met with very little success, although it
was maintained throughout Mussolini's reign.

Battle for Wheat;

It was the first of several great 'domestic wars' Mussolini declared. It was
designed to increase the production of wheat within Italy, thereby
creating a truly self-sufficient state. Essentially, the Battle of Wheat
forced farmers to prefer wheat production over all other crops. The
Battle led to a vastly reduced yield of vegetables and other products
throughout the nation. Further, agricultural lands were expanded
broadly, often into areas better suited to other crops. Although grain
production nearly doubled and imports decreased by almost 75%, the
production of all other food products decreased drastically. Foreign
imports of meats, vegetables and other foodstuffs increased
dramatically, causing an increase in price and general damage to Italy's
economy rendering the War on Wheat a massive waste of effort.

Public Works Programmes;

-Mussolini established extensive public works programmes aimed at

creating employment & boosting trade & commerce.

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-through the public works programmes roads, railwaylines &

communication lines were all built. These were among his main achieve
as they permitted trade & accessibility of most areas in Italy.

-moreso schools ,clinics,hospitals,stadiums & hydro-electric power

stations were also built.

-all these were giant steps in consolidating economic development aimed

at achieving self sufficiency.

Lateran Treaty;

Summary

Mussolini's attempts to enhance the Italian economy and place in

world politics all failed significantly, often placing Italy in a worse
position than before their implementation. However, his social policies,
particularly his educational 'reforms,' achieved relative success. The
Lateran Treaty, his one real success, finally ended the issue of
Church/State relations in Italy and recognized the Vatican as a sovereign
state.

SOCIAL POLICIES:

Mussolini also established several social 'reforms' in his attempt to

create a more powerful Italian state.

He declared the Battle of Births through which families were

incentivised for having more children. Divorces & abortion were also
banned.
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-he also introduced a Bachelor’s tax with the aim of forcing single people
into marriages.

-in1933 he celebrated the birth of 1 350 children by 93 mothers to mark

the achievement of the policy.

Another giant step socially was the signing of the Lateran Treaty with the
Pope. It was one of the most successful policies of Mussolini's domestic
policy. The Lateran Treaty finally ended major disputes and rivalries
between the Vatican and Italy. For a long time, the 'Roman Question,' as it
was known, had divided Italians.

-through the treaty Mussolini united the Italians. It gave him more
support from the people. Through the treaty the Vatican was given its
independence & received compensation. Catholicism was recognised as
the state religion.

-in return the Vatican recognised the rule of Mussolini as the Ill Duce of
Italy while Rome became the capital city. It also gave the new nation full
political recognition and clearly specified the extent to which the Church
was allowed to influence Italy. Although somewhat undermined once
Mussolini lost power, the Lateran Treaty and its principles have been
upheld since it was first established.

CRITIQUE:

-historians argue that there was a wide gap between what was planed &
what was achieved.

-while achievement can be noted here & there to a greater extent the
policies have been regarded as a failure.

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-economically most of his policies were not successful as they were

disorganised & inconsistent.

-The Battle of Wheat despite doubling cereal production by 1939

resulted in Italy surviving on expensive imports.

-fruits & wine exports which traditionally brought foreign currency

dropped while cattle & sheep also lowered production because of the
focus on wheat production.

-moreover land distribution led to extreme poverty as it lacked the

necessary support from the government.

-the Battle of Lira led to the price of Italian goods to become too
expensive & scarce while exports went down & unemployment
increased. The Battle also undermined free trade through price controls.

-in general most of the government’s policies were affected by the Great
Depression.

THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC IN GERMANY (1919-1933)

-The republic ruled Germany between 1919 & 1933.

-the phases of the republic’s history are 3;

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The years of turmoil 1919-23.

The Stresemann Period 1924 -29.

The collapse of the Republic.

YEARS OF TURMOIL;

-soon after the war the Kaiser William II had given off power & went into
exile.

-a new government known as the Weimar Republic & led by Fredrick

Ebert came into power.

-it was this government that signed the Treaty of Versailles with the
Allied powers.

Therefore from the beginning its members were nicknamed the

November Criminals hence it was doomed from the onset as it was faced
with many challenges.

GERMANY’S PROBLEMS AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR;

(a)Political problems:

-an unpopular government because it had failed to obtain the promised

territories after the war.

-too many political parties e.g-liberals (greyshirts)

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-fascists (black shirts)

-nationalists (blue shirts)

-communists (red guards)

-catholic party

-socialists

-a weak government & parliament which was confused, failed to solve

unrest & had no clear political direction (weak constitution).

-too many successive governments between 1919 & 1921 because of

unstable coalitions

-attempted coup de tats (Kapp Putsch-1920, Red Risisng in the Ruhr-

1920, Munich Putsch-1923) &political assassinations.

-Bandits- thousands of Italian unemployed war veterans terrorized rural

& urban

areas.

-political violence, demonstrations & strikes organized by communists.

-external enemies e.g the fear of communism.

-tension between the state & the church.

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-political disunity which made other political parties to unite against

fascism.

-the Treaty of Versailles.

(b)Economic problems:

-land shortages.

-a huge war debt.

-bankruptcy.

-companies & people paid high taxes to the government.

-Inflation which caused a high cost of living.

-low production in industries.

-low production in agriculture.

-low trade.

-closure of banks.

-closure of factories.

-outdated machines used in industries.

-unemployment.

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-poor wages.

-demonstrations & strikes by workers.

(c)Social problems:

-poverty, hunger & starvation.

-lack of basic social services e.g hospitals, clinics & schools.

-poor sanitation.

-disease outbreaks.

-prostitution, drug trafficking & abuse.

-many people died.

-many people took violence as a normal way of life.

-homelessness i.e shortage of shelter.

-orphans & widows.

THE STRESSAMANN PERIOD;

-1924 Stressamann formed a new government & this brought a new

period of economic prosperity & stability for Germany as she began to
recover.

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HIS ACHIEVEMENTS;

-he successfully negotiated the Dawes Plan of 1924 & the Young
Plan(1929).Through the Dawes Plan Stressamann introduced the new
currency the Retenmark after the hyper-inflation of 1922 and 1924. The
United States agreed to lend money to Germany so that reparations could
be paid. The Young Plan aimed to settle the remaining problems of
reparations - the Dawes Plan had not changed the total amount
payable .A decision was made to reduce the reparations to reduce the
amount payable from £6,6million to £2,2million.Germany was also given
59 years in which to complete the payments.

These measures financial stability to Germany.

-the second achievement was that financial stability led to political

stability & Hindenburg replaced Ebert who died in 1925.

-unemployment was reduced to very low levels.

He introduced successful foreign policies that were key to preserve

stability. He signed the Locarno Treaties which revised Germany’s
borders.

-Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926.

-France left the Rhineland.

-in 1929 Stressamann died.

COLLAPSE OF THE REPUBLIC

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-in 1929 Germany plunged back into problems because of 2 events,

The death of Stressamann.

The Wall Street Crash & the Depression.

Effects of the Depression;

-the U.S.A which was also affected by the depression stopped giving
Germany loans.

-industries & banks closed therefore there was no more economic

activities.

-low production & exports.

-unemployment rose drastically.

Brunning who replaced Stressamann reduced government expenditure

to control inflation. He stopped paying reparations, social services,
salaries & wages to civil servants.

REASONS WHY THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC SURVIVED THE PROBLEMS IT

FACED IN THE 1920s.

-the Germans were much focused on external enemies (Franc &her

allies) than the Weimar Republic.

-though there was hyperinflation, the workers didn’t suffer to the same
extent as they did during the1929 & 1932.

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-employers didn’t show much hostility in the early years than they did in
the 1930s at the start of the great Depression.

-some business people did quite well out of the inflation & they began to
support the Weimar Republic.

-the Nazis were not yet strong enough & lacked a clear political plan.

-the failure of the Kapp Putsch was a warning of the dangers of

attempting to take over power by force & this fear led to the failure of the
Munich Beer hall Putsch..

-the Communists & the Socialists had not recovered from their
suppression in 1918-21 & therefore they lacked the power to overthrow
the government.

NAZISM IN GERMANY;

THE RISE OF ADOLF HITLER;

FEATURES OF NAZISM

-Mussolini’s domestic reforms just like in his foreign policies were

guided by very clear principles that is;

Totalitarianism – a system whereby a government has a high level of

control over almost all aspects of a citizen’s life. . This was necessary to
promote the greatness of the state, which was more important than the
interests of the individual.

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Militarism, Violence & Imperialism- they believed violence was an

important tool to bring order. Therefore they took military action & this
guided mainly Hitler’s foreign policies which were aimed at achieving
national pride.

Economic Self-sufficiency - (autarchy) was vitally important in developing the

greatness of the state; the government therefore directed the economic
life of the country.

One-Party State - there was no place for democracy. Fascism was

particularly hostile to communism, which accounts for much of its
popularity. The fascist party members were the elite of the nation and
great emphasis was placed on the hero who would win the support of the
people.

Extreme Nationalism – they believed in national unity & this was aimed
at building up the greatness and prestige of the state, with the
implication that Germany was superior to others. Therefore they were
anti-communist as they blamed the communists for causing Germany’s
problems.

They were racist- they believed every German person had blonde hair,
blue eyes & white skin.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE RISE OF HITLER:

-The political problems of the Weimar Republic made Hitler to promise

people a strong government to solve the problems.

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-The Weimar Republic was very democratic & gave people freedom. This
was used as an advantage by Hitler to campaign against the government.

-the unpopular Treaty of Versailles. Hitler promised to reverse the treaty

& to rebuild Germany into a great power.

-The people hated the new system of government & wanted the old
system of government led by a monarchy.

-fear of the spread of communism.

-political disunity & violence because of the presence of too many

political parties.

-Reparations- these were blamed for causing Germany’s economic

problems.

-economic instability & the Great Depression.

-strikes & general unrest.

-unemployment multiplied especially among the ex-combatants who had

fought the war.

-Hitler used forceful methods e.g. attacking opposition supporters using

violence & force.

-Hitler used propaganda on discontented groups & as a result he won the

support from people.

-Hitler’s ability to speak to convince people.

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DOMESTIC REFORMS;

-when he Nazis came to power they had no detailed economic plans but
were determined to reduce unemployment & make Germany self
sufficient.

#ECONOMIC POLICIES

-he introduced a planned economy in the first 4 year plan (1933-36) with
the aim of reducing unemployment. He declared war on low production
& built more industries in which he controlled what was produced & the
prices were controlled. Factories were closed down if their products
were no longer required hence his rule was totalitarian as there was no
liberty in business.

-he also introduced the Germany Labour Service to do public works

programmes. The programmes consisted of slum clearance, land
drainage, construction of roads & motorways all which had been begun
by the Chancellor before him. All these massive programmes were aimed
at creating employment for the Germans. By 1934 unemployment ---

However just before the outbreak of World War II a shortage of skilled

labour occurred as most industries shifted to producing weapons for the
war.

-in his second four year plan economic self sufficiency (Autarchy) began
the main goal. Efforts were made to expand petrol & oil production as
well as hydro-electricity power generation. despite the costs. As a result
Autarchy was successful as dependence on imports was greatly reduced.

-in addition he distributed land, encouraged farmers to produce more

food &banned trade unions & strikes.

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#POLITICAL POLICIES

-Politically he introduced the Enabling Act- a law which gave the power to
introduce new laws without permission of the Parliament.

-he created a secret police known as the Gestapo & the Storm Troopers &
the Hitler Youth to control people. These were political spies who had
the power to arrest & punish people without going to court.

-in 1934 the position of President & Chancellor were combined to

become one & was called Fuhrer.Hitler became the Fuhrer & he made all
laws while the Nazi made all important decisions & controlled all
activities inside Germany.

- in addition he introduced censorship by appointing a Minister of

Propaganda who controlled the T.V ,radio & newspapers.

-moreso he banned opposition parties.

-furthermore he created a big army, rearmed Germany & introduced

forced conscription.

The result of these totalitarian political policies was that his support
increased dramatically & the Nazi became very popular.

-many intellectuals wrote books that supported him not because of their
choice but because of fear.

-the industrial owners liked him because he had banned trade unions
which encouraged strikes & as a result the coal & steel industries
expanded.

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-for the farmers price controls assured them reasonable profits.

-over & above the Nazi won the support of the army.

-he persecuted the Jews.

SOCIAL POLICIES;

-Socially he concentrated on education & anti-semitism.

-Education became state controlled in which he indoctrinated pupils

with Nazi views. School books were rewritten to fit Nazi ideas. History
was rewritten to glorify Hitler’s tactics while Biology advertised the
Germans as the superior race.

-teachers & lecturers were closely monitored to make sure that they did
not oppose the government.

-children were now used as spies & therefore reported those teachers
who did not support Nazi views.

-the syllabus promoted physical fitness especially for boys therefore

preparing them for war.

-for girls the syllabus emphasised on domestic science AS it was believed

that their place was in the kitchen hence a domestic teacher.

--through the Hitler Youth boys & girls were taught that Hitler was always
right.

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-religiously in 1933 Hitler signed the Concordat with the Catholics were
he agreed to mantain the old Catholic order.

-in anti Semitism he focused on the elimination of the Jews. The Jews
since 1918 were blamed for Germany’s problems. Most but not all Jews
government officials were removed from office. Books by Jews were
burnt. Persecution began in 1935, their shops were looted, houses &
synagogues were burnt while they were brutally killed. Pupils were
expelled from schools & universities.

-by the outbreak of World War II 6 million Jews had been killed.

CRITIQUE

QN: Did the people of Germany benefit from these policies?

#Benefits:

-investment increased from the planned economy.

-banning of trade unions & strikes solved Germany’s industrial problems

e.g. conflicts between industry owners & workers.

-stable prices made people to have more money to spent.

-a large army created employment.

-land reclamation & redistribution increased production.

-public works programmes created employment & improved movement

of people & goods.

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-farming improved food security.

-foreign currency from exporting wheat.

-more electricity from power stations improved living standards.

-reforestation improved the environment.

#Losses:

-people lived in fear of the Nazis.

-many Jews were killed.

-loss of freedom of speech.

-corruption increased.

-the poor became more poorer.

HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY : AIMS;

When Hitler came to power he was determined to make Germany a great

power again and to dominate Europe. This determination was set out in
his book called Mein Kempf (My Struggle) that he had written while in
prison in 1924. His main aims were

To destroy the Treaty of Versailles imposed on Germany after her defeat

in World War One. Hitler felt the Treaty was unfair and most Germans
supported this view.

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To unite all German speakers together in one country. After World War
One there were many Germans living in different countries in Europe e.g.
Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland. Hitler hoped that by uniting them
together in one country he would create a powerful Germany or
Grossdeutschland.

To gain land for Germany (Lebensraum- living space) e.g by expanding

eastwards into the East (Poland, Russia).

His tactics involved using the threat of violence to achieve his aims. He
realised that his enemies, France and Britain, were not ready to go to war
but were prepared to compromise to avoid a repeat of World War One.

He was also an opportunist who often took advantage of events for his
own benefit.

The successes of his foreign policy in the 1930s made him a very popular
figure in Germany.

1933-4 HE PULLED OUT OF THE DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE &LEAGUE

OF NATIONS.

Hitler protested at the fact that the Allies had not disarmed after World
War and he left the disarmament conference and the League of Nations
in 1933. He intensified the programme of secret rearmament of
Germany. Germany broke the military terms of the treaty of Versailles.

1934 NON-AGGRESSION PACT WITH POLAND.

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In 1934, Germany and Poland concluded an alliance, the first of his

infamous ten year non-aggression pacts. This caused a surprise in
Europe at the time. The alliance broke Germany’s diplomatic isolation
while also weakening France’s series of anti-German alliances in Eastern
Europe.

For the next five years that followed, Poland and Germany enjoyed
cordial relations. However like many of his agreements, this was a
tactical move as Hitler had no intention of keeping the terms of the
agreement in the long term.

1934 THE ANSCHLUSS (INVASION OF AUSTRIA)

In July 1934 an attempt by Austrian Nazis with the support of Hitler, to

overthrow the government in their country but failed eventhough the
Austrian Prime Minister Dollfuss was killed in the attempt.

Hitler at first supported the attempted coup but disowned the action
when it was clear it would fail. Italy reacted with great hostility to the
prospect of Austria falling into Nazi hands and rushed troops to the
border with Austria.

1935 INVASION OF THE SAAR BASIN:

In January 1935 the Saar voted to return to Germany. This region had
been placed under the control of the League of Nations by the Treaty of
Versailles. & this had allowed the French to exploit its coalfields for 15
years. The vote to return to Germany was supported by over 90%. It was
a major propaganda boost for Hitler who could claim that his policies
had the backing of the German people.

1935 REARMAMENT OF GERMANY.

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In March, using the pretext that the other powers had not disarmed,
Hitler announced that Germany was going to reintroduce conscription
and create an army of 36 divisions. He also said that Germany was going
to build up an air force (the Luftwaffe) and expand her navy. All of these
actions were against the terms of the Treaty of Versailles but were very
popular in Germany.
Britain, Italy and France formed the Stressa front to protest at this action
but took no further measures. This united front against Germany was
further weakened when Italy invaded Ethiopia(The Abyssinian Crisis).

(A factor that helped Hitler was the attitude of the English. They felt that
Germany had been very harshly treated at Versailles and there was a lot
of sympathy for the German actions. The memory of the horrors of the
First World War was also still very strong in Britain. They were also very
anti-communist and worried more about Stalin of Russia.)

Protecting their own interests, the British concluded a naval agreement

with Hitler that limited the German navy to 35% of Britain’s. No limit
was placed on the number of submarines that Germany could develop.

THE MARCH INTO THE RHINELAND (DEMILITARIZED ZONE) - 1936

Under the Treaty of Versailles the Germans were not allowed to station
troops in the Rhineland or within 50 kilometres of the right bank of the
river. In 1935 when Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, Hitler ignored
international protests and supported Mussolini. This ended Germany’s
international isolation and the Italians signalled their acceptance of
German influence in Austria and the eventual remilitarisation of the
Rhineland.

Most people expected the Germans to send troops into the Rhineland,
the question was when? On 7 March 1936, in one of his many Saturday
surprises, Hitler announced that his troops had entered the Rhineland.
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The British were not prepared to take any action. There was a lot of
sympathy in Britain for the German action. Without British support the
French would not act. The French had built the Maignot line, a series of
forts on the German border and felt secure behind it.

The force that Hitler had sent into the Rhineland was small but he had
gambled and won.

He said

“The forty-eight hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most
nerve-racking in my life….If the French had then marched into the
Rhineland, we would have had to withdraw with our tails between our
legs, for the military resources at our disposal would have been wholly
inadequate for even moderate resistance.”

He drew the conclusion that Britain and France were weak and that he
could get away with more aggressive actions.

1936-9 HE JOINED THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

In June 1936 the Spanish Civil War broke out. Both Hitler and Mussolini
sent aid to General Franco (a guerrilla) who was fighting against the
popularly elected government of Spain. This closer co-operation
between the two Fascist dictators led to an alliance known as the Rome-
Berlin Axis. It was an agreement to pursue a joint foreign policy. Both
agreed to stop the spread of communism in Europe. This relationship
became closer in 1939 with the signing of “The Pact of Steel”.

1936 HE SIGNED THE ROME-BERLIN-AXIS.

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It was an alliance with Mussolini were they agreed to pursue a joint

foreign policy. Both agreed to stop the spread of communism in Europe.
This relationship became closer in 1939 with the signing of “The Pact of
Steel”.

1936 HE SIGNED THE ROME-BERLIN-TOKYO AXIS.

D.I.Y

1938 HE ANNEXED AUSTRIA

Hitler had long wished to bring the land of his birth under German
control. There was a Nazi party in Austria and many in Austria supported
the union of both countries. Although there had been a failed coup
attempt in 1934, Germany had extended its influence in Austria by 1938.

In February 1938 the Austrian Prime Minister & met Hitler. At the
meeting the Austrian chancellor was threatened and was forced to place
leading Austrian Nazis in his Government.

On his return to Austria, the Prime Minister resigned. Hitler then

incorporated Austria into the Reich as the province of Ostmark. This
event became known as the Anschluss.

Again the British and French did nothing. The new Prime Minister in
Britain Chamberlain, He wanted to prevent another European war
breaking out. He decided to follow a policy called Appeasement.

Appeasement was a policy of giving into Hitler’s reasonable demands in

order to prevent war. It was a very popular policy in Britain at the time.

1939 HE ANNEXED CZECHOSLOVAKIA.

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The next target for Hitler was the country of Czechoslovakia. It had been
founded after World War One. It was the only democracy in Eastern
Europe and possessed a good army. The Sudetenland region of
Czechoslovakia contained a majority of German people.

From 1938, Hitler accused the government of Czechoslovakia of

mistreating the Germans within the country & threatened war. Rather
than face war a meeting was held in Munich. Appeasement was the word
of the day. Hitler was given the German speaking region of
Czechoslovakia. The agreements of the Locarno period were ignored.

Britain wanted to avoid war and felt that there was some justification in
the German demand for the region

In March 1939, Hitler took over the rest of the Czech lands after
encouraging the Slovaks to declare independence under German
protection. The Czech president, was invited to Berlin and was
threatened that if he did not agree to German occupation, Prague would
be bombed. Significantly this was the first non-Germanic land that Hitler
had seized. This occupation outraged public opinion in Britain and
marked the end of appeasement. In the same month the German
speaking town of Memel was seized from Lithuania.

1939 THE INVASION OF POLAND & THE OUTBREAK OF THE 2ND WORLD
WAR.

The occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia had led Britain to guarantee

Poland that if she was attacked she would come to her aid. Under the
Treaty of Versailles the newly created state of Poland was given the
German speaking port of Danzig and land known as the Polish Corridor
in order to give it access to the sea.

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Hitler wanted to destroy Poland in order to gain living space

(Lebensraum).Hitler demanded the German speaking town of Danzig
from Poland and the building of a motorway to link East Prussia with the
rest of the Reich. The only country in place to stop him was the Russia.
So Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with Stalin so that when he
invaded Poland he would face no opposition. On September 1, 1939
Hitler's troops invaded Poland. World War Two had begun

However the demand for Danzig was not the real issue for Hitler. He said

Further successes can no longer be attained without the shedding of

blood…Danzig is not the subject of the dispute at all. It is a question of
expanding our living space in the east…there is no question of sparing
Poland.

He accused the Poles of mistreating the German minority in other parts

of Poland. Nazi propaganda greatly exaggerated stories of attacks on the
German minority. The Poles refused to hand over the town of Danzig.

A Very Surprising Alliance!

As the summer wore on tension grew. Both Britain and France and
Germany were trying to gain the support of the USSR in the event of war.
Stalin did not trust Britain and France and felt they were encouraging
Hitler to attack Russia. He had been greatly angered by the Munich
agreement.

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Although both Germany and the Soviet Union had been bitter enemies up
to 1939, the world was stunned to learn that they had reached an
agreement on 23 August 1939. This was a Ten Year Non-Aggression pact.
Both countries benefited from this agreement. For the Soviet Union it
allowed her more time to prepare for war and she gained a lot of
territory in Eastern Europe. Germany was assured that if she attacked
Poland she would not have to face a two-front war.

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Nazi Soviet Non Aggression Pact

Secret Additional Protocol.

On the occasion of the signature of the Non-Aggression Pact between the

German Reich and the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics the
undersigned plenipotentiaries of each of the two parties discussed in
strictly confidential conversations the question of the boundary of their
respective spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. These conversations
led to the following conclusions:

Article In the event of a territorial and political rearrangement in the

I. areas belonging to the Baltic States (Finland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania), the northern boundary of Lithuania shall represent
the boundary of the spheres of influence of Germany and U.S.S.R.
In this connection the interest of Lithuania in the Vilna area is
recognized by each party.

Article In the event of a territorial and political rearrangement of the

II. areas belonging to the Polish State, the spheres of influence of
Germany and the U.S.S.R. shall be bounded approximately by the
line of the rivers Narev, Vistula and San.

The question of whether the interests of both parties make

desirable the maintenance of an independent Polish State and
how such a state should be bounded can only be definitely
determined in the course of further political developments.

In any event both Governments will resolve this question by

means of a friendly agreement.

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Article With regard to South eastern Europe attention is called by the

III. Soviet side to its interest in Bessarabia. The German side
declares its complete political disinterest in these areas.

Article This Protocol shall be treated by both parties as strictly secret.

IV.

Moscow, August 23, 1939.

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War

Hitler hoped that the news of the Pact with Russia would stop France and
Britain from going to war if Germany attacked Poland. He was surprised
when Britain and Poland concluded a mutual defence treaty. Mussolini
informed him that Italy was unprepared for war and he postponed the
invasion of Poland. A flurry of diplomatic activity achieved nothing and
on 1 September Germany invaded Poland. On 3 September Britain and
France declared war on Germany.

World War Two had begun

DID THE PEOPLE OF GERMANY BENEFIT FROM THESE FOREIGN

POLICIES?

BENEFITS:

-gained a lot of land & natural resources.

-gained respect & was feared.

-Gained prestige.

LOSSES:

-Hitler created opposition & enemies.

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