ETHICS Universal Perspective

• Ethics is the philosophical study of morality. • Principle of universalizability—the idea that a

moral statement (a principle, rule, or judgment) that
Morality: The set of rules or principles that guides applies in one situation must apply in all other
behaviour (what people believe is right or wrong). situations that are relevantly similar.
Ethics: The philosophical study of those rules and
principles (why people consider something right or Principle of Impartiality
wrong) • It means that the welfare and interests of each
individual should be given the same weight as the
• Morality refers to beliefs concerning right and welfare and interests of all others.
wrong, good and bad— beliefs that can include
judgments, values, rules, principles, and theories. Dominance of Moral Norms
They help guide our actions, dene our values, and • Not all norms are moral norms. There are legal
give us reasons for being the persons we are. It norms (laws, statutes), aesthetic norms (for judging
addresses the question: “How ought we to live?” artistic creations), prudential norms (practical
“What to do???” considerations of self-interest), and others. Moral
considerations usually override the others; they
• But even though in life ethics is inescapable and seem more important, more critical, or more
important, you are still free to take the easy way weighty.
out…You are free not to think too deeply or too
systematically about ethical concerns OVERVIEW OF ITS HISTORY
Greeks: “How can a person use reason to achieve
DIVISIONS/BRANCHES “the good life?”
• Normative Ethics: What should we do?
- We do normative ethics when we use critical Socrates believed in the existence of objective
reasoning to demonstrate that a moral principle is ethical standards while noting how difficult it was for
justified, or that a professional code of conduct is us to specify them.
contradictory, or that one proposed moral theory is Is something good because the gods love it, or the
better than another, or that a person’s motive is gods love something because it is good? (Euthyphro)
good.
Plato: all things in the visible realm, qua intelligible,
• Metaethics: What is the nature of morality? participate in separate forms that are invisible,
- What does it mean for an action to be right? Does unchanging, and perfect. Thus there is a form even
this specific moral statement make sense? for moral predicates, such as justice and happiness.
The highest of all forms, and one very difficult to
• Applied Ethics: How can this principle be applied in grasp, is the form of the Good
a particular issue?
-Did the doctor do right in performing that abortion? Aristotle: rejected Plato’s metaphysical claim that
Is it morally permissible for scientists to perform separated forms exist apart from things in which
experiments on people without their consent? Was they participate.
it right for the journalist to distort her reporting to • So there is not one separate form of the Good, but
aid a particular side in the war? many “goods,” each of which is a quality of a
particular thing or function.
ELEMENTS • wise persons seek an end that is self-sucient, nal,
Preeminence of Reason and attainable over one’s life (eudaemonia)
• Our use of critical reasoning and argument helps us • eudaemonia/happiness = ourishing; the highest
keep our feelings about moral issues in perspective. good
• To attain eudaemonia = need arete = by mestos
Medieval: Jesus’ command to love God I. Consequentialism
- Utilitarianism
St. Paul: outlined the way to achieve not an earthly - Egoism
“good life,” as the Greeks did, but heavenly - Pragmatism
beatitude with God (eternal Salvation) II. Non-consequentialism
- Deontological Ethics
St. Augustine: City of God / City of Man -Divine Command Theory
-Natural Law Theory
St. Thomas: Aristotelian Ethics -Virtue Ethics
• all actions are directed towards determinate ends
and ultimately a final end I. Consequentialism
• happiness is the final end - the morally right action is the one that results in
• choice involves selecting means for this final end the most favorable balance of good over bad.
• an agent needs a moral character developed
through the habits of choice to realize this UTILITARIANISM:
Happiness • Utility - overall happiness or well-being; measure
of the positive outcomes (pleasure, happiness, or
Modern: rejected the medieval idea that we should satisfaction) minus the negative outcomes (pain,
look to God for a guide to our actions suffering, or dissatisfaction).
• The purpose of ethics is not to instruct humans • Goal: maximize utility (create the greatest possible
how best to love God, but, rather, to show humans amount of happiness and the least amount of
how best to live together in this world. suffering)
• Hedonistic: great pleasure/least pain
Hobbes: state of nature; to follow the will of a • Preference: right action is the one that best fulfills
sovereign with absolute power. the preferences or interests of those affected.
Hume: the source of ethical judgments is our • Act-Utilitarianism: "What action, in this particular
sentiments (fellow-feeling) situation, will produce the greatest overall good?"
Kant: Reason deems the act ethical or unethical, • Rule-Utilitarianism: considers the long-term
while feelings and experience merely cloud the benefits of consistently following certain rules
issue.
• Kant’s categorical imperative functions as the test ETHICAL EGOISM
of reason that an act must pass in order for it to be • The morally right action is the one that produces
ethical the most favorable balance of good over evil for
oneself.
MORAL THEORY • Is it the same with selfishness?
 A moral theory is an explanation of what makes an • Ethical egoism does not necessarily endorse
action right or what makes a person or thing good. actions that yield immediate pleasure or advantage.
Its focus is not the rightness or goodness of specific Instead, it can involve a long-term perspective,
actions or persons but the very nature of rightness where short-term sacrifices may be justified if they
or goodness itself. lead to greater long-term gains for oneself.
• Moral theories concerned with the goodness of
persons or things are known as theories of value. PRAGMATISM
• Moral theories concerned with the rightness or • Pragmatism asserts that the truth and morality of
wrongness of actions are called theories of ideas and actions are determined by their practical
obligation consequences. In ethical terms, this means that an
action is right if it leads to desirable outcomes and
wrong if it leads to undesirable outcomes.
 4. Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: “Act according
II. Non-consequentialism to maxims of a universally legislating member of a
- It depends primarily, or completely, on the nature merely possible kingdom of ends.”
of the action itself 5. Formula of the Law of Nature: “Act as if the
maxims of your action were to become through your
DEONTOLOGY/CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE will a universal law of nature.”
• Principle of Universalizability: The principle of
universalizability states that an action is morally right NATURAL LAW THEORY
if and only if the maxim (or principle) behind it can • Right action follows the dictates of nature
be consistently willed as a universal law that • In this grand order, natural laws relect how the
everyone could follow in similar circumstances. world is as well as how it should be.
• Maxim: A maxim is a subjective principle of action, • To act morally is to act naturally
essentially a rule that an individual follows when
deciding to act in a certain way. For example, DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
"I will lie to avoid embarrassment" can be a maxim. • morally right action is the one that God commands
• Universal Law: To test the moral worth of a • an action may be deemed right even though it
maxim, one must ask if it could be universally does not maximize the good, or deemed wrong even
applied. This means imagining a world where if it does maximize the good
everyone acts according to the same maxim.
• Consistency: The maxim must be consistent when VIRTUE ETHICS
universalized. If the universalization of the maxim  Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that focuses on
leads to a contradiction or an undesirable world, those character traits that make someone a good or
then the action is not morally permissible. admirable person rather than simply on the actions
the person performs.
TEST YOUR MAXIM  According to Socrates and virtue ethics, being
• Formulate the Maxim: Clearly state the principle moral boils down to being successful at the art of
guiding your action. living.
• Universalize the Maxim: Imagine a world where  Socrates asserted that the most important goal for
everyone acts according to this maxim. humans is not just living but “living well.”
Test for Contradiction:
• Contradiction in Conception: Is it logically possible VIRTUE
for everyone to follow this maxim? If the maxim Meaning: a trait of character that is to be admired
cannot be consistently conceived as a universal law, and desired because it is a constituent of human
it is impermissible. excellence.
• Contradiction in Will: Even if a maxim is Virtues are intrinsically valuable for their own sake,
conceivable as a universal law, would you rationally but they are also valued
will it to be so? because they promote human flourishing both for
the individual who
Five Formulations: possesses them and for society in general.
1. Formula of Universal Law: “Act only according to
that maxim whereby you can at the same time will VIRTUE ETHICS’ FIVE THEMES
that it should become a universal law.” 1. Virtues Are Necessary Conditions for Human
2. Formula of Humanity: “Act in such a way that you Flourishing and Well-Being
treat humanity, whether in your own person or in 2. Moral Rules Are Inadequate Unless They Are
the person of any other, always at the same time as Grounded in a Virtue-Based
an end, never merely as a means.” Ethics
3. Formula of Autonomy: “Act only so that your will 3. Judgments about Character Are More
can regard itself at the same time as making Fundamental Than Judgment about the Rightness
universal law through its maxims.” or Wrongness of Conduct
4. Virtue Ethics Is More Comprehensive, Because It
Deals with the Whole
Person and Not Simply the Person Insofar as He or
She Performs an
Action
5. The Key to Morality Is Found in the Character of
Moral Role Models