OSI MODEL

The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards

Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols
used in the various layers (Day and Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995(Day,
1995). The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference
Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.The OSI model is a layered framework for the design
of network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems. It
consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process
of moving information across a network.
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2),
network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and application
(layer 7). Figure below shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to
device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes.
These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.

1.PhysicalLayer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
o Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines
the type of transmission medium.
o Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or
1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or
optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
o Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long
it lasts.
o Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
o Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
o Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to
every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring
topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is
on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
o Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the
other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode,
two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex)
mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It
makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
o Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
o Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the
frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects the network to the next one.
o Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
o Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
o Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
3. Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet
gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two systems are connected to the same link,
there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to
different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a
need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
o Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header
to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
o Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks (network
of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to
provide this mechanism.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A
process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees
sourceto-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between
those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate
message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
sourceto-destination level.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
o Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but
also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called
a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
o Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in transmission.
o Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to
the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets.
After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
o Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
o Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single
link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved
through retransmission.
5. Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
o Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or
full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
o Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization
points, to a stream of data.
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
o Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be
changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use different
encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from
its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving
machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
o Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends
the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform
the message back to its original form.
o Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text,
audio, and video.
7. Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
o Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
o File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in
the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
o Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
o Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services