Experiment No-1

AIM : Basic safety precautions. Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter, ammeter, multi-
meter, oscilloscope. Practical resistors, capacitors and inductors

Appratus ; voltmeter, ammeter, multi-meter, oscilloscope. Practical resistors, capacitors and inductors

Theory: A multimeter is a versatile tool used for measuring various electrical parameters.

1. Voltage Measurement:

o DC Voltage: To check the voltage in circuits powered by direct current, such as batteries and
DC power supplies.

o AC Voltage: To measure the voltage in alternating current circuits, such as household electrical
outlets.

2. Current Measurement:

o DC Current: To measure the current flowing through a circuit with direct current.

o AC Current: To measure current in alternating current circuits. Note that measuring AC current
often requires special probes or settings.

3. Resistance Measurement:

o To check the resistance of components and circuits, which can help in troubleshooting and
verifying the proper functioning of components like resistors, motors, and connections.

4. Continuity Testing:

o To test whether there is a complete path for current to flow in a circuit. This is useful for finding
broken connections or ensuring proper connections in a circuit.

5. Diode Testing:

o To check the functionality of diodes and other semiconductor devices by measuring the voltage
drop across them and ensuring they conduct in one direction only.

6. Capacitance Measurement:

o To measure the capacitance of capacitors, which helps in evaluating their health and verifying
their values against specifications.

7. Testing Continuity and Polarity:

o To check if a circuit is continuous and to determine the polarity of DC voltage sources

Checking resistance with a multimeter is a straightforward process. Here’s a step-by-step guide:

Set the Multimeter to Resistance Mode:

• Turn the dial or use the mode button on your multimeter to select the resistance measurement mode,
often indicated by the symbol Ω (ohms). Some multimeters have multiple ranges for measuring
resistance, so you might need to select an appropriate range based on the expected resistance value.
Connect the Probes:

• Plug the black probe into the common (COM) terminal and the red probe into the terminal marked with
an ohm (Ω) symbol or labeled for resistance measurement.

Touch the Probes to the Component:

• For resistors or components with leads, place one probe on each end of the resistor or component.
Make sure you have a good contact with the metal leads or terminals.

• If you're testing a part of a circuit, touch the probes to the points where you want to measure the
resistance.

Read the Display:

• Look at the display on the multimeter to see the resistance value. It should show the resistance in ohms
(Ω), kilohms (kΩ), or megohms (MΩ) depending on the range and value.

Using a Multimeter without a Capacitance Measurement Feature

If your multimeter does not have a capacitance measurement feature, you can use an indirect method, such as
checking the capacitor's behaviour in a circuit:

Check for Continuity (Basic Test):

o Set the multimeter to the continuity or resistance mode.

o Discharge the capacitor as before.

o Connect the probes to the capacitor terminals. You should see a brief moment where the meter
shows a low resistance (indicating the capacitor is charging) followed by a high resistance
(indicating the capacitor is charged). If the reading remains low or fluctuates wildly, the
capacitor may be faulty.

Using a Multimeter Without an Inductance Measurement Feature

If your multimeter doesn’t measure inductance, you can use the following methods for a basic check:

1. Check for Continuity:

o Set the multimeter to the continuity or resistance mode.

o Connect the probes to the inductor’s leads.

o A good inductor should show low resistance, typically in the range of a few ohms, depending on
its size and type. There should not be a zero or very low resistance, as this could indicate a short
circuit within the inductor.

2. Inspect for Short Circuits:

o If the multimeter shows a very low resistance or zero resistance, it could indicate a short circuit
in the inductor. An inductor should not have a direct short; it generally has some resistance due
to its wire winding.

Decode the Bands of Resistor:

 • For a Four-Band Resistor:

o First Band: Write down the number corresponding to the colour of the first band.

o Second Band: Write down the number corresponding to the colour of the second band.

o Third Band: Write down the multiplier value.

Combine: Combine the first two digits, then multiply by the multiplier to get the resistance value.

A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), now commonly referred to as an Oscilloscope, is a versatile electronic
instrument used for observing and analyzing electrical signals. Here are some of the key uses of a CRO:

1. Signal Visualization

• Waveform Display: The primary function of a CRO is to display electrical waveforms. This helps in
visualizing the shape of the signal, including its amplitude, frequency, and waveform characteristics.

• Real-Time Observation: Allows for real-time monitoring of how signals change over time.

2. Measuring Signal Characteristics

• Amplitude: Measures the peak-to-peak, peak, and RMS (Root Mean Square) values of signals.
• Frequency: Determines the frequency of periodic signals and helps in analyzing signal timing.
• Period: Measures the duration of one complete cycle of a waveform.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel to measure the potential difference across a component in a circuit.

Here are some reasons why a voltmeter is connected in parallel:

• Voltage is the same in parallel: The voltage is the same across two points in a parallel connection.

• High resistance: A voltmeter has a high resistance, so it takes very little current from the circuit. If it were
connected in series, the current would be very small and it wouldn't give accurate readings.

• Avoid loading the circuit: Connecting a voltmeter in parallel prevents it from loading the circuit.

An ammeter is connected in series with a circuit to measure the amount of current passing through it:

The current flow is the same in a series combination, so the current flowing through the ammeter will be the
same as the current flowing through the device being measured.
 EXP-2
AIM: To verify Thevenin’s theorem for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Thevenin theorem kit , multimeter

THEORY:

THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
It states that in any lumped, linear network having more number of sources and
elements the equivalent circuit across any branch can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of Theremin’s equivalent voltage source Vth in series with Theremin’s
equivalent resistance Rth. Where Vth is the open circuit voltage across (branch) the
two terminals and Rth is the resistance seen from the same two terminals by replacing
all other sources with internal resistance
-
25

rgor

⑨ I

·
↑ PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per fig (1)
2. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value
(Say 20V).
3. Note down the response (current, IL) through the branch of interest i.e. AB
(ammeter reading).
4. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off
the supply.
5. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (2).
6. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 20V.
7. Note down the voltage across the load terminals AB (Voltmeter reading) that
gives Vth.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off
the supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (3).
10. Connect the digital multimeter(DMM) across AB terminals and it should be
kept in resistance mode to measure Thevenin’s resistance(RTh).

THEORETICAL VALUES:
Tabulation for Thevenin’s Theorem:

2u 2v
174
10mA
2
 EXP-3

AIM: To verify Kirchhoff's Voltage Law and Kirchhoff's Current Law theoretically and practically.

APPARATUS: Kirchhoff law kit for KCL and KVL =

THEORY:

We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, (RT) can be found when two
more resistors are connected together in either series or parallel combinations of both, and that
these circuits obey Ohm's Law.

However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we cannot simply use
Ohm's Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating within the circuit. For these types of
calculations need certain rules which allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we can
use Kirchhoff's Circuit Law.

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which deal
with the conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These two rules are
commonly known as: Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoff's laws dealing with the current
flowing around a closed circuit, Kirchhoff's Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the
voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, (KVL).

This law is also called Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's
first rule. It states that, "In any network of conductors, the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a
point (or junction) is zero",

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Ri R2
B

- 220 330

The Total current leaving the two branch can be recorded. at node point
B. which will be
I(B) = I (1) (Branch)+ 1(2)(Branch)
 >
- In (Branch) For KCL. law
B

· ·

> 12 Branch

PROCEDURE:

1) To verify KVL, Connections are made as shown in the Fig

2) Supply is given to the circuit and the readings of the voltmeters are noted down.

3) Kirchhoff's Voltage law can be verified by V = IR1(v1) + IR2(v2).

4) To verify KCL., Connections are made as shown in the Fig 2

5) Supply is given to the circuit and the readings of the Ammeters are noted down.

6) Kirchhoff's Current law can be verified by 1(B) =1(branch)+ 2(branch)

Observation Table

I We
-tage
2123 15

3205
3
25

4257 32

Result: Kirchhoff KCL laws is verified

 EXP-4

AIM: To verify Kirchhoff's Voltage Law theoretically and practically.

APPARATUS: Kirchhoff law kit for KCL and KVL =

THEORY:

We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, (RT) can be found when two
more resistors are connected together in either series or parallel combinations of both, and that
these circuits obey Ohm's Law.

However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we cannot simply use
Ohm's Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating within the circuit. For these types of
calculations need certain rules which allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we can
use Kirchhoff's Circuit Law.

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which deal
with the conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These two rules are
commonly known as: Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoff's laws dealing with the current
flowing around a closed circuit, Kirchhoff's Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the
voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, (KVL).

This law is also called Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's
first rule. It states that, "In any network of conductors, the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a
point (or junction) is zero",

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

- v BAs
ju
PROCEDURE:

1) To verify KVL, Connections are made as shown in the Fig

2) Supply is given to the circuit and the readings of the voltmeters are noted down.

3) Kirchhoff's Voltage law can be verified by V = IR1(v1) + IR2(v2).

4) Supply is given to the circuit and the readings of the Ammeters are noted down.

Observation Table

-all
Result: Kirchhoff KVL law is verified
EXP-5
ente in

·
the
left
side
S
Mana

ofthe
2k
activel
Notebook
2

↑ &
 left
Zak
0 9k-
7 mA
7561
[ Hand
side
.

=
6-18 mA 62mA
.

The Norton theorem is verified

 EXP-6
Aim - Verification of Superposition Theorem

Apparatus : Kit to verify Super- position theorem (Bumier Trading Corp.) and connecting Wires

Theory :

Superposition Theorem states that in a linear bilateral networte containing N sources , each branch
current (branch voltage) is the algebraic sum of n current ( branch voltages) each of which is
determined by considering one source at time and removing the other sources . Voltage sources
are short circuited and current sources are replaced by open circuited.

In our experiment ., first the voltage source V1 is short circuited and the corresponding Current I
1 across the load resistance is measured. Similarly V2 is short circuited & I2 measured also ,
then both the sources are connected simultaneously & I(T) is measured

It is found that I(t) is equal to the sum of I & I₂ which Other are independent of each

Procedure:-

1. Connect the circuit as the bread board. shown in fig.1. on

2 Switch on the DC power supply Vil vs.

3. Note down the reading of milliammeter as I

4 Remove voltage source Ve and put short Circuit between the points from where removed again. Vis

5. Connect ve its original position. Now remove circuit again source Vi and put shart blw points from Vi its
removed more down the reading of

#
Calculation
For V1 = 12 v
V2 = 5 v

I(total) = 22 While both the source are active

I (1). = 14. 4. when V(1) is short -
I (2). = 7.4. when V(2) is shorth
So I(total) = I(1) + I(2)
= 14. 4 + 7. 4 = 21. 8

Result & Discussion

It is found that the value of net current across load resistance is same as the algebraic sum of
the current across it when first source Vi is short and then source V2. Hence, Superposition
theorem is verified
 Ri >
Ri -
-

R5V m >50 source

short
R3

RI R2 ↑ left
U
=>

R I(T)
I
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=
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current
Iz
due to 12v
5r
12 -
Current due to

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 Experiment No.: 07

AIM : VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM.

APPARATUS USED: Maximum Power theorem Kit ,Connecting wires , multimeter

THEORY: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that a load resistance will abstract
maximum power from the network when the load resistance is equal to internal
resistance.

For maximum power transfer,

load resistance RL = Ri, where Ri is the internal resistance of the circuit.

The expression of maximum power, 𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =V / 4R(L)

Where 𝑉 is the dc voltage applied.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Take the readings of Voltmeter and Ammeter for different values of RL.
3. Verify that power is maximum when RL= Ri.

DISCUSSION:
In the network maximum power is transferred when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance of the network.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Switch off the supply when not in use.
2. Reading should be taken carefully.
3. All connections should be tight and correctly.

Result : The Max power transfer theorem is verified

·
I
R(i) R (L). Volatge (V.). Current (I). POUT = VI

500. 500. 6.05. 100mA =0,100 A 0.605 W

812. 7.52 75mA. =. 0.075A 0.564 W

139. 2.57 125mA = 0.125 A. 0.32 watt

From the above table it is clear that when the R(i) and R(L) are same, the Max power

which is 0.605 transferred

 Alm :
Aim: To preform the open circuit test on a single phase transformer >
-
also and
on
Apparatus: Transformer.Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Auto Transformer
side
page
Circuit Diagram

-Wattmet
↑
B DeConan
230V

-3 Size
< ON Left Hand page
Theory:
The purpose of the open-circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses of the
transformer because of which their no-load parameter is determined. This test is performed
-

on the primary winding of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter, and the voltage are
connected to their primary winding. The nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary
winding with the help of the ac source.
The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open and the voltmeter is connected to
their terminal. This voltmeter measures the secondary induced voltage. As the secondary of
the transformer is open, no-load current flows through the primary winding.

Connections:
• Connect the primary winding of the transformer to a variable AC power supply that can provide
the rated voltage.
• Leave the secondary winding open (do not connect any load to the secondary).
• Use a voltmeter to monitor the voltage applied to the primary winding and an ammeter to
measure the no-load current drawn by the transformer from the supply.
• Ensure that a wattmeter is connected in the primary circuit to measure the input power (which
will include the core losses).
 Procedure:

1). Connect the primary winding to a power supply and leave the secondary winding open.
2) Measure the primary voltage, no-load current, power using voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter.
3) Apply the rated primary voltage to the transformer.
4) Record the test data: no-load current, power, and voltage.

#in 0 36
2
left
side
Hand

=
:

No load power Jador costo

105 (0367) 68 47
Phase Angle 40
.

=
=>

Core-loss component = Iw = to Cosp = 0. 3486A

to sind. 8837A
Magnetising component
0
In
= .

=
=

Ro =
vo/Iw = 370 33 +
.

Xo =
volin = 146 091
.

Precautions

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Circuit should be made arc. to diagram.

3. Take the reading of Vo, Io, Wo

-

In Ez

-M
F
GRAPH:
The efficiency increases with the increase in voltage and becomes maximum at a particular
voltage and after that it decreases.

E
F
F
IC
I
E
N
C
Y

VOLTAGE
RESULT :
TheEfficiency
At low load: efficiency of the
is low single-phase
because the lossestransformer comes
(especially core out are
losses) to be………………
a significant proportion of the input power.

DISCUSSION:
At full load: Mutual
Efficiency peak as induction is
the transformer is delivering
the basic max.
principle inpower,
output the transformer.
and losses Direct
are minload testtoisthe output.
relative
carried out to find out the efficiency of the transformer.
At very high or low input voltage: Efficiency may degrade because of additional losses, like voltage drops due to
resistance in the windings, but this isn’t typically shown as a simple linear relationship with input voltage

PRECAUTIONS :
1. All connections should be tight and correct.
2. Switch off the supply when not in use.
3. Reading should be taken carefully.

*
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS:

Q.1 What is the effect on the frequency in the transformer?

A. No change
•
Q.2 What is the medium for the energy conversion from the primary to secondary in the
transformer?
A. By the flux.

Q.3 What is the main reason for the generation of harmonics in the transformer?
A. Saturation of the core.

19
 AIM : To perform the short circuit Test on a single phase transformer

Theory: The short circuit test is determines the copper loss occurs on the full load. The copper loss is used for
finding the efficiency of the transformer. The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are known
by the short circuit test.
The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the transformer. The measuring
instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter, and ammeter are connected to the high voltage winding of the transformer.
Their primary winding is short circuited by the help of thick strip or ammeter which is connected to their terminal.
The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of which the full load current flows
from both the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The full load current is measured by the
ammeter connected across their secondary winding.

The low voltage source is applied across the secondary winding which is approximately 5 to 10% of the normal
rated voltage. The magnitude of the flux is small as compared to the normal flux. The iron loss of the transformer
depends on the flux. It is less occur in the short circuit test because of the low value of flux. The reading of the
wattmeter only determines the copper loss occur on their windings.

&

Diagram ON
legtland
sid
R
Calculation of Short Circuit Test:
Let,
Wc – Wattmeter reading
Vsc – Voltmeter reading
Isc – Ammeter reading
fl : Full load
Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by : Pc = [Ifl/Isc]2.Wc : Isc2.Rs = Wc
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is ; Rs = Wc.Isc2
Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by : Zs = Vsc/Isc
The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by : Xs = [Zs2 - Rs2]1/2
 Observation Table:

Lefo hanga
T

Result:

short circuit test performs to determine the copper loss (i'r loss) which is equal to 200 W

copper loss depends upon the value of rated current and voltage

iron loss or core loss depends upon the value of supply voltage
AIM: To study the speed control of a DC shunt motor by varying the armature voltage

Theory : A DC shunt motor is a type of DC motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel
(shunt) with the armature. The speed of a DC shunt motor is primarily controlled by two methods:
1. Armature Voltage Control – Varying the voltage supplied to the armature.
2. Field Flux Control – Varying the field current to alter the magnetic flux.
In this experiment, we will focus on armature voltage control and its effect on the motor’s speed.

The speed of a DC shunt motor is given by the equation:

N=
·
Where:
• N = Speed of the motor (RPM)
• V = Armature supply voltage
• I_a = Armature current
• R_a = Armature resistance
• = Magnetic flux (determined by field current)
• k = Constant related to motor construction
·
The speed is inversely proportional to the flux (g\Phi ) and directly proportional to the armature voltage
( V ).

Apparatus:

• DC Shunt Motor
• Variable DC Power Supply
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Tachometer (for speed measurement)
• Rheostat (for field control)
• Wattmeter (optional for power measurement)
• Speed control switch

Procedure:

1. Initial Setup:
• Connect the DC shunt motor to a variable DC power supply. Connect the ammeter in series with the
armature and the voltmeter across the armature terminals.
• Set the field current using the rheostat to keep it constant throughout the experiment.
• Note the initial speed of the motor using a tachometer.
 2. Speed Control by Varying Armature Voltage:
• Gradually increase the armature voltage by adjusting the power supply and record the corresponding motor
speed, armature current, and voltage.
• Repeat the process for different voltage settings while keeping the field current constant.
• Measure and note the changes in speed for various voltage levels.
3. Speed Control by Varying Field Current (Optional):
• Vary the field current by adjusting the rheostat and measure the corresponding motor speed.
• This controls the flux \Phi , which in turn affects the speed.

4. Plot the Graph:

• Plot a graph of speed (RPM) against armature voltage for the armature voltage control method.

Observations:

• As the armature voltage is increased, the motor speed increases.

• The relationship between speed and armature voltage is approximately linear within certain limits,
assuming the field current is constant.

Result:

• The speed of the DC shunt motor increases with the increase in armature voltage and decrease with
decrease in armature voltage .

·
Ro
left Hand
*

side
page
B
Observation Table
/
Reading
Using Armature Resistance

=
-

left Hand
side also
&
the
graph
 ·
RA - leftside

·
B
p
d resistance
·

b
Procedure:

1. Initial Setup:
• Connect the DC shunt motor to a variable DC power supply. Connect the ammeter in series with the
field and the voltmeter across the armature terminals.

• Set the voltage to armature using the rheostat to keep it constant throughout the experiment.
• Note the initial speed of the motor using a tachometer.

2. Speed Control by Varying the field current

• Gradually change the field by field rheostate and record the corresponding motor speed,
armature current, and voltage.
• Repeat the process for different field current while keeping the armature voltage constant.
• Measure and note the changes in speed for various field current .

Observation Table

~Mo Fedora.
RPM

Please draw it in left hand side

4. Plot the Graph:

• Plot a graph of speed (RPM) against field current .

Observations:

• As the field current is increased, the motor speed decreases .

• The relationship between speed and field is approximately linear within certain limits,
assuming the armature voltage is constant.

Result:

• The speed of the DC shunt motor decreases with the increase field current
 Aim :Three phase power measurement by two wattmeter method.

Apparatus: -1. Three Phase Load. 2. A.C Wattmeter - 2 nos. 3. A.C Voltmeter.
4. A.C ammeters. 5. Three Phase supply. 6. Connecting Wires.

Theory

N = Neutral

Fig M
1: Connection diagram for three phase power measurement using two wattmeter method

The connection diagram for the measurement of power in three phase power measurement circuit using two
wattmeter's method is shown in figure 1. This is irrespective of the circuit connection star or delta. The circuit
may be taken as balanced or unbalanced one, balanced type being only a special case. Please note the
connection of two wattmeter's. The current coil of the wattmeter's 1 and 2 in series with R and B phase with
the pressure voltage coils being connected across R-Y and B-Y respectively. Y is the third phase in which no
current coil is connected.

For two wall meter method

w= W, + W2

Wi = VcIs (30
-
4)
VcECos (30 9)
+
W2 =

W= JJ VLICOSA-kw
fant js (W,W2)
d =

(Wi + W2)

·
·