MODULE - 2

Knowledge Representation and

Reasoning in AI , Inference in
First order logic
What is knowledge representation?
Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows
things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the
real world.
But how machines do all these things ?
comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge
representation as following:

Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence
which concerned with “AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent
behavior of agents.”
 • It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a
computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex
real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating
with humans in natural language.

• Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also
enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences
so that it can behave intelligently like a human.

Add a footer 3
What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:
• Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings,
trumpets are brass instruments.
• Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
• Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
• Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
• Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
• Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge
base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here,
sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with the English language).
• Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data,
and situations.

4
 Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:
knowledge about the structure of a problem or
system and is often used to help AI systems decompose
heuristic knowledge are a hypothesis, common sense,
complex problems into simpler sub-problems that can
rule of thumb, and intuition.
be solved more easily. It is the basic knowledge of
problem-solving.

Knowledge about how to solve a problem

1. Declarative Knowledge:
• Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
• It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
• It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
• It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge
• It is also known as imperative knowledge.
• Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to
do something.
• It can be directly applied to any task.
• It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
• Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
3. Meta-knowledge:
• Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:
• Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
• Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:
• Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
• It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping
of something.
• It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

7
 AI knowledge cycle:
The relation between knowledge and intelligence:
• Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI
agents.

An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent
behavior:
1. Perception
2. Learning
3. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
4. Planning
5. Execution
Add a footer 8
• The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world
and what components help it to show intelligence.
• AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from its
environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input. The
learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment.
• In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and
Reasoning.
• These two components are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like
humans. These two components are independent with each other but also
coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge
representation and reasoning.
Approaches to knowledge representation:
1. Simple relational knowledge:
 2. Inheritable knowledge

• In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must

be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
• All classes should be arranged in a generalized form
or a hierarchal manner.
• In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
• Elements inherit values from other members of a
class.
• This approach contains inheritable knowledge which
shows a relation between instance and class, and it
is called instance relation.
• Every individual frame can represent the collection
of attributes and its value.
• In this approach, objects and values are represented
in Boxed nodes.
3. Inferential knowledge
4. Procedural knowledge
Techniques of knowledge
representation

There are mainly four ways of

knowledge representation which are
given as follows:

• Logical Representation
• Semantic Network Representation
• Frame Representation
• Production Rules
 1. Logical representation

Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions
and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion
based on various conditions. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which
supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and
semantics.
Syntax:
Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
Logical representation can be categorised into
mainly two logics:
• Propositional Logics
• Predicate logics
 2. Semantic Network Representation
• Setworks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation.
• In Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks.
• This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those
objects.
• Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those objects.
This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

• IS-A relation (Inheritance)

• Kind-of-relation
Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent
in the form of nodes and arcs.

Statements:
Jerry is a cat.
Jerry is a mammal
Jerry is owned by Priya.
Jerry is brown colored.
All Mammals are animal.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
• Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this
network.
• Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to
store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network.
• These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier,
e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
• Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
Advantages of Semantic network:
• Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
• Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
• These networks are simple and easily understandable.
 3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values
to describe an entity in the world.
Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations.
It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes.
Slots have names and values which are called facets.
The above example was of a frame for a book

let us consdier one more example ....

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out.
The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem.
And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps.
This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
 WAMPUS WORLD PROBLEM
• The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a knowledge-
based agent and to represent knowledge representation. It was inspired by a video game
Hunt the Wumpus.
• The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms connected with passageways. So there
are total 16 rooms which are connected with each other.
• We have a knowledge-based agent who will go forward in this world. The cave has a room
with a beast which is called Wumpus, who eats anyone who enters the room. The
Wumpus can be shot by the agent, but the agent has a single arrow. In the Wumpus world,
there are some Pits rooms which are bottomless, and if agent falls in Pits, then he will be
stuck there forever.
• The exciting thing with this cave is that in one room there is a possibility of finding a heap
of gold. So the agent goal is to find the gold and climb out the cave without fallen into Pits
or eaten by Wumpus. The agent will get a reward if he comes out with gold, and he will
get a penalty if eaten by Wumpus or falls in the pit.
 • Following is a sample diagram for representing the Wumpus world. It is showing
some rooms with Pits, one room with Wumpus and one agent at (1, 1) square
location of the world.

Add a footer 27
 There are also some components which can help the agent to navigate the cave. These
components are given as follows:
1. The rooms adjacent to the Wumpus room are smelly, so that it would have some
stench.
2. The room adjacent to PITs has a breeze, so if the agent reaches near to PIT, then he will
perceive the breeze.
3. There will be glitter in the room if and only if the room has gold.
4. The Wumpus can be killed by the agent if the agent is facing to it, and Wumpus will
emit a horrible scream which can be heard anywhere in the cave.

10/16/2024
Add a footer 28
PEAS description of Wumpus world:
• To explain the Wumpus world we have given PEAS description as below:
Performance measure:
• +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of the cave with the gold.
• -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or falling into the pit.
• -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow.
• The game ends if either agent dies or came out of the cave.
Environment:
• A 4*4 grid of rooms.
• The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing toward the right.
• Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen randomly except the first square [1,1].
• Each square of the cave can be a pit with probability 0.2 except the first square.

10/16/2024
Add a footer 29
Actuators:
• Left turn, Right turn , Move forward , Grab , Release , Shoot.
Sensors:
• The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not
diagonally).
• The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room directly adjacent to the Pit.
• The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where the gold is present.
• The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a wall.
• When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a horrible scream which can be perceived
anywhere in the cave.
• These percepts can be represented as five element list, in which we will have
different indicators for each sensor.
Exploring the Wumpus world:
Now we will explore the Wumpus world and will determine how the agent will find its
goal by applying logical reasoning.
30
Agent's First step:
• Initially, the agent is in the first room or on the square [1,1], and we already know that
this room is safe for the agent, so to represent on the below diagram (a) that room is safe
we will add symbol OK. Symbol A is used to represent agent, symbol B for the breeze, G
for Glitter or gold, V for the visited room, P for pits, W for Wumpus.
• At Room [1,1] agent does not feel any breeze or any Stench which means the adjacent
squares are also OK.

Add a footer 31
Agent's second Step:
Now agent needs to move forward, so it will either move to [1, 2], or [2,1]. Let's suppose
agent moves to the room [2, 1], at this room agent perceives some breeze which means Pit is
around this room. The pit can be in [3, 1], or [2,2], so we will add symbol P? to say that, is
this Pit room?
Now agent will stop and think and will not make any harmful move. The agent will go back to
the [1, 1] room. The room [1,1], and [2,1] are visited by the agent, so we will use symbol V to
represent the visited squares.
Agent's third step:

At the third step, now agent will move to the room [1,2] which is OK. In the room [1,2] agent
perceives a stench which means there must be a Wumpus nearby. But Wumpus cannot be in
the room [1,1] as by rules of the game, and also not in [2,2] (Agent had not detected any
stench when he was at [2,1]). Therefore agent infers that Wumpus is in the room [1,3], and
in current state, there is no breeze which means in [2,2] there is no Pit and no Wumpus. So it
is safe, and we will mark it OK, and the agent moves further in [2,2].
Add a footer 32
 Agent's fourth step:
• At room [2,2], here no stench and no breezes present so let's suppose agent decides
to move to [2,3]. At room [2,3] agent perceives glitter, so it should grab the gold and
climb out of the cave.

Add a footer 33
 Propositional logic (PL)
Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are
made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or
false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical
form.

• Example:
• a) It is Sunday.
• b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
• c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
• d) 5 is a prime number.

Add a footer 34
 • Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

✓Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

✓In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we
can use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.

✓Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.

10/16/2024
Add a footer 35
✓The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
✓Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
✓A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid
sentence.
✓A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
✓A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called Contingency.

• Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as
"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What

10/16/2024
Add a footer 36
Syntax of propositional logic:
• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:
• Atomic Propositions
• Compound propositions

1. Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a

single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
• Example:
• a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
• b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

10/16/2024 37
2.Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler
or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.

Example:

• a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

• b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

10/16/2024
Add a footer 38
 Logical Connectives:
• Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or
representing a sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the
help of logical connectives.

There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

• 1.Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be
either Positive literal or negative literal.
• 2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a
conjunction.

Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,

P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
•
10/16/2024
Add a footer 39
 • 3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called
disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",

Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.

• 4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications

are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
Example: If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q

• 5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,

example If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

10/16/2024
Add a footer 40
 Table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of
propositions in all possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible
combination with logical connectives, and the representation of these
combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are
the truth table for all logical connectives:

10/16/2024
Add a footer 41
 10/16/2024
Add a footer 42
 • Limitations of Propositional logic:
• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
• All the boys are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.
• Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
• In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties
or logical relationships.
10/16/2024
Add a footer • 43
 10/16/2024
Add a footer 44
Knowledge representation using
predicate logic
▪In propositional logic, we can only represent the facts, which are either true or false.

▪PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural language statements.
The propositional logic has very limited expressive power.

▪"Some humans are intelligent", or

"Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, Propositional logic is not sufficient, so we required

some more powerful logic, such as first-order logic(predicate logic).

▪First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It

is an extension to propositional logic.
▪First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the
world contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the
following things in the world:

Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,

wumpus, ......

Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or

n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between

Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:

Syntax

Semantics
Syntax of First-Order logic:
▪The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical
expression in first-order logic.
The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write
statements in short-hand notation in FOL.
Basic Elements of First-order logic:
Atomic sentences vs. Complex sentences
▪Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic.

▪ These sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis

with a
sequence of terms.

▪We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).
Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:
▪Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.
First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:
Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.
Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms
together in a
statement.
Consider the statement: "x is an integer.",
it consists of two parts,
the first part x is the subject of the statement and
second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.
Quantifiers in First-order logic:
▪A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification,
and quantification specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe
of discourse.

▪These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range
and scope of the variable in the logical expression. There are two
types of quantifier:
Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).
Universal Quantifier:
▪Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

▪The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

▪ If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

For all x
For each x
For every x.
Existential Quantifier:
▪Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the
statement within its scope is true for at least one instance of something.
▪It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When
it is used with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

▪Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol (∧).

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be

read as:

There exists a 'x.'

For some 'x.'
For at least one 'x.'
Few examples
Knowledge Engineeri ng in
Fi rst-order l ogi c(Predi cate
l ogic)
 What is knowledge-engineering?

▪The process of constructing a knowledge-base in first-order logic is

called as knowledge-engineering.

▪Who is a Knowledge engineer?

someone who investigates a particular domain, learns important
concept of that domain, and generates a formal representation of the
objects
The knowledge-engineering process
We will develop a knowledge base which will allow us to reason about digital
circuit (One-bit full adder) which is given below.

A full adder circuit is central to

most digital circuits that perform
addition or subtraction. It is so
called because it adds together
two binary digits, plus a carry-in
digit to produce a sum and carry-
out digit. It therefore has three
inputs and two outputs.
Basic Steps of Knowledge Engineering
1. Identify the task .

2. Assemble the relevant knowledge.

3. Decide on vocabulary

4. Encode general knowledge about the domain.

5. Encode a description of the problem instance.

6. Pose queries to the inference procedure and get answers.

7. Debug the knowledge base

For the digital circuit, there are various reasoning
tasks!

Examining the functionality of the circuit:

Does the circuit add properly?

What will be the output of gate A2, if all the inputs

are high?

Examine the circuit structure details such as:

Which gate is connected to the first input terminal?

Does the circuit have feedback loops?

In the second step, we will assemble the relevant knowledge
which is required for digital circuits.

So for digital circuits, we have the following required

knowledge:

▪Logic circuits are made up of wires and gates.

▪Signal flows through wires to the input terminal of the gate,

and each gate produces the corresponding output which
flows further.

▪In this logic circuit, there are four types of gates used: AND,
OR, XOR, and NOT.

▪All these gates have one output terminal and two input
terminals (except NOT gate, it has one input terminal).
Process is to select functions, predicate, and constants to represent
the circuits, terminals, signals, and gates.
▪Each gate is represented as an object which is named by a constant, such
as, Gate(X1).

▪The functionality of each gate is determined by its type, which is taken as constants such
as AND, OR, XOR, or NOT.

▪Circuits will be identified by a predicate: Circuit (C1).

▪For the terminal, we will use predicate: Terminal(x).

▪For gate input, we will use the function In(1, X1) for denoting the first input terminal of the
gate, and for output terminal we will use Out (1, X1).

▪The function Arity(c, i, j) is used to denote that circuit c has i input, j output.

▪The connectivity between gates can be represented by predicate Connect(Out(1, X1), In(1,
X1)).

▪We use a unary predicate On (t), which is true if the signal at a terminal is on.
To encode the general knowledge about the logic circuit, we need some following rules:

▪If two terminals are connected then they have the same input signal, it can be represented as:

∀ t1, t2 Terminal (t1) ∧ Terminal (t2) ∧ Connect (t1, t2) → Signal (t1) = Signal (t2).

▪Signal at every terminal will have either value 0 or 1, it will be represented as:

∀ t Terminal (t) →Signal (t) = 1 ∨Signal (t) = 0.

▪Connect predicates are commutative:

∀ t1, t2 Connect(t1, t2) → Connect (t2, t1).

▪Representation of types of gates:

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r = Type(g) → r = OR ∨r = AND ∨r = XOR ∨r = NOT.

▪Representation of types of gates:

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r = Type(g) → r = OR ∨r = AND ∨r = XOR ∨r = NOT.

▪Output of AND gate will be zero if and only if any of its input is zero.

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = AND →Signal (Out(1, g))= 0 ⇔ ∃n Signal (In(n, g))= 0.

▪Output of OR gate is 1 if and only if any of its input is 1

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = OR → Signal (Out(1, g))= 1 ⇔ ∃n Signal (In(n, g))= 1

▪Output of XOR gate is 1 if and only if its inputs are different:

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = XOR → Signal (Out(1, g)) = 1 ⇔ Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (In(2, g))

▪Output of NOT gate is invert of its input:

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT → Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (Out(1, g)).

▪All the gates in the above circuit have two inputs and one output (except NOT gate)

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT → Arity(g, 1, 1)

∀ g Gate(g) ∧ r =Type(g) ∧ (r= AND ∨r= OR ∨r= XOR) → Arity (g, 2, 1).

▪All gates are logic circuits

∀ g Gate(g) → Circuit (g).

5. Encode a description of the problem instance
▪In the circuit there are two XOR, two AND, and one OR gate

atomic sentences for these gates are :

For XOR gate: Type(x1)= XOR, Type(X2) = XOR

For AND gate: Type(A1) = AND, Type(A2)= AND
For OR gate: Type (O1) = OR.
▪In this step, we will find all the possible set of values of all the terminal for the adder circuit.

▪The first query will be:

What should be the combination of input which would generate the first output of circuit C1, as 0 and a
second output to be 1?

∃ i1, i2, i3 Signal (In(1, C1))=i1 ∧ Signal (In(2, C1))=i2 ∧ Signal (In(3, C1))= i3
∧ Signal (Out(1, C1)) =0 ∧ Signal (Out(2, C1))=1
7. Debug the knowledge base:
▪Now we will debug the knowledge base, and this is the last step of the complete process. In this step,
we will try to debug the issues of knowledge base.
In the knowledge base, we may have omitted assertions like 1 ≠ 0
END OF MODULE 2