Chapter 3: Weather and Climate

Weather and Climate

1. Weather: The state of the atmosphere over a short period of time is termed as weather.

2. Climate: The weather conditions for a given location over a relatively long period of
time are termed as climate.

Meteorologists
1. The scientists who study weather are called meteorologists.

Weather

1. Weather: The sum total of the current atmospheric conditions at a given place,
including temperature, rainfall, wind, and humidity.

2. It is the state of the atmosphere of a given place at a particular time.

3. Weather might be sunny, cloudy, windy, humid, rainy, or snowy.

4. It may change at a given place from day to day.

5. At some places, the weather may remain the same for the whole year.

6. Example: In the forests of Africa, the weather is always hot and humid, with heavy
rainfall every afternoon.

7. The weather remains the same throughout the year in African forests.

Causes of Weather Conditions

1. All weather conditions are mainly caused by the sun.

2. The heat from the sun heats up the earth and its atmosphere.
3. The hot air rises, and the cooler air rushes in its place; this process, along with the
rotation of the earth, causes the winds to blow.

4. This is responsible for the weather conditions of a place.

5. The heat from the sun causes the evaporation of water from different water bodies.

6. This leads to cloud formation, which later condenses and precipitates as rain, hail, or
snow.

7. This process mainly affects the weather of a place.

Climate

1. Climate: Refers to the atmospheric conditions over a relatively long period of time.

2. Climate can be defined as the average weather conditions prevailing at a place

recorded over a long period of time.

3. The description of the climate covers a larger area.

4. It is based on the calculated averages of weather data recorded over a relatively long
period of time.

5. The climate of a place depends on its location on the earth.

6. If a given place is located near the equator, it will have a different climate than places
near the poles (North Pole and South Pole).

7. The places near the sea or on the mountains will have different climates.

Difference Between Weather and Climate

1. The term climate should not be confused with weather.

2. They differ from each other in several areas.

3. Weather relates to the daily atmospheric changes and conditions.

4. Climate represents atmospheric conditions over a relatively long period of time, such
as 35 years.

5. Weather may change many times in a day.

6. Climate remains constant for a long period of time.

7. Weather changes occur over a small region.

8. Climate changes occur over a large area.

Elements of Weather

1. The major elements of weather are:

a. Temperature

b. Atmospheric pressure

c. Humidity

d. Precipitation

e. Clouds
2. Different weather conditions are the results of these elements.
Temperature

1. Temperature: The degree of hotness and coldness of air is known as temperature.

2. The distribution of temperature is shown on the map by using isotherms.

3. Isotherms are the lines on a map connecting points having the same temperature at a
given time.

4. Temperature is usually measured in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit.

- Celsius scale: Invented by Anders Celsius.

- Water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C under standard conditions.

- Fahrenheit scale: Water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F under standard
conditions.

Measurement of Temperature

1. Temperature is measured by an instrument called a thermometer.

2. Types of thermometers:

a. Celsius thermometer:

• Shows 0 to 100 degrees of temperature.

• 0°C is the freezing point of water.

• 100°C is the boiling point.

• Consists of a glass tube sealed on one end with a bulb on the other.

• The lower part of the tube and the bulb are filled with mercury.

• The lowest point of the tube indicates the freezing point of water, and its
upper end indicates the boiling point of water.

• Fahrenheit thermometer: Shows 32°F and 212°F of temperature.

• 32°F is the freezing point.

• 212°F is the boiling point of water.

Stevenson's Screen: Used to measure the temperature of moving air.

• It is a wooden box (wood being a poor conductor of heat) in which the

thermometer is kept to calculate accurate temperature.
 • A metal box is not used because it heats up and cools down with
variations in outside temperature.

• The surface of the box is painted white to reflect away bright sunlight.

• It allows the free movement of air but protects the thermometer from
direct sun rays.

• The box is placed in an open area, away from trees and buildings.

• It is kept at a height of about 1.5 meters above the surrounding area.

• The barometer, wet and dry bulb thermometers, and other thermometers
are placed in this well-ventilated wooden box.

b. Six's Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

• Temperature: A varied element of weather and climate, it keeps changing
and never remains static.

• Its variability cannot be seen in an hour, day, month, or year.

• Due to its variable nature, it is essential to calculate the maximum and

minimum ranges of temperature at a place.

• Six's maximum and minimum thermometer: Used to calculate the range

of temperature.

• James Six invented this thermometer in 1782.

• It is different from a clinical thermometer.

• Six's maximum and minimum thermometer is a U-shaped thermometer

filled with mercury and alcohol.

• The minimum temperature is measured from the left-hand limb, and the
maximum temperature is measured from the right-hand limb.

Functioning of Six's Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

1) This thermometer comprises a glass tube bent twice at right angles.

a. One tube records the maximum temperature.

b. The other records the minimum temperature.

2) The U-shaped capillary tube has a bulb on each upper end.

a. Alcohol measures the temperature.

b. Mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales.
 3) Left-hand bulb: Completely filled with alcohol; measures temperature by the
expansion and contraction of alcohol.

4) Right-hand bulb: Contains alcohol and a bubble of alcohol vapour.

5) When the temperature rises in the day, the alcohol in the completely filled bulb
expands and applies pressure on the mercury.

a. Mercury advances toward the partly filled bulb and drives up the index in the
glass capillary nearer to the partly filled bulb.

b. This index records the maximum temperature.

6) When the temperature falls at night, the alcohol in the completely filled bulb
contracts.

a. Mercury proceeds toward the completely filled bulb and propels up the index
in the glass capillary nearer to the completely filled bulb.

b. This index records the minimum temperature.

7) After noting down the readings, the thermometer has to be reset every day.

8) A small magnet is used to bring the two metal indices to the top of the mercury level
in both glass capillaries.

Thermograph

1) Thermograph: Used to measure the temperature of a place.

2) It is a modern instrument for measuring temperature.
3) The thermograph has a revolving cylinder and a pen.

a. The pen records the temperature on the revolving cylinder.

b. The pen is controlled by a bi-metal strip that bends with temperature changes.

Temperature Data

1. Thermometer, thermograph, and Six's maximum and minimum thermometer provide

temperature-related data of a place.

2. Meteorologists use these data to calculate the mean daily, mean monthly, and mean annual
temperature, as well as the range of temperature.

3. Isotherms: Areas having equal temperatures on a map are connected by isotherms, lines that
join points having the same temperature at a given time.
Precipitation

1. Forms of precipitation: Hail, sleet, snowfall, and rainfall are the main forms.

2. Rainfall: The most common form of precipitation.

- The form of precipitation in which water droplets fall on the earth's surface is called rainfall.

Measuring Rainfall

▪ Rain gauge: An instrument used to measure rainfall.

- The rain gauge has a metallic graduated cylinder with a broad base.

- It is placed in an open and level area away from buildings and trees.

- When it rains, the rainwater gets into the graduated jar and is then measured.
- Rainfall is measured in millibars, centimeters, inches, etc.
- The distribution of rainfall is shown by isohyets on a map.

- Isohyets are the lines on a map that join points having the same amount of rainfall in a
given period.

- Data collected from this instrument is used to calculate total daily, monthly, and annual
rainfall.

- It should be set in an open ground approximately 30 cm above the ground surface so that
the rain falls on it without any hindrance.

Humidity

1) Humidity: The moisture present in the atmosphere.

2) Recording humidity:

• Wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers are used to compare the wet bulb and dry
bulb thermometers are used to compare the humidity in the atmosphere.

• Hygrometer: Another instrument used to measure the amount of water vapour

(humidity) in the air.

• Hygrometers show the relative humidity of the air.

3) Relative humidity: The ratio between the amount of moisture present in the
atmosphere and the maximum amount the air can hold at that temperature.
4) Factors affecting humidity:
 - Temperature: As temperature increases, the air can hold more moisture, which
decreases relative humidity.

- Latitude: Areas near the equator generally have higher humidity than those
near the poles.

- Altitude: Higher altitudes usually have lower humidity.

5) Humidity and Weather:

- Higher humidity often leads to cloud formation and precipitation.

- Lower humidity can result in dry and clear weather conditions.

Atmospheric Pressure

1) Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure exerted by the weight of the air in the
atmosphere.

2) Barometer: An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

- The pressure is usually measured in millibars.

- Mercury Barometer: Consists of a glass tube filled with mercury and is used to
measure the pressure.
- Aneroid Barometer: A more portable and commonly used instrument that does not use
liquid.

3) Isobars: Lines on a map that connect places with equal atmospheric pressure at a
given time.

4) Pressure and Weather:

- High-pressure systems usually bring clear skies and calm weather.

- Low-pressure systems are often associated with cloudy skies, strong winds, and
precipitation.
5) Factors affecting atmospheric pressure:
- Altitude: Atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.
- Temperature: Warm air is lighter and exerts less pressure; cold air is heavier and
exerts more pressure.

- Humidity: Moist air exerts less pressure than dry air.

Wind

1. Wind: The movement of air from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.

2. Wind direction: Measured with a wind vane.
 3. The wind vane points in the direction from which the wind is blowing.

3. Wind speed: Measured with an anemometer.

a. Wind speed is usually measured in kilometres per hour (km/h) or miles per
hour (mph).

4. Types of winds:

a. Trade Winds: Steady winds blowing towards the equator from the northeast in
the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.

b. Westerlies: Winds blowing from the west between 30° and 60° latitude in both
hemispheres.

c. Polar Easterlies: Cold winds blowing from the east near the poles.

d. Local Winds: Winds that blow over a small area and are influenced by local
conditions (e.g., sea breezes, land breezes, mountain winds, valley winds).

5. Factors affecting wind patterns:

a. Coriolis Effect: The deflection of moving air due to the rotation of the Earth,
causing winds to curve rather than move in a straight line.

b. Pressure gradients: The difference in atmospheric pressure between two

regions that drives the movement of wind.

Clouds
1. Clouds: Visible masses of condensed water vapor floating in the atmosphere.
2. Types of clouds:

a. Cirrus: Thin, wispy clouds found at high altitudes, usually indicating fair
weather.

b. Cumulus: Fluffy, white clouds with a flat base, typically seen during fair
weather but can develop into storm clouds.

c. Stratus: Uniform grayish clouds that often cover the entire sky, associated with
overcast conditions and light precipitation.

d. Nimbus: Thick, dark clouds that bring heavy precipitation, such as rain or
snow.
3. Cloud formation: Clouds form when moist air rises, cools, and condenses into water
droplets or ice crystals.
4. Importance of clouds:
 e. Clouds play a crucial role in the water cycle, bringing precipitation to the
earth's surface.

f. They also reflect sunlight, helping to regulate the Earth's temperature.

Precipitation

1. Precipitation: Any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface,
including rain, snow, sleet, and hail.
2. Types of precipitation:
- Rain: Liquid water droplets falling from the sky.

- Snow: Frozen water vapour falling as ice crystals.

- Sleet: Small ice pellets formed when raindrops freeze before hitting the
ground.

- Hail: Balls or lumps of ice formed in strong thunderstorms with powerful

updrafts.
3. Factors affecting precipitation:

- Temperature: Determines the form of precipitation (e.g., rain or snow).

- Altitude: Higher altitudes may lead to increased precipitation due to the

cooling of rising air.

- Location: Coastal areas and windward sides of mountains receive more

precipitation than inland and leeward areas.

Measuring Weather and Climate

1. Weather stations: Use various instruments to measure different elements of weather.

- Thermometers: Measure temperature.

- Barometers: Measure atmospheric pressure.
- Anemometers: Measure wind speed.
- Rain gauges: Measure the amount of precipitation.
- Hygrometers: Measure humidity.
- Wind vanes: Measure wind direction.
2. Weather satellites: Provide a global view of weather patterns and track storms, clouds, and
temperature changes.

3. Weather balloons: Carry instruments into the upper atmosphere to collect data on
temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure at different altitudes.

4. Climate data: Recorded over long periods to determine the average weather conditions and
identify climate patterns and changes.
5. Importance of accurate weather forecasting:
 - Helps in preparing for and mitigating the effects of severe weather events.
- Essential for agriculture, aviation, shipping, and other industries affected by
weather conditions.

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Notes for Chapter 5 – Industries

Introduction
1. The world is rich in natural resources such as forests, agricultural products, and minerals.
2. These resources need processing to be more valuable for daily use.

Secondary Activities
1. Definition: Secondary activities involve processing raw materials into more useful and
valuable products.
2. All secondary activities are related to manufacturing industries.
3. Industry Definition: The term industry refers to activities concerned with processing,
fabricating, and manufacturing primary products.
4. Industrial Development: A key indicator of a country's overall growth.
5. Industrial Revolution: Began in Great Britain in the 18th century, spreading to Western
Europe and later globally, though it was not spread evenly due to the fact that industries were
not evenly distributed all over the world.

Factors Affecting the Location of an Industry

1. Raw Material: Availability of raw materials is crucial for setting up an industry.
2. Power Supply: Essential for processing raw materials and operating machines.
3. Labour: Requires an adequate supply of cheap and skilled labor.
4. Water Supply: Used as a coolant and for washing purposes; industries are often located
near water sources.
5. Market: Proximity to markets is vital for selling processed products.
6. Climate: Favorable climate conditions improve worker efficiency.
7. Capital: Significant investment is needed for industrial operations and expansion; hence,
industries are often near cities with access to financial services.
Classification of Industries
1. Mineral-Based Industries: Use mineral ores as raw materials; products often feed other
industries (e.g., iron and steel, shipbuilding).
2. Agro-Based Industries: Depend on agriculture and animal products for raw materials
(e.g., sugar, textiles, dairy products, leather).
3. Large Scale Industries: Employ many workers and require huge capital investments (e.g.,
iron and steel, cotton textiles).
4. Small Scale Industries: Employ fewer workers and require smaller capital investments
(less than 20 lakh rupees, e.g., silk weaving).
5. Cottage Industries: Handcrafted industries run by artisans and their families in their
homes (e.g., carpets, sarees, decorative items).
Industrial Pollution and Prevention
1. Industrial Pollution: Caused by waste and pollutants emitted by industrial activities,
affecting air, water, and land.
2. Environmental Impact: Responsible for environmental degradation, increasing carbon
dioxide levels, and polluting the environment.
3. Preventive Measures:
- Recycling and reusing water.
- Rainwater harvesting.
- Using eco-friendly energy sources.
- Using sound-absorbing materials to control noise pollution.
- Locating industries away from residential areas.
- Proper treatment of industrial waste before discharge.
- Strict adherence to the Environment Protection Act.

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CHAPTER 6 – ENERGY & POWER RESOURCES

Non-Renewable Resources

Coal

1. Coal is one of the most abundant non-renewable resources in the world.

2. It is mostly used for power generation and supplying energy to industries.

Types of Coal
1. Teat

- Considered the lowest rank of coal.

- Has the least concentration of carbon and low heating capacity.

2. Lignite
- Brown and soft coal with high heat content.

- Generally used to generate electricity.

- Known as brown coal due to its color.

3. Bituminous

- Known as commercial coal, used for commercial purposes.

4. Anthracite

- Hard, brittle, black, and lustrous coal.

- Considered the highest rank of coal.

Distribution of Coal

1. Major producers of coal include China, USA, Australia, India, Asia, Europe, and South
Africa.

Petroleum

1. Apart from coal, petroleum is an important energy resource.

2. Used for heating, lighting, as a raw material, and lubricant in many industries.

Distribution of Petroleum

1. Major petroleum-producing areas include the USA, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, and
Russia.

Renewable Resources

Solar Energy

1. Generated by trapping solar radiation using solar cells to produce electricity.

2. Predominantly produced in tropical countries with abundant sunshine.
3. Used for heating and lighting.
Distribution of Solar Energy

1. Major producers of solar energy include China, Japan, Germany, USA, Italy, India, and
France.

Wind Energy

1. Generated using windmills in dry and coastal areas.

2. High wind speeds rotate windmills connected to generators that produce wind energy.

Distribution of Wind Energy

1. Major producers include China, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA, India, and
Spain.

Hydropower (Hydroelectricity)

1. Produced by the movement of water, usually generated near dams or waterfalls.

Distribution of Hydropower

1. Major producers include USA, Canada, Europe, Africa, China, and India.

Conservation of Energy Resources

1. Energy and power are basic requirements for the economic development of a country.
2. Important steps for conserving energy:
a. Reuse resources.
b. Recycle materials.
c. Reduce consumption.
d. Avoid wastage of resources.
e. Use renewable resources instead of non-renewable resources.
f. Use public transport.

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Chapter 7 – Political Division and Physical Features

Europe: An Overview
1. Europe is one of the world's seven continents.
2. It is the second smallest continent in area after Australia.
3. Bordered by:
- The Arctic Ocean to the north
- The Atlantic Ocean to the west
- The Mediterranean Sea to the south
4. Europe is separated from Asia by:
- The Ural and Caucasus Mountains
- The Ural River
- The Caspian Sea
- The Black Sea
- The waterways connecting the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea
5. The name Europe is believed to be derived from:
- Europa, daughter of Phoenix
- The word *Ereb*, meaning sunset
6. Europe has contributed significantly to world culture and economy, particularly by:
- The Ancient Greeks and Romans in philosophy, literature, science, and fine arts
- Exploration and discovery of new parts of the world in the early 15th century
7. Europe has been the birthplace of Western culture and has significantly influenced global
progress over the past 300 years.
8. Europe is populous and prosperous, primarily due to the efficient use of natural and
human resources.

Geography and Physical Features

Area and Population
1. Europe's area is around 10,878,000 square kilometres.
2. Highest point: Mount Elbrus (5642 meters above sea level).
3. Lowest point: Russian shores of the Caspian Sea (28 meters below sea level).
4. The longest river is Volga (3692 kilometres).
5. The largest lake is Lake Ladoga.
 6. The literacy rate in Europe is nearly 95%.
7. Europe covers about 7% of Earth's total surface area.
8. Population: Approximately 733 million, about 11% of the world's population.
9. Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa.

Location
1. Europe mainly lies in the northern and eastern hemispheres, with some parts
extending into the western hemisphere (e.g., Portugal, Spain, Ireland, Western UK,
and France).
2. Latitude and Longitude:
- Latitudinal extent: 35°N to 72°N
- Longitudinal extent: 25°W to 65°W
- Most of Europe lies in the northern temperate zone.
- The prime meridian (0° longitude) passes through Greenwich, near London.
- Europe is approximately 6400 km from north to south and 4800 km from east
to west.
3. Borders and Coastlines:
- Europe is a peninsula surrounded by water on three sides.
- It is considered to be the “peninsula of the peninsulas” because the seas
have penetrated deep into the land.
- Major surrounding bodies of water:
- Arctic Ocean to the north
- Atlantic Ocean to the west
- Mediterranean Sea to the south
- the Ural Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, and the Caspian Sea to the east
divide Europe from Asia
- Europe is separated from Africa by the Strait of Gibraltar in the southwest.
- Europe has highly developed harbours and a long, broken coastline.
- Major seas and gulfs include the White Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, North Sea, Gulf
of Finland, Baltic Sea in the North, Bay of Biscay in the west, Adriatic Sea,
and Aegean Sea in the south and two large salted water lakes – the black sea
and the caspian sea in the east.
- Notable islands: British Isles, Iceland, Sardinia, Silesia, and Crete.
- The english channel seperates the mainland from the british Isles
Political Division of Europe
- Scandinavia
1. Countries: Norway, Sweden, Iceland, and Denmark.
2. Norway and Sweden form the Scandinavian Peninsula.
3. Denmark is historically, culturally, and linguistically related to Norway and Sweden.
4. Iceland is included due to its linguistic ties.
5. Sweden is the most industrialised country in Europe. It is also the leading producer of
Iron ore in Europe.

- Lapland
1. Regions within the Arctic Circle in northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Russia (Republic
of Karelia), and Finland.

- Nordic Countries
1. Countries: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, and Finland.
2. Joined by economic factors.

- Balkan States
1. The Balkan peninsula is surrounded by water on three sides:
a. the Adriatic Sea to the west
b. the Mediterranean Sea and the Marmara Sea to the south
c. the Black sea to the East
2. Countries completely within the Balkan Peninsula: Albania, Bulgaria, Kosovo,
Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Greece, Macedonia.
3. Countries partially within the Balkan Peninsula: Croatia, Italy, Romania, Slovenia,
Serbia, Turkey.

- Iberian Peninsula
1. Countries: Spain and Portugal.
2. Characterized by mountainous terrain.
- Lowland Countries
1. Countries: Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg [referred to as Benelux countries (Be +
Ne +Lux)].
2. Netherlands is an appropriate name as “Nether” means low and:
a. Known as Holland.
b. Large parts lie below sea level.
3. Parts of Northern France and West Germany are included in this Group

- Baltic Countries
1. Countries: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia.
2. Originated after the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
3. Located in northern Europe along the Baltic Sea.

- Western European Countries

1. Countries: United Kingdom, Ireland, France, and the Lowland countries.

- Central European Countries

1. Countries: Germany, Poland, Hungary, Austria, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Slovakia.

- British Isles
1. Comprises about 5000 islands.
2. The main islands: Great Britain and Ireland (also the biggest ones).
3. The United Kingdom comprises two main Islands:
- Great Britain (made up of Scotland, Ireland and Wales).
- Ireland (Two divisions)
i. Northern Ireland (part of the UK). (Northern Part)
ii. Republic of Ireland (Southern Part).
4. Germany:
- The Capital is Berlin (Situated on the river Elbe), a significant centre for
electronics and furniture.
- Other Political Changes
1. Yugoslavia dissolved in 1991, forming new countries: Slovenia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia.
2. The USSR collapsed in 1991, forming 15 independent countries, including Ukraine,
Moldova, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Belarus, that came under Europe.
3. Czechoslovakia split in 1993, forming the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
4. The countries such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Turkey, and Russia are
known as Eurasian Countries.

Physical Divisions of Europe

- Northwestern Highlands
1. Also known as Scandinavian Highlands.
2. The northern part is known as the Fennoscandian Shield.
3. Consists of the oldest mountains of Europe and plateaus of north-west europe.
4. It extends to Norway, Sweden, the Northern part of Scotland, and Ireland.
5. This is a desert-free region.
6. The northwestern Highlands are not very rich in big rivers and mountains, despite the
fact that their mountains are the oldest mountains in Europe.
7. These mountains are decreasing due to weathering in glacial. Erosion.
8. Major mountains in these Highlands are the. Kajol mountains make the boundary
between Sweden and Norway.
9. The lakes are the main features of these Highlands.
10. General Features
a. These islands are made up of old and hard rocks.
b. These are rocky Highlands as revolution occurs heavily here.
c. The coastline is penetrated deeply into the sea. The sea forms highly indented
and rugged coastlines. In some places, fiords are also found.
d. Many of these Highlands are low, so they gently slope away from the sea
e. These Highlands are less fertile as they are hard and rocky. These Highlands are
not suitable for agriculture
 f. These Highlands are rich in many minerals like copper and aluminium.

- Great European Plains

1. Extends from the Atlantic coast in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east.
2. Extends from the Northern Mountains and the White Sea in the North to the Southern
mountains in the South.
3. Known for vast, gently rolling flat plains.
4. Rises 300 M above the mean sea Level
5. Narrow towards the west and become broad & wider towards the east.
6. Broadest in Russia
7. Prominent plains: Hungary (Hungarian Plain), Spain (Andalusian Plain), Italy
(Lombardy Plain).
8. The Pyrenees mountains run along the southern border of France and separate France
from Spain, whereas the Ural Mountains form the natural barrier between Asia and
Europe
General Features
a. Rich in minerals like coal and iron ore.
b. Highly suitable for agriculture and transportation due to well-connected rivers.
c. These Plains are part of the world’s most fertile plains, the steppes
d. These plains are not absolutely flat, but they also roll down gently.
e. These plains are narrow in the west due to the occurrence of various water
bodies – the Baltic Sea and the English Channel.
f. These Plains are rich in mineral deposits such as coal iron ore.
g. Some of them are made up of sedimentary rocks of limestone and sandstone.
h. The higher part of these plains are covered with glacial deposits of clay, sand
and loess. The soil is good for agriculture which is due to the presence of
loess.

- Central Plateau and Southern Mountains

1. Central Plateau:
a. Made up of remnants of old mountain systems, like the Bohemian Massif and
the Black Forest in Germany.
b. Rich in minerals, densely covered by forests, but less productive for
agriculture.
 2. Southern Mountains:
a. Young fold mountains like the Alps and Pyrenees.
b. Vlocanic and active in nature
c. High peaks, steep valleys, and active volcanoes (e.g., Mount Etna, Mount
Vesuvius).
d. Peak of these mountains are very high
e. Part of Mid-world Mountain Belt
f. Major rivers originate from these mountains.

- Rivers and Lakes

1. Longest rivers: Volga (3692 km), Danube (2860 km).
2. Volga: Ends in the Caspian Sea; Moscow is located nearby.
3. Danube: Flows from the Black Forest to the Black Sea; cities like Vienna, Budapest, and
Belgrade are located nearby.
4. The Rhine: The busiest river in Europe, flowing from the Alps to the North Sea.
5. Europe has a vast number of lakes, with more than 5000 in Finland (known as the "land
of a thousand lakes").
6. Lake Ladoga in Russia is the largest freshwater lake in Europe.

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Notes for Chapter 8 - Introduction to Europe and Tourism in

Switzerland

1. Europe’s Natural Endowment: Europe is rich in natural resources such as water, forests,
and fishing grounds, contributing to its development and prosperity.
2. Economic Development: Europe is known for its commercial agriculture and modern
industries, as it is the first continent in the world to develop an economy based on commercial
agriculture.
3. Human Resource: The prosperity of Europe is largely due to its strong, educated, and
hardworking population who wisely utilise natural resources.
4. Importance of Trade and Tourism: Tourism is a vital industry in Europe, especially in
France, Spain, Italy, and Switzerland, which are major tourist attractions and are famous for
Tourist Miracles. Major countries are the major tourist attractions.

Switzerland: Geographic and Physical Features

1. Switzerland Overview:
- Switzerland is a federal republic in Western-Central Europe, consisting of 26 cantons.
- Bern is the capital city.
- Area: Approximately 41,277 square kilometers.
- Latitudinal and Longitudinal Extent: Lies between 46°57'N to 47°54'N latitudes and
8°E to 10°30'E longitudes.
- Borders: Bordered by Italy (south), France (west), Germany (north), and Austria and
Liechtenstein (east).
- Topography: Landlocked country with significant physical features, including the Alps,
the Swiss plateau, and the Jura mountains.
- The Alps are the most prominent feature and a world-renowned tourist destination.
Switzerland is a home to numerous lakes.

Major Tourist Attractions in Switzerland

1. Jungfraujoch:
- Known as "The Top of Europe."
- Features an observation terrace and a scientific observatory.
- Home to the longest glacier in Europe, the Aletsch Glacier, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
2. Interlaken:
- Situated between Lake Thun (west) and Lake Brienz (east).
- A popular summer holiday destination.
- Notable peaks include Eiger, Mönch, and Jungfrau.

3. Lake Geneva:
- The largest alpine lake in Europe.
- Surrounded by beautiful gardens and parks.
- Famous for the Jet d’Eau, a large fountain that pumps 500 litres of water per second
to a height of 150 meters.
 - Cultural attractions include the Opera House and the Grand Théâtre.

4. Bern:
- Known for its excellent museums, including the Zentrum Paul Klee and the Bern
Museum of Art.
- Bern's medieval old town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

5. Zurich:
- The largest city in Switzerland and a major transportation hub.
- Home to the Kunsthaus Zurich and the Rietberg Museum, featuring impressive art
collections.
- Zurich Zoo is a major family attraction.

6. Rhine Falls:
- The largest plain waterfall in Central Europe.
- The falls are about 150 meters wide and 23 meters high.
- Best visited in June and July.

7. Swiss National Park:

- Founded in 1914 and located in the Engadine Valley.
- The oldest reserve in the Alps, home to wildlife such as marmots, red deer, ibex,
foxes, and over 100 bird species.

Connectivity
1. Switzerland is well-connected globally by airways and within Europe by roadways, railways,
and seaways.

Role of Swiss Tourism in GDP

- Tourism as an Economic Driver:
- Tourism significantly contributes to Switzerland's GDP (2.9% in 2011).
- Stimulates economic growth through income generation, employment opportunities,
investment, and exports.
- Helps in the preservation of cultural heritage and improves infrastructure and local
community facilities.