READING AND WRITING SKILLS (RAWS)

TOPIC 4: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

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I. Patterns of Development- logical arrangement of ideas
II. Different Patterns
a. Definition- helps to clarify and explain concepts by answering the question, “ What does it mean?”
- explains the information through the use of illustrations, examples, and descriptions
- defining tends “not to argue” and “not to persuade”
- one can use a spider map to better understand a definition text
- signal words—is defined as, as defined as, means, refers to, to define, to illustrate
- most often associated terms with defining—Denotation (the explicit or literal definition of a word; also the
meaning of a word based on the dictionary); Connotation (secondary meaning of a word; it is how people
understand a word based on their own personal or consensual experiences and not based on a dictionary).

b. Exemplification- presents the general statement and then provides specific and concrete examples to expound on the
main idea.
- the process of enumerating
- a very practical purpose or function of exemplification is that examples can make abstract ideas more
understandable to human perception
- signal words—after all, as an example, consider the following, for example, for instance, in other words, in
particular, in short, namely, put another way, specifically, stated differently, that is, to be specific, to illustrate

c. Description (Sensory and Spatial)- provides details on the idea by using either a sensory or spatial pattern
- sensory pattern—ideas are arranged based on one or of all the five senses; spatial pattern—arranges ideas by
location or physical spaces
- The most important elements of this pattern are the types of description used (i.e., evocative or informational;
spatial or sensory); the clustering of details, and the progression of description.
- According to Dagdag (2010), there are two types of description: objective and subjective. Objective description
is a factual description of the topic at hand. This relies its information on physical aspects and appeals to those
who crave facts. Meanwhile, subjective description allows the writer to explore ways to describe an emotion, an
event, a thing, a place or a person, appealing to emotions. Often, this is an artistic way of describing things, mostly
from the eye and perspective of the writer.
- signal words—above, across, adjacent to, against, along, alongside, amidst, around, away from, back of, behind,
below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, farther, here, in, in front of, inside, into, near, off

d. Chronology / Procedure- organizes ideas or events according to time

- it can either be in the form of narration—sequences events in the order in which they occurred in time; process—
organizes details based on stages or steps
- most essential parts of this pattern—main idea, major dates and events (final outcome, major steps/ stages), and order
of presentation
- signal words—about , after, afterwards, as soon as, at, at this/ that point, before, during, eventually finally, first,
immediately, in the meantime, later, soon, second, today

e. Listing- organizes ideas using enumeration; unlike, chronological pattern, listing does not require the items to be sequenced
chronologically for it does not have the element of time.
- basically presents a series of items (facts, examples, features, reasons, and tips) ta support the main idea.
- signal words—additionally, again, along with, also, and, and then, another, as well, besides, equally important,
together with, in the same way

f. Comparison- contrast- organizes ideas based on how events places, people, things and concepts are similar or different from one
another
- 2 ways on how ideas can be arranged: separately—involves describing one item first followed by the second item; or
side-by-side—means discussing both items based on each point of comparison
- Analogy—a common technique used to demonstrate comparison and contrast
- signal words—(COMPARING) also, as both, equally, in a similar fashion, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, to
compare; (CONTRAST) although, and yet, as opposed to, but, conversely, counter to, despite even so, nevertheless,
whereas, yet, on the other hand, instead, however

g. Classification and Division- organizes ideas into categories or divisions based on criteria and standards
-Division works hand-in-hand with analysis, wherein one breaks down a concept into its constituent parts. This
process necessitates separating items—creating demarcating lines or clear distinctions between or among the
little things that make up the whole.
- Classification entails categorization, which enables one to group together items according to their similarities.
- Relationship between ideas: superordinate ideas (name of the larger group), and subordinate ideas
(subcategories of a larger group)
- signal words—another, classified as, final type, one kind, the first category, the last group, the next part

h. Cause and Effect- organizes details based on the cause, the reason and the result or consequences of a certain
phenomenon
 Single Cause, Multiple Single Effect, Multiple
Effects Causes
Effect Cause
Cause Effect Effect Cause
Effect Cause

Alternating Causes/ Effects in a

Multiple Causes, Multiple Chain (Domino Effect)
Effects
Cause Effect Cause
Cause Effect Effect
Cause Effect Cause
Effect

i. Problem- solution-organizes ideas into problems and proposed solutions

- The problem section usually includes the what, who, when, where, why and how of the problem.
- The other part then presents the major effects of the problem and the possible solution to address it
-signal words—but, nonetheless, one reason for the, one solution is , one way is, the problem, the solution

j. Persuasion-organizes ideas to show how a set of evidence leads to a logical conclusion or argument
- this pattern presents the issue, the position, and the supporting evidence that supports the position
- it is almost always coupled with argumentation
- Argumentation makes use of logos appealing to the audience’s logic; that is, when you argue, you use facts and
well- supported and well developed claims to support an argument.
- Persuasion, on the other hand, makes use of pathos, or appealing to the audience’s emotions.
- signal words—(EMPHASIZING A POINT) again, for this reason, in fact, in that case, indeed, to emphasize, to repeat,
with this in mind; (CONCLUDING A POINT) accordingly, all in all, as a result, as I have said, consequently, due to, in
essence, to sum up, in a nutshell; and, (CONCEDING A POINT) admittedly, assuredly, certainly, granted it is true
that, no doubt, obviously, of course, true, undoubtedly, to be sure, unquestionably

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TOPIC 5: CRITICAL READING SKILLS
I. Definition of Critical Reading
A. one does not simply accept the message read
B. one brings their own experience and perspective and separates oneself from the text and judge what one considers
important, logical or right.
C. one reads and evaluates claims, seek definitions, judge information, demands proof, and question assumptions

II. Strategies for Effective Critical Reading

A. Keeping a reading journal- similar to keeping a diary, except you are writing your feelings and ideas in reaction to your
reading assignment. This allows you to develop your impressions of the text and connect them to your personal
experiences.
B. Annotating the text- simply means making notes on your copy of the reading.
C. Outlining the text- by locating the thesis statement, claims and evidence and then plotting these into an outline, you can
see how the writer structures, sequences, and connects his or her ideas.
D. Summarizing the text-here, one can identify the thesis statements and recognize and differentiate major and minor
points of the text
E. Questioning the text- questioning the text involves asking specific questions on points that you are skeptical about.

III. Identifying the Context of the Text Development

Context is defined as the social, cultural, political, historical, and other related circumstances that surround the text and
form terms from which it can be better understood and evaluated. In discovering a reading’s context, you may ask questions like:
ü When was the work written?
ü What were the circumstances that produced it?
ü What issues does it deal with?
Among the many factors that contribute to the context of the reading is whether they are classified as intertext or
hypertext.
A. Intertextuality- modeling of a text meaning by another text
- intertext- refers to a work whose meaning is shaped by referencing or calling to mind other texts.
- connections between language, images characters, themes or subjects depending on their similarities in
language, genre, or discourse
- In an intertextual work, the context is not given immediately; only through the wealth of previous knowledge
and experience or further research will the reader be able to understand the text.
- can occur in—online or printed media, movies, songs and the like

B. Hypertext- characterized by the external links embedded in a text by the writer

- nonlinear way of showing information
- connects topics on a screen related information, graphics, videos, and music—information is simply not related
to the text.
- online medium, hypertext is evident through the embedded links of the author;
 - print media, is seen as the commentaries and footnotes in the margins

IV. Identifying and Analyzing Claims

A. Determining Explicit and Implicit information

- EXPLICIT- information that is clearly stated in the text
- IMPLICIT- ideas that are suggested

B. Defining Claims
1. Claims (central argument/ thesis statement)- defines the paper’s (text) direction and scope; a sentence that
summarizes the most important thing the writer wants to say as a result of his/her thinking, reading, or writing. This can
be found in the first and the last sentences of a paragraph.

C. Characteristics of a good claim:

- should be argumentative and debatable
- should be specific and focused
- should be interesting and engaging
- should be logical

D. Types of Claims
1. Claim of Fact- an argument about a quantifiable topic
- note that a claim of fact is not fact; it only asserts a stand regarding a debatable topic
- Claims of fact usually answer a “what” question.
- guide in determining something is a claim of fact:
ü Is this issue related to a possible cause or effect?
ü Is this statement true or false? How can its truthfulness be verified?
ü Is this claim controversial or debatable?

- it is supported with factual information—statistics, testimony, and observation

- uses sufficient , accurate, and recent evidence which are organized to emphasize the main argument
2. Claim of Value- argues whether something is good or bad; consists of arguments about moral, philosophical,
or aesthetic topics
- not merely a statement of subjective judgment, a claim of value is also assessed based on
accurate information
- Claims of value attempts to explain how problems, situations, or issues ought to be valued:
ü Which claim to endorse what is good or right?
ü What qualities should be considered good? Why?
ü Which of these values contend with others? Which ones are more important, and
why? Whose standards are used?
ü What are some concrete examples of such values?

3. Claim of Policy- an argument that asserts the implementation of a certain policy

- generally states solutions and plans that are procedural and organized
- incorporates judgment coupled with supporting information
- the statement usually begins with “should,” “ought to”, or “must”
- usually answer “how” questions
- guide questions for evaluating a claim of policy:
ü Does the claim suggest a specific remedy to solve the problem?
ü Is the policy clearly defined?
ü IS the need for the policy established?
ü Is the policy the best one available? For whom? According to whose standards?
ü How does the policy solve the problem?

V. Critical Reading as Reasoning

A. Identifying Assertions
Assertions are declarative statements that claim something is true about something else. It is a sentence that is
either true or false.

a.1. Four Types of Assertion

1. Fact- a statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses, verified
observations or the results of research
2. Convention- is a way in which something is done, similar to traditions and norms; conventions depend on
historical precedent, laws, rules, usage, and customs
3. Opinion- based on facts but is difficult to objectively verify because of the uncertainty of producing satisfactory
proofs of soundness; results from ambiguities
4. Preference- based on personal choice,; therefore, they are subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically
attacked

B. Formulating Counterclaims
Counterclaims are claims made to rebut a previous claim. They provide a contrasting perspective to the main
argument.
b.1. Guide questions to formulate counterclaims
Ø What are the major points on which you and the author can disagree?
 Ø What is the strongest argument? What did they say to defend their position?
Ø What are the merits of their view?
Ø What are the weaknesses or shortcomings in their argument?
Ø Are there hidden assumptions?
Ø Which lines from the text best support the counterclaim you have formulated?

C. Determining Textual Evidence

Evidence is defined as the details given by the author to support his/ her claim. It is provided to substantiate the
text. It reveals and builds on the position of the writer and makes the reading more interesting.
1. Evidence can include the following:
• Facts and statistics (objectively validated information on your subject)
• Opinion from experts (leading authorities on a topic, such as researchers or academics); and
• Personal anecdotes (generalizable, relevant, and objectively considered).

2. Guide questions to determine evidence from the text:

§ What questions can you ask about the claims?
§ Which details in the text answer your questions?
§ What are the most important details in the paragraph?
§ What is each one’s relationship to the claim?
§ How does the given detail reinforce the claim?
§ What details do you find interesting? Why?
§ What are some claims that do not seem to have support? What kinds of support could they provide with?
§ What are some details outdated, inaccurate, exaggerated, or taken out of context?
§ Are the sources reliable?

3. Characteristics of good evidence:

- unified; - relevant to the central point
- specific and concrete - accurate; and
-representative or typical

D. Logical Fallacies
Logical Fallacies are errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument.

FALLACIES DESCRIPTION FALLACIES DESCRIPTION

False Dilemma occurs when an arguer Slippery Slope Occurs when a series of
presents his/ her argument as increasingly superficial and
on of only two options despite unacceptable consequence is
the presence of multiple drawn
possibilities
Appeal to Ignorance Occurs when something is Complex Question Occurs when two or more
instantly concluded to be true points are rolled into one and
just because it is not proven the reader is expected to
to false, and vice versa either accept or reject both at
the same time, when one
point may be satisfactory
while the other is not
Appeal to Force Occurs when a threat, instead Appeal to Pity Occurs when the element of
of reasoning is used to argue pity is used instead of logical
reasoning
Appeal to Consequences Occurs when unpleasant Bandwagon Occurs when an argument is
consequences of believing considered to be valid
something are pointed out to because it is what the
show that the belief is false majority thinks
Appeal to Authority Occurs when the argument Anonymous Authority The authority in question is
quotes an expert who is not not mentioned or named
qualified in the particular
subject matter
Hasty Generalization Occurs when a sample is not Wrong Direction Occurs when the direction
significant or enough to between cause and effect is
support a generalization reversed
about a population

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III. REFENCES:
Barrot, J. S. (2016). Fundamentals of Thinking and Reading. Academic Reading and Writing Skills.
Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.
Tiongson, M.T.A., & Rodriguez, M.R. C. (2016). The Reading Process. Reading and Writing Skills
(First Edition). Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.