GE 3 REVIEWER

Patterns
Patterns exist when a number, shape, or color occur repeatedly. They are
found everywhere in plants, animals, human beings, and in the universe.
Example would be the experience of sunrise every morning and sunsets
every afternoon and why the spring season begins at different months for
the Northern and Southern hemispheres?
These regularities are clear patterns in nature. Patterns help us organize
ideas or information that can help us understand our self, our life and the
world. Most of the time, number patterns are more likely associated to
mathematics.

Leonardo of Pisa
Now, speaking of number patterns, let’s talk about the Fibonacci sequence.
But first, who is Fibonacci? Fibonacci is an Italian mathematician whose
real name is Leonardo Pisano. Literally, Leonardo of Pisa. This is because
he was born in Pisa Italy with almost the same time when Italians started
building the famous leaning tower of Pisa.
He existed around 1170 to 1250 and is said to be the greatest European
mathematician of the middle ages. He traveled in Africa and some parts of
Asia where he met different mathematicians. His famous book Liber Abaci,
or the Book of Calculation, introduced the concept of Hindu-Arabic
numerals to Europe in 1202. In mathematics history, it is believed that the
concept of zero originated in India and the sequence named after him had
been described earlier in the Indian Mathematics.

The Rabbit Puzzle Problem

Let’s now have Fibonacci’s famous rabbit puzzle which was published in
1202.
The problem goes like this.
At the beginning of a month, you are given a male-female pair of newborn
rabbits. Rabbits take a month to mature before mating. This means that
after a month the rabbits have produced no offspring. However, every
month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of rabbits which
are male and female.
The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner.
If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of rabbits will there be after one
full calendar year?

To illustrate the solution, let us consider young rabbit pairs and adult rabbit
pairs. At the start of the first month, one pair of young rabbits are
introduced into the population. Since it takes one month for rabbits to get
mature before mating, then at the start of the second month no new pair of
rabbits are introduced. However, this marks the reproduction of the next
generation since the young pair in the first month are now the mature pair
of rabbits. Now, at the start of the third month, there are two rabbit
pairs. The adult pairs, which are the parents, and the young pairs, which
are the baby pairs. Following this pattern, the adult pair begets a baby pair
but the previous baby pair simply matures. So a family of 3 rabbit pairs are
present at the start of the fourth month and so on.

Take a look at the table below to see a total pair of rabbits after one year,
assuming, none of the rabbits dies. The number of total rabbit pairs at each
generation constitutes a Fibonacci sequence. And the number of rabbit
pairs at the start of the 13th month, can be taken as the solution to
Fibonacci’s puzzle. That is, 233.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Month
(J) (F) (M) (A) (M) (J) (J) (A) (S) (O) (N) (D) (J)
young 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89
adult 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144
Total 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233
 Fibonacci Numbers/Sequence
From the previous table, let’s look at the total number of rabbit pairs with
respect to months. Those are the sequence in the last row. The sequence
goes like this, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55… This is a number sequence
called the Fibonacci Sequence. The Fibonacci Sequence has a unique
pattern.
If we look at this number 2 here, we see that this number 2 is 1 plus 1. It's
the sum of the preceding two numbers. Also, the number 3 is 1 plus 2. The
number 5 is 2 plus 3, the number 8 is 3 plus 5, 13 is 5 plus 8 and so on.
So every number then is the sum of the preceding two numbers.
We define Fibonacci sequence as follows.

Definition:
Fibonacci numbers Fn are numbers in a sequence called Fibonacci Sequence. The
Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers that follow a pattern as shown:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55,…
The nth term is obtained by adding two previous terms

The recursion relation gives the next Fibonacci

number as the sum of the preceding two numbers. To start the recursion,
we need to specify and to be both 1. In the Book of Calculation,
zero is not the first Fibonacci number. But if zero is included in the
sequence, we can let . And amazingly it doesn’t violate the
recursion formula. It can even extend to negative indices with negative
values.
Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of rabbits for any month after
the first two months can be determined by adding the numbers of pairs of
rabbits in each of the two previous months. For instance, the number of
pairs of rabbits at the start of the seventh month is 5 + 8 = 13.

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 …..
Fn 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 …..
Different Patterns
The Fibonacci numbers are so amazing that we can see them almost
everywhere around us. Have you tried counting petals of flowers? In most
flowers, we can see these numbers.
A calla lily has only 1 petal. A trillium has 3. Buttercup, wild rose and
hibiscus have 5. Cosmos has 8. Corn marigold, cineraria and ragwort have
13. Some asters have 21 and a daisy can have 13, 21, 34, 55 or 89 petals.
And what is special about these numbers? Exactly! These are the first few
numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. But remember, not all flower petals
follow the Fibonacci sequence.
Now, take a closer look into this photo of a sunflower. Notice the apparent
spirals in the florets radiating out from the center to the edge. These spirals
appear to rotate both clockwise and counterclockwise. By counting them,
one finds 21 counterclockwise spirals and 34 clockwise spirals.
Surprisingly, the numbers 21 and 34 are consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
Other sunflowers have 34 number of counterclockwise spirals and 55
clockwise spirals. Do you think this is just coincidence? In fact, all the
sunflowers in the world show a number of spirals that are within the
Fibonacci sequence.
Let’s take a look at this pineapple. Pineapples have spirals formed by their
hexagonal nubs. The nubs on many pineapples form 8 spirals that rotate
diagonally upward to the left and 13 spirals that rotate diagonally upward to
the right. We can also observe 21 parallel rows of nubs spiraling steeply.
And again, the numbers 8, 13 and 21 are consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
The sequence is also observed in the growth of plant and vegetable
branches, or even in some vines spinning around the stalk. Inside the fruit
of many plants we can also observe the presence of Fibonacci order. Cut
an apple crosswise and you will see 5 sections. A common citrus could
have 8 and most bananas have 3 sections.
We also have pattern arrangement of seeds in fruits. For example, pine
nuts. Pine nuts grow always from the base of the pine cone as spirals
towards right and towards left. Counting these spirals towards both sides
gives us Fibonacci numbers. 8 spirals spinning counterclockwise and 13
spirals spinning clockwise.
The same pattern is also observed in the spirals of some succulents and
cacti. It seems like it is happening by coincidence, but these patterns are
also present in broccoli, snails shell, human bone, dolphins, hurricane
shapes or even the complex structures of a galaxy. Actually there are still
a lot more examples of Fibonacci numbers appearing in nature.
The Golden Ratio
Another name for golden ratio is the Divine Proportion. The golden
ratio (symbol ∅ is the Greek letter "phi") is a special number approximately
equal to 1.618. The golden ratio is obtained by dividing a line segment say
AB at point C such that the ratio of the longer piece and the shorter piece is
equal to the ratio of the original line segment to the longer piece.
Many buildings and artworks have the Golden Ratio in them, such as the
Parthenon in Greece, but it is not really known if it was designed that
way. Some artists believe that a rectangle constructed following a golden
ratio is the most pleasing shape. Hence, golden ratio is the math beauty.
Two positive numbers a and b, with a > b is said to be in the golden ratio if
the ratio between the larger number and the smaller number is the same as
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎
the ratio between their sum and the larger number, that is, 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1.618 …
The number 1.618… is obtained from a straightforward application of the
quadratic formula solving this equation

where is the golden ratio.

The Golden Spiral
The golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose radius either increases or

decreases by a factor of the golden ratio

It has the special property such that for every 1/4 turn (90° or π/2 in
radians), the distance from the center (central point of spiral) increases by
the golden ratio. If you notice the picture of the Parthenon in the previous
page, you can see that it fits the golden spiral. That means the rectangular
facade of the structure satisfies the golden ratio. Below is a beautiful
picture of a golden spiral. The central point is where the spiraling squares
accumulate.
The Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Ratio
There is mathematical relationship between the Fibonacci numbers and the
golden ratio. The ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers
as n becomes large, approaches the golden ratio. Recall the first few
Fibonacci numbers,

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 …..
Fn 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 …..

the limit of as n approaches infinity is the golden ratio, that is,

approximately 1.618.
For example. Let us take F6. But the ratio of F6 and F5 is exactly 1.6, that
is,

However, picking a larger Fibonacci number, say F12, and gets it ratio to the
Fibonacci number before it we have

Again, as we increase the value of n indefinitely, this ratio will give us the
true value of the golden ratio.
Golden Ratio in Human Beings
We call golden ratio as the divine proportion because human beauty is
based on the divine proportion. Take a look at the following golden ratio
proportions in the human face.
[a] center of pupil : bottom of teeth : bottom of chin
[b] outer and inner edge of eye : center of nose
[c] outer edges of lips : upper ridges of lips
[d] width of center tooth : width of second tooth
[e] width of eye : width of iris
The ratio between the forearm and the hand also yields a value close to the
golden ratio. In fact, our body has a lot of proportions that is close to the
golden ratio.
As mentioned in the previous discussion, the golden spiral can also be
seen in snail shells, in the human body, hurricane shapes or even the
complex structures of a galaxy.

In the previous lesson, you have learned the Fibonacci sequence is a

sequence of numbers following a pattern, that is, every number in the
sequence is the sum of the preceding two numbers. Again we call that a
numerical pattern. However, when a pattern involves geometrical figures, it
is called a geometric pattern.
This module will focus on geometric patterns and in particular isometries.
This is the best way to review what you have learned in your high school
geometry. We begin with explaining the different types of transformations.
Transformation
A transformation is a general term for four specific ways to manipulate the
shape of a point, a line, or shape. The original shape of the object is called
the pre-image and the final shape and position of the object is the image
under the transformation.
The four types of transformations are rotation, translation, reflection, and
dilation. Transformation is when we slide a figure in any direction. Rotation
is when we rotate a figure a certain degree around a point. Reflection is
when we flip a figure over a line. Dilation is when we enlarge or reduce a
figure. Take a look at the figure above that shows the basic
transformations.
Primarily, a concept starts with a motif. We define a motif to be a non-empty
plane set (Grunbaum and Shephard, 1987). A drawing of a leaf is an
example of a motif. When you repeat this drawing on a plane (paper/board)
several times, you will generate a pattern. An isometry is the rotation of a
motif in a fixed angle about a fixed point. Each rotation of the figure is an
isometry.
There are four transformations but only three of them are isometries. These
isometric transformations are reflection, rotation, and translation. The
characteristic of an isometry is that the original figure and the resulting
figure after a transformation must be congruent. Dilation is a result of
stretching and shrinking of an object making resulting figure not congruent
to the original one. This makes dilation not an isometry.
[1] Isometries are formed from transformations consisting of any
combinations of the three operations.
[2] A combined translation and reflection is called a glide reflection. (see
left figure)
[3] The shapes are CONGRUENT when one shape can become another
using only turns, flips and/or slides. We then say that these shapes are
isometric.
[4] Two shapes are SIMILAR when we need to resize for one shape to
become another. We then say that figures are being dilated.
Many objects around us are symmetrical in nature. For instance, some
variety of leaves is symmetrical with respect to their midrib (the lining that
divides the leaf into two halves). The façade of a church, the left and right
wings of a butterfly and most fruits cut into half show symmetrical
patterns. Even the human body is symmetrical too. A symmetry is a
composition of isometries in the plane generated from translation, rotation
or reflection. Generally, this is a mapping of figures on the plane back onto
itself. This means that the image on the right is same on the left with
respect to a line of symmetry. A line of symmetry can be vertical, horizontal
or diagonal. The following are three types of symmetries:
1. Rosette Pattern – has only reflections and rotations; no translations
2. Frieze Pattern – has reflections and rotations; translations are only along
one line.
3. Wallpaper Pattern – has rotations, reflections, and glide reflections; also
has translations in two linearly independent directions.
Mathematically, we have 17 possible plane symmetry groups. They are
commonly represented using Hermann-Mauguin-like symbols or in orbifold
notation (Zwillinger 1995, p. 260).
A tessellation is a pattern covering a plane by fitting together replicas of the
same basic shape. The word tessellation comes from the Latin
word tessera, which means a square tablet or a die used in gambling.
Tessellations have been created by nature and man either by accident or
design. Examples in nature are the honeycomb hexagonal pattern and
snake skin.
In geometrical terminology, a tessellation is a pattern resulting from the
arrangement of regular polygons to cover a plane without any gap or
overlap. The patterns are continuously repeated (Scott, 2008).
Maurits Escher is known as the Father of Tessellations.
3 types of Tessellations
1) Regular Tessellation
Tessellation made up of congruent polygons. This must tile a
floor with no overlaps or gaps.
The tiles must be the same regular polygons.
2) Semi – Regular Tessellation
This is also known as the Archimedean tessellation.
These are tessellations of two or more different polygons around a
vertex and each vertex has the same arrangement of polygons.
3) Demi – Regular Tessellation
This is an edge-to-edge tessellation, but the order or arrangement
of polygons at each vertex is not the same.
We define fractals to be mathematical constructs characterized by self-
similarity. This means as one examines finer and finer details of the object,
the magnified area is seen to be similar to the original but is not identical to
it. In other words, figures are getting bigger or smaller using a scaling
factor.
Remember that two objects are self-similar if they can be turned into the
same shape by either stretching or shrinking and sometimes rotating. In
simple terms, we can define a fractal to be a geometric pattern that is
repeated in smaller scales or in bigger scales.
Fractal geometry is a discipline named and popularized by the
mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot (1924-2010). Some popular math
artworks by Mandelbrot are Sierpinski triangle and Pascal’s triangle. The
figures below are examples of fractals.
 Koch Snowflake
A popular classic fractal is the Koch snowflake. The Koch snowflake is a
fractal curve, also known as the Koch island, which was first described by
Helge von Koch in 1904. It is built by starting with an equilateral triangle,
removing the inner third of each side, building another equilateral triangle at
the location where the side was removed, and then repeating the process
indefinitely.
If we try to magnify a region along the snowflake, we can similar figures
and it goes indefinitely.

We define a SET as follows.

Definition:
A set is a collection of well-defined distinct objects (elements) which have common property.

For example, cat, elephant, tiger, and rabbit are animals. When, these
animals are considered collectively, it is called set.
For convenience, sets are denoted by a capital letter. For example,
A = {cat, elephant, tiger, rabbit}
Here, A is a set containing 4 elements.
Remarks:
[1] Each object in a set is called an element or a member of the set.
[2] A set is well defined if it is possible to determine whether any given item
is an element of the set. For instance, the set of letters of the English
alphabet is well defined. The set of great songs is not a well-defined set. It
is not possible to determine whether any given song is an element of the
set or is not an element of the set because there is no standard method for
making such a judgment.
Descriptive Method
Descriptive method use words or texts to describe the set.
Example 1: Set A is the set of vowels of the English alphabet
Example 2: Use the descriptive method to describe the set B containing 1,
3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 in two different ways.
Solution: All of the elements in the set are odd natural numbers, and all are
less than 12, so B is the set of odd natural numbers less than 12. Another
is the set of natural numbers from 1 to 11 that are NOT divisible by 2.
Roster Method
This is a fairly simple notation for sets. We simply list each element (or
"member") separated by a comma, and then put some curly brackets
around the whole thing. The elements of the set are listed between
braces, with commas between the elements. The order in which we list
elements isn’t important.
Example 1: Write in roster method “Set A is the set of vowels of the English
alphabet”
A = { a, e, i, o, u }
Example 2: Write in roster method “Set C is a set of integers greater than or
equal to -3”
C = { -3, -2, -1, 0,1, 2, 3 . . . }
(1) The three dots are called ellipsis, and mean "continue on".
(2) Duplicate elements are listed only ones.
(3) Arrangement or form of the elements does not affect the set.
Set Builder Notation or The Rule Method
Another method of representing a set is set-builder notation. This is a way
of specifying sets wherein those properties which characterized the
elements in the set are stated, or a rule describing a property common to
all elements are given. Set-builder notation is especially useful when
describing sets with several or immeasurable elements.
Note:
(a) This method makes use of variables. A variable is a symbol (usually a
letter) that can represent the elements of a particular set.
(b) Useful when roster method is impossible (to enumerate all elements).
Example 1: In set-builder notation, the set of natural numbers greater than
7 is written as follows:

Example 2: In set-builder notation, “set C is the set of integers greater than

-3” is written as follows:
C = {x | x is an integer, x > – 3 }
This is read as: “C is the set of elements x such that x is an integer greater
than –3.”.
Example 3: In set-builder notation, “set W is the set vowels in the English
alphabet” is written as follows:
W = {x │ x is a vowel in English alphabet}
This is read as: “W is the set of all x such that x is a vowel in English
alphabet”.
The statement “4 is an element of the set of natural numbers or counting
numbers” can be written using mathematical notation as 4 ∈ N.
The symbol ∈ reads as “is an element of”. To state that “-3 is not an
element of the set of natural numbers,” we use the
“is not an element of” symbol, ∉, and write -3 ∉N.

1. Empty Set
A set which do not have any element is known as empty set. It is also
called Null Set. Empty set is denoted by ϕ or { }.
Example: Set B is a set of months of the year that begins with letter “K”.
2. Singleton Set
If a set has only one element, it's known as singleton set. For instance, C =
{ moon }.
3. Finite Set
If a set contains no element or a definite number of elements, it is called a
finite set. In this set, the number of elements is countable.
All the empty sets also fall into the category of finite sets.
 If the set is non-empty, it is called a non-empty finite set. Some examples
of finite sets are:
A = {x | x is a month in a year}; A will have 12 elements
B = Set of rivers in Iloilo City; B has countable number of elements
C = {d | d is a degree offered by the CLASE, University of San Agustin}
A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a whole number.
The cardinal number (cardinality) of a finite set is the number of elements in
the set. The cardinal number of a finite set A is denoted by the
notation n(A). For instance, if A={1, 4, 6, 9} , then n(A)= 4. In this case, A
has a cardinal number of 4, which is sometimes stated as “A has a
cardinality of 4.”
4. Infinite Set
Just contrary to the finite set, it will have infinite elements. If a given set is
not finite, then it will be an infinite set.
For example
D = {x | x is a natural number}; There are infinite natural numbers. Hence, A
is an infinite set.
F = {1,1,2,3,5,8,13,...}; The set of Fibonacci numbers has an infinite
number of elements.
5. Equal Sets
Set A is equal to set B, denoted by A = B, if and only if A and B have
exactly the
same elements. Otherwise, we write A ≠ B.
For instance, P = {d, e, f } and Q = {e, f, d}. Then we say P = Q.
However, if R = {d, e, f } and S = {e, f, g}. Then R ≠ S.

Definition: One-to-one Correspondence

A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and B if it is possible to associate
the elements of A with the elements of B in such a way that each element of each set is
associated with exactly one element of the other
 6. Equivalent Sets
Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A ~ B, if and only if A and B have
the same number of elements or if there is a one-to-one correspondence
between their elements. Note that if two sets are equivalent, then n(A)=
n(B).
For instance {1, b, 6, c } = {29, e, f, d}.
Subset
Set A is said to be a subset of set B if every element of set A is also the
member of set B. Simply, if set A is contained in set B, A is called subset
of B. It is denoted by A ⊆ B.
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {2, 1, 4, 3, 5}
Here, all three elements 1, 2, and 3 of set A is also member of
set B. Hence, A is subset of B.
Remarks:
A ⊆ B reads as “A is a subset of B”.
A ⊇ B reads as “A is a superset of B”.
Proper Subsets of a Set
Set B is a proper subset of set A, denoted by B ⊂ A, if every element
of B is an element of A, and B ≠ A.
The proper subsets of A={1, 2, 3} are
{ }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}
If B=A then B is an improper subset of A
Set B={1,2,3} is an improper subset of A={1,2,3}
 Any set is considered to be a subset of itself.
Example: A={1,2,3} is a subset of A={1,2,3}
 No set is a proper subset of itself.
Example: A={1,2,3} is not a proper subset of A={1,2,3}
 The empty set is a subset of every set.
Example { } is a subset of A={1,2,3}
 The empty set is a proper subset of every set except for the empty set.

Power Set
The power set of a set A is the set which consists of all the subsets of the
set A. It is denoted by P(A).
For a set A which consists of n elements, the total number of subsets that
can be formed is 2n. From this, we can say that P(A) will have 2n elements.
For e.g. A={1, 2, 3} ; 23 = 8 subsets
P(A) ={ { }, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} }
Universal Set
This is the set which is the base for every other set formed. Depending
upon the context, the universal set is decided. It may be a finite or infinite
set. All the other sets are the subsets of the Universal set. It is represented
by U and is sometimes referred to as the universe of discourse.
For instance:
The set of real numbers is a universal set of integers. Similarly, the set of a
complex number is the universal set for real numbers.
Joint Set (Overlapping Sets)
Two sets are said to be overlapping sets if they have at least one element
in common.
A = {10, 12, 14, 15} and B = {13, 14, 15, 16, 17} are said to be joint
sets or overlapping sets.
Notice that 14 and 15 are common in both sets.
Disjoint Set
Two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they don't have common element/s.
Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 6}.
Here A and B are disjoint sets because these two sets don't have common
element.
A good way to visualize sets and their relationships is to make use of a
diagram.
 In the 1800's, John Venn developed a diagram to represent sets which he
later call the Venn Diagram.

Definition:
Venn Diagram is a pictorial representation of sets using shapes. The universal set is
represented by an interior of a rectangle and the other sets, by any closed plane figures
like circle (mostly), triangle, square, etc.

1. Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’, is the set of all elements of the
universal set U that are not elements of A.
Using set-builder notation, the complement of A is
A' = {x|x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
NOTE: The symbol A' can be read as "A prime" or "A complement".
To illustrate, let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and S= { 2, 4, 6, 7}. Let us
find S'.
The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
From these elements we wish to exclude the elements of S, which are 2, 4,
6, and 7. Therefore S’ = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10}.
Venn Diagram for Set Complement
Using the Venn diagram, the complement of a set A is all the things inside
the rectangle that are not seen inside the circle (Set A).

2. Union of a Set
The UNION of two sets A and B is defined to be the set that contains all the
elements that belong to either A or B or to both A and B.
It is denoted as A ∪ B.
NOTE: The keyword for set union is "or".
Example: Let set A = {5, 10, 15, 20} and B = {5, 20, 30, 45}. Then, A union
B is: A ∪ B = {5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45} .
3. Intersection of a Set
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set that contains only the
common elements between set A and set B.
It is denoted as A ∩ B.
NOTE: The keyword for set intersection is "and".
Example: Let A={10, 12, 14, 15}, B= { 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 }, and C = {3, 6, 9
}.
Find a. A Ո B
Note that the elements common to A and B are 14 and 15. Thus, A ∩ B =
{14, 15}.
b. A ∩ C
Because A and C do not have any elements in common, so their
intersection will give null set.
Thus, A ∩ C = { } or Ø.
4. Set Subtraction
(i) The difference of set A and set B is the set of elements in set A that are
not in set B.
In set-builder notation,
A - B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }
(ii) The difference of set B and set A is the set of elements in set B that are
not in set A.
In set-builder notation,
B - A = {x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A }
Venn Diagrams involving two Sets
Suppose we have two sets A and B under the universal set U. We label the
regions in the Venn diagram by regions I, II, III, and IV.
Region I represents the elements of A alone. (A not in B)
Region II represents the elements in both A and B (intersection)
Region III represents the elements in B alone. (B not in A)
Region IV represents the elements in the universal set which are not in the
union of A and B.
Suggested Steps in Illustrating Set Expressions
Step 1 Draw a diagram for the sets, with Roman numerals in each region.
Step 2 Using those Roman numerals, list the regions described by each
set.
Step 3 Find the set of numerals that correspond to the set given in the set
statement.
Step 4 Shade the area corresponding to the set of numerals found in step
3.

Problem Solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the
modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills" (Goldstein & Levin, 1987).

Problem Solving Vs. Drills

Are classroom drills problem-solving?

Problem Drill/Exercise
A situation that confronts the A situation that requires
learner, that requires resolution, and resolution but the method is
for which the path to the answer is clear and the way to the answer
not immediately known is easily seen
Using Inductive reasoning to Predict a Number:
Use the Inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the list:

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?
Solution:

a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number,

thus we predict the number next to 15 is 18.
b. Each of the numbers is a perfect square, the next perfect square
number following 25 is 36.
Using Inductive reasoning to Make a Conjecture:
The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called a conjecture.
11 X (1 )(101) = 1111
11 X ( 2 )(101) = 2222
11 X ( 3 )(101) = 3333
11 X ( 4 )(101) = 4444
11 X ( 5 )(101) = 5555
11 X ( 6 )(101) = ?
Example: Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture out of the process
above.
Solution:
The product of a one-digit number, 11 and 101 is a four-digit number
formed by repeating the one-digit number 4 times.
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Consider the following procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 10, add 8 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 4.

Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply n by 10 : 10n
Add 8 to the product : 8+10n
Divide the sum by 2: (8 + 10n)/2
Subtract the quotient by 4: 4 + 5n – 4 = 5n
After we started with n , we ended with 5n after following the given
procedure.
This means that the given procedure produces a number that is five times
the original number.
One of the recent mathematicians who outlined a strategy for solving
problems from virtually any discipline is Goerge Polya( 1887-1985). In
his book , How to solve It, he writes, “ A great discovery solves a great
problem but there is a great discovery in the solution of any problem.
Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and
brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own
means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of
discovery.”

Polya’s Steps in Problem Solving

Understand the Problem
Devise a Plan
Carry out the Plan
Review the Solution

Understand the Problem

What is being asked?
What are the given information or data?
Can you state the problem in your own words?

Devise a Plan
 Organize the
information given
(list, table, chart)
 Draw a diagram
 Work backwards
 Look for a pattern
 Try to solve a
similar bur simpler
problem
 Write an equation,
defining the variable
used
 Guess at a solution
and then check the
result

What strategies can be used to solve the problem?

Carry out the Plan
Implement the strategy or strategies until the problem is solved or until a
new course of action is suggested. Give yourself time, get ideas from
others. Do not be afraid of starting over.
Look Back
Check your work. Interpret results. Is your answer reasonable?
Is there an easier or more effective way of getting the answer?
Can you solve other related of more general problem?

Example problem presented for the Polya’s Steps in problem Solving:

the Use of Diagram

A gardener is asked to plant eight tomato plants that are 18 inches tall in
a straight line with 2 feet between each plant.
1. a) How much space is needed between the first plant and the last
one?
2. b) Can you devise a formula to find the length needed for ANY
number of plants?

Solution:
Step 1 Understand the problem.
In this case, the key information given is that there will be eight plants in a
line, with 2 feet between each. We’re asked to find the total distance from
the first to the last.
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.
From a situation, drawing a diagram would help, so we’ll start there.
Step 3 Carry out the plan to solve the problem.
The diagram would look like this
It shows us that for 8 plants, there were 7 two-foot gaps in between.
We can deduce that for n plants, there would be n - 1 gaps, so the total
length would be 2(n - 1) feet.

Problem Solving may be categorized into routine and non- routine. We

need to know how to identify these types as purposes and strategies used
are different for these problems.
 Routine Problems
This involves using at least one of the four arithmetic operations to solve
problems that are practical in nature. This stresses algorithms to solve the
problem. The strength of this type is can be assessed easily with paper-
and-pencil test typically focusing on the algorithms being used. However,
these problems do not promote divergent thinking, for each problem usually
leads to one correct solution.

Example:
Cyril jogs four times around a rectangular plaza. If the length of the plaza is
60m and its width is 45m, how far does Cyril jogs every morning?

Solution:
Distance jogs = 4( perimeter of the plaza)
= 4( 2l + 2w)
=4( 2 x 60 + 2 x 45)= 840 m
Non-Routine problems
A non-traditional problem where one does not readily have an idea how to
go about in solving the given problem. The problem may be solved in many
different ways or strategies, others may have more than one answer or
solution. Students have the tendency to exercise divergent thinking to
come up with the solution, for a particular problem may have multiple
solutions. According to Gilfeather and del Regalo(1999), non-routine
stresses the use of heuristics and often requires little to no use of
algorithms.

Example:
How are you going to put exactly 4 gallons of water on a scale. How would you do it if you
only
have a 5-gallon and a 3-gallon jug? ( the water source is unlimited)

Solution:
Fill the 5 gallon jug with water. Pour water into the 3 gallon jug. Empty
the 3 gallon jug. Pour the 2 gallon water into the 3 gallon jug. Fill the 5
gallon jug with water. Pour water into the 3 gallon jug with 2 gallons of
water in it. Which means exactly 1 gallon fills the 3 gallon jug, Thus
remains exactly 4 gallons of water inside the 5 gallon jug.
A) Solving a Problem Using Trial and Error Example
As part of your duties as the new hire at a job, you’re put in charge of
buying 12 door prizes for an end-of-year staff meeting. You’ve
got Php1,100 to spend, and the boss is thinking that insulated drink cups
and smartphone stands would make nice gifts. If a mug costs Php 110 and
a stand costs Php 80, how many of each should you buy?
Step 1 Understand the problem.
The key information: total of 12 items purchased, Php1,100 to spend, Php
110 for each cup, and Php 80 for each stand. We’re asked to find how
many cups and how many stands will result in a cost of Php 1,100
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.
I can easily figure out the total cost if I have a specific number of each
item, so let’s try a combination at random and see if that helps. If you
buy one cup and 11 stands, the cost is 1 × 110 + 11 × 80= 990
Step 3 Carry out the plan.
Let’s just keep trying combinations until we find the right one.
At this point we can stop. Since the cups cost more, as we keep adding
more of them the cost will keep going up, and we’re already past our 1,100
target. The last row is out because that costs more than what we budgeted,
so the best we can do is to buy 4 insulated cups and 8 smartphone stands
at a cost of Php1,080.
Step 4 Check your answer.
One of the nice things about using trial and error is that the strategy
basically IS checking your answer. We already know we found the best
choice.
Problem Solving Strategies: Using Working Backwards

Example
What number is multiplied by 15, then the result is added by 15, the answer is
240. What is the number?
 Step 1 Understand the problem.
The key information: the answer after multiplying a number by 15 and
adding 15 to the result gives 240
We’re asked to find what is the starting number
Step 2 Devise a plan to solve the problem.
Since we know the resulting number, we can work it out backwards
Step 3 Carry out the plan.
? x 15 + 15 = 240
(240 – 15 ) ÷ 15 = ?
225 ÷ 15 = 15
Step 4 Check your answer.
? x 15 + 15 = 240
15 x 15 + 15 = 240
225 + 15 = 240.
Problem Solving Strategies : Using Table or Organized List

Example
Each of four neighbors, Kevin, Mary, Feona, and Rico, has a different
occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).

From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.

1. Mary gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Feona, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Feona leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Rico.
Solution:
 From clue 1: Mary is not the banker or the dentist.
 From clue 2, Feona is not the editor
 We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home, and we
know from clue 2 that Feona is the last to get home; therefore, Feona is
not the banker.
 From clue 3, Feona is not the dentist
 As a result, Feona is the Chef.
 Mary is the Editor.
 From clue 4, Rico is not the banker.
 Rico is the Dentist.
 Kevin is the Banker

Things to Remember!
 Problem Solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that
requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental
skills" (Goldstein & Levin, 1987).
 Problem solving is different from classroom drills and exercises.
 Problem is a situation that confronts the learner, that requires resolution,
and for which the path to the answer is not immediately known, while
exercise or drill is a situation that requires resolution but the method is clear
and the way to the answer is easily seen
 Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples.
 The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called a conjecture.
 Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
 Polya’s Steps in Problem Solving includes: Understand the Problem;
Devise a Plan; Carry out the Plan; and Review the Solution
 Here are some of the strategies used to solve a problem: Organize the
information given (list, table, chart); Draw a diagram
 Work backwards; Look for a pattern; Try to solve a similar bur simpler
problem; Write an equation, defining the variable used; and Guess at a
solution and then check the result
 Problem Solving may be categorized into routine and non- routine. We
need to know how to identify these types as purposes and strategies used
are different for these problems.
 Routine Problems involves using at least one of the four arithmetic
operations to solve problems that are practical in nature, these problems do
not promote divergent thinking, for each problem usually leads to one
correct solution.
 Non-Routine Problems is a non-traditional problem where one does not
readily have an idea how to go about in solving the given problem. The
problem may be solved in many different ways or strategies, others may
have more than one answer or solution.

Logical Connectives
The basic logical connectives are conjunction and disjunction, which are
denoted by ∧ and ∨, respectively. The key word for conjunction is “and” and
“or” is associated to disjunction. Statements joined by these connectives
are called compound statements.
Logical Consequences
An implication or a conditional is a compound statement following the form
“if p, then q” and is denoted by (Kwong, 2020), provided
that p and q are propositions. A complicated form of implication is called
biconditional written as (Baltazar et al., 2018). This is logically
the conjuction of two implications.
Propositions and Logical Operators
A. Proposition – a statement which either true or false but not both. This is
considered to be the core component of logic. A proposition is simple if it
contains a single idea.
Example 1.1
(1) Lizards don’t lay eggs
(2) The difference of twenty and five is fifteen
(3) 1 + (-2) = 0

(4) The University of San Agustin Iloilo is not a catholic

university.
B. Negation – a statement corresponding to a statement with opposite truth
value. Suppose p is a proposition, then the negation of p is “not p” or ~p.
The best way to describe the negation of a statement is to affix the
word not.
Example 1.2
Statement Negation
p : The guy in a black shirt ~p : The guy in a black shirt
is tall. is not tall.

q : Six divided by two is ~q : Six divided by two

three. is not three.

r : Their uniforms are ~r : Their uniforms are not clean.

clean.

Note: The negation of the statement is not necessarily the

opposite of the statement. We just deny the statement but not
really getting its opposite. So in the case of q above, “Six divided
by two is four” is not the only negation of q.

C. Compound Proposition – two or more simple propositions combined by

a logical operator commonly known as connective. The basic logical
connectives are conjunction ( ∧) and disjunction (∨ ).

Example 1.3
Proposition 1 Proposition 2
I love Mathematics. Learning online is fun.

I love Mathematics and p∧q

learning online is fun. p∨q
Conjunction ∧ Disjunction ∨
I love Mathematics or
learning online is fun.
 D. Implication – Suppose p and q are propositions. The
proposition (read as “If p, then q”) is called an implication or
a conditional statement. In this argument, p is called the premise and q is
called the conclusion.

Example 1.4
Premise p Conclusion q
She did not turn-in in our virtual
She is absent.
classroom.

Implication
If she did not turn-in in our virtual classroom, then she is absent.

E. Biconditional Statements – Suppose p and q are propositions. The

biconditional of p and q written (read as “p if and only if q”) is the
conjunction of two conditional statements. In symbols, is
equivalent to the statement

Example 1.5
Premise p Conclusion q
I will pass this course. My mom will buy me a new phone.

If I will pass this course, then my mom will buy me a new phone.
If my mom will buy me a new phone, then will pass this course.
I will pass this course if and only if my mom will buy me a new phone.

Variations of Implications
Suppose p and q are propositions. The implication can have
three related statements namely inverse, converse and contrapositive. The
table below summarizes the relationship of these statements.
 Statement Symbol Description
Implication If p, then q
Converse If q, then p
Inverse If not p, then not q
Contrapositive If not q, then not p

Example 2.1

p : a triangle is equilateral
q : a triangle is equiangular
(Implication): If a triangle is equilateral, then it is equiangular ( )

Symbol Variation Statement

If a triangle is equiangular, then it is
(Converse)
equilateral
If a triangle is not equilateral, then it is
(Inverse)
not equiangular.
If a triangle not equiangular, then it is
(Contrapositive)
not equilateral

What is a Truth Table?

Generally, any proposition can be represented by a truth table. It shows the
truth values of a compound statement for all possible truth values of its
simple statements.
Suppose p is a proposition. Recall that the negation of p is symbolized by
~p and that p is either True or False. We can summarize this information
using a simple table:
All possible truth values of p All possible truth values of ~p
true false
false true
For convenience, we can simply replace true by T and false by F.
p ~p
T F
F T
Consider two propositions p and q. Then, four possible combinations of
truth values can be made from these statements.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Let us say you buy hamburger and fries. This is a conjunction and we
write p ∧ q. Suppose you only manage to buy one out of two (at least one is
true) or maybe none at all (both are false). Then we can organize this using
this table below.
(Conjunction)
p q
p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Notice in the table that you, buying hamburger and fries, will only be true if
you buy both hamburger and fries. This means that the
conjunction p ∧ q is true only when both p and q are true. However, if
either p or q or both are true, then we call that disjunction. Below is a truth
table for disjunction.
(Disjunction)
p q
p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Recall that an implication follows the form . In the statement, “ If I
use a calculator, then the square of three is nine”. Notice that when the
premise is false, i.e., you don’t use a calculator, still, the square of three is
indeed nine. So anything from a false premise can be implied. This means
that p may not have a direct connection with q. See the table below for the
truth values of an implication given p and q.

(Conditional)
p q

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Since we defined biconditional to be the conjunction of two implications
involving p and q, then constructing a truth table will not really be a
problem.

(Biconditional)
p q

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
The table above shows the truth values of a biconditional in the last
column. Just remember that conjunctions will only be true if both premise
and conclusion are true.

To avoid having always the use of parentheses, a hierarchy of connectives

has been agreed upon by those who study logic. This tells us which
connectives should be done first.
(1) Negation ~
(2) Conjunction ∧ or disjunction ∨
(3) Conditional
(4) Biconditional
A tautology is a compound proposition that is always true.
On the other hand, a self-contradiction or a fallacy is a proposition that
is always false.
This knowledge will require you to construct truth tables to get the correct
answer.
Here’s a sample of how to check if a proposition is a tautology:
Consider p ∨ ~p . Using truth tables we have,
p ~p p ∨ ~p
T F T
F T T
Since the last column is always true, therefore p ∨ ~p is a tautology.
Logical Equivalence - Two compound statements are logically equivalent if
they have the same truth values.

p q ~p ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

Euler Circles and Syllogism

A. Euler Circles – are figures similar to Venn diagrams.
Quantifiers – used to describe the variables in a statement.
(1) Universal quantifier – usually written in the English language as “for
all” or “for every”. The symbol is ∀. Other keywords for universal quantifiers
are as follows:
all, each, every, no, none
(2) Existential quantifier – is expressed in words as “there exists” or “for
some”. This quantifier is denoted by ∃.
 Type General Form Example
Universal Affirmative All A is B All men are bipedal.
No dogs have
Universal Negative No A is B
feathers.
Particular Some dogs are
Some A is B
Affirmative hairy.
Some dogs are not
Particular Negative Some A is not B
hairy.

Basically there are 4 types of statements illustrated by the Euler Circles.

B. Syllogism – these argument that consists of two premises and a

conclusion.
Example:
Premise 1 : All USA students are required for an exit interview after graduation.
Premise 2 : Some USA teachers are enrolled in graduate school.
Conclusion: Some USA teachers will take an exit interview after graduation.