UNIT - IV

MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND STORAGE DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
Magnetic materials are the materials which can be made to behave as a magnet. When these
materials are kept in an external magnetic field, they will create a permanent magnetic
moment in it. There are nearly eleven types of magnetic materials. Some of them are
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic.
Magnetism originates from the magnetic moment of the magnetic materials due to the
rotational motion of the charged particles. When an electron revolves around the positive
nucleus, orbital magnetic moment arises and due to the spinning of electrons, spin magnetic
moment arises. Let us see some of the basic definitions in magnetism.
BASIC DEFINITIONS - MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT
1. Magnetic dipole moment (Mμ)
A system having two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance 'd' is called as a
magnetic dipole. If 'm' is magnetic pole strength and 'Ɩ' is the length of the magnet, then its
dipole moment is given by
Mμ = mƖ
Magnetic moment can also be defined as M μ = ia, where i is the electric current that flows
through a circular wire of an area of cross section 'a'.
2. Bohr Magneton
The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom can be
expressed in terms of smallest atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton.
Bohr Magneton
eħ
= 2m => μB => 9.27 x 10-24 Am2.
3. Magnetic field
The space around the magnet (or) the current carrying conductor where the magnetic effect is
felt is called Magnetic field.
4. Magnetic lines of force
Magnetic field is assumed to consist of lines of magnetic forces. These lines of forces travel
externally from north pole to south pole as shown in Fig. 3.1. Hence a magnetic line of force

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is defined as the continuous curve in a magnetic field. The tangent drawn at any point on the
curve gives the direction of the resultant magnetic intensity at that point.

5. Magnetic lines of induction

The magnetic lines of force which originates from north pole to south pole doesn't end there
itself. They are supposed to continue through the magnet and reach the north pole from where
they started and forms a closed loop as shown in Fig. 3.2. Such imaginary lines are called
magnetic lines of induction.

6. Forces between two poles

Let us consider two poles of pole strength m1 and m2 placed at a distance 'r' apart as shown in
Fig. 3.3.

From the coulomb's law of forces, the force of attraction (or) repulsion between the isolated
point magnetic poles is proportional to the product of pole strengths and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
(i.e.,)
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 𝑚1 𝑚2
Fα 𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
F=K 𝑟2

Interms of unit vector ŕ ȓ directed from m1 to m2

𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟⃗
F=K 𝑟̂ 𝑟=𝑟
𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
F=K 𝑟⃗
𝑟3

Here, K is a constant of proportionality.

1
K=
4𝜋𝜇0 𝜇𝑟

where μo→ Permeability in free space (4π × 10-7 H/m.), μr → Relative Permeability.
𝑚 𝑚
F = 4𝜋𝜇1 𝜇 2𝑟3 𝑟⃗
0 𝑟

For air μr = 1.
𝑚 𝑚2
F = 4𝜋𝜇1 3𝑟
⃗ 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
0𝑟

7. Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic flux density (B)

It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through unit area of
cross section A at that point as shown Fig. (3.4).

⃗⃗= ф𝑚 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝐵 𝐴
⃗⃗ = B Sinθ
Where 𝐵
8. Magnetic field intensity (H)
It is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at the given point in a
magnetic field.
⃗
𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻=𝑚
𝑚
𝐻⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛/𝑤𝑏 (or) Ampere/meter
4𝜋𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑟 3

9. Magnetisation (or) Intensity of magnetisation [M (or) I]

The term magnetisation is the process of converting a non-magnetic material into a magnetic
material. It measures the magnetisation of the magnetised specimen.
It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.
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 𝑀𝜇 𝑚.𝑙 𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
M= = =
𝑉 𝑙.𝑎 𝑎 𝑚2

MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY AND SUSCEPTIBILITY

1. Magnetic Susceptibility (𝝌𝒎 )
It is the measure of the ease with which the specimen can be magnetised by the magnetising
force.
It is defined as the ratio between intensity of magnetisation (I) and the magnetic field
intensity (H) (i.e.,)
𝐼
𝜒𝑚 = 𝐻
2. Magnetic Permeability (µ)
It is defined as the ratio between the magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetic field
intensity (H)
𝐵
μ=𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 = 𝐻
It is the measure of degree at which the lines of force can penetrate through the material.
3. Relative Permeability (µr)
It is the ratio between the permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space.
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0
4. Relation between μr and Xm
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field (H), then two types of lines of
induction passes through the material. viz.,
(i) Due to magnetising field (H)
(ii) Due to material itself being magnetised by induction (1)
Total flux density
B = µo (H+I) ……. (1)
We know,
μ = B/H ⇒ B = μ H ……. (2)
Equating equation (1) and (2) we get
μH = μo (H+I)
Since
μ = μo μr we have
𝐼
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐻 (1 + )
𝐻
𝐼
Here, = 𝜒𝑚
𝐻
𝐼
𝜇𝑟 = (1 + ) = 1+ 𝜒𝑚
𝐻
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5. Retentivity (or) Remanence (Mr)
When the external magnetic field applied to a magnetic material is removed, the magnetic
material will not loss its magnetic property immediately. There exits some residual intensity
of magnetisation in the specimen even when the magnetic field is cut off. This is called
residual magnetism or retentivity.
6. Coercivity (-HC)
The residual magnetism can be completely removed from the material by applying a reverse
magnetic field. Hence, Coercivity of the magnetic material is the strength of reverse magnetic
field (-Hc) which is used to completely demagnetise the material.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS BASED ON ATOMIC

MAGNETIC MOMENTS
Magnetic materials are classified according to the presence or absence of the permanent
magnetic dipoles. Generally, every two electrons in an energy state of an atom will form a
pair with opposite spins. Thus the resultant spin magnetic moment is zero. Hence they don't
have permanent magnetic moments and they are called as diamagnetic materials. Examples.
gold, germanium, silicon, etc.
But in some magnetic materials like iron, cobalt, etc., there exists unpaired electrons. The
spin magnetic moment of these unpaired electrons interact with the adjacent atom's unpaired
electron spin magnetic moment in a parallel manner resulting in enormous permanent spin
magnetic moment. These materials are classified into paramagnetic, ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials with respect to the electron spins. The flowchart is given below.

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DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
In a diamagnetic material, the electron orbits are more or less random, and mostly all the
magnetic moments are cancelled. Similarly, all the spin moments are almost paired i.e., they
have even number of electrons and has equal number of electrons spinning in two opposite
directions as shown in Fig. 3.5. Hence the net magnetic moment in the diamagnetic material
is zero. Therefore, most of these materials do not have magnetism in the absence of magnetic
field.

Effect of external field

When an external magnetic field is applied, the electrons reorient in such a way that they
align perpendicular to the field direction and their magnetic moments opposes the external
magnetic field. This will reduce the magnetic induction present in the specimen.

Properties
1. They repel the magnetic lines of force (Fig. 3.6)
2. Susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and applied magnetic field
strength.
3. Permeability is less than 1.
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4. There is no permanent dipole moment, so they are called weak magnets.
5. When temperature is less than critical temperature diamagnetics become normal material.
Examples. Gold, Germanium, Silicon etc.
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
In the case of paramagnetic materials, the spins in two opposite directions will not be equal.
There exists some unpaired electrons (Fig. 3.7) which gives rise to spin magnetic moment.
Hence the resultant magnetic moment will not be equal to zero.

However, in the absence of external field the magnetic moments are oriented randomly. Due
to its random orientation some magnetic moments get cancelled and the material possess very
less magnetisation in it.
Effect of external field
When an external field is applied, the magnetic moments of individual molecules reorient
itself along the direction of the magnetic field and the material is magnetised.

Properties

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1. The magnetic lines of force pass through the material (Fig. 3.8)
2. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and it is given by
𝐶
χ= T−Ɵ (also called Curie-Weiss law)
where C - Curie constant
T - Absolute temperature
Ꮎ - Curie temperature
3. Permeability is greater than one.
4. They possess permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is less than curie temperature, paramagnetic materials becomes
diamagnetic material.
Examples: CuSO4, MnSO4, Platinum etc.
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
In a ferromagnetic material the number of unpaired electrons are more. Most of these spin
magnetic moments point in one direction as shown in Fig. 3.9.

Hence even in the absence of external field, the magnetic moments align themselves parallel
to each other and give rise to magnetic field.
Effect of magnetic field
To these materials even if a small external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic moments
which are already aligned parallel, reorient itself along the direction of the magnetic field and
they become very strong magnets.

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Properties
1. Since some magnetisation is already existing in these materials, all the magnetic lines of
force pass through it (Fig. 3.10).
2. They have permanent dipole moment. So they act as strong magnets.
3. They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of external field. This property is called
Spontaneous magnetisation.
4. It's susceptibility is positive and high and it is given by
𝐶
χ= T−Ɵ
5. When the temperature is greater than curie temperature, ferromagnetic material becomes
paramagnetic material.
6. Permeability is very much greater than 1. Examples: Ni, Co, Fe etc.,

Table. 1 – Difference between Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials.

S. No. Dia-magnetic material Para-magnetic material Ferro-magnetic material

1. In diamagnetic material, In paramagnetic material, In ferromagnetic material,
there are equal number of there are unequal number there are large number of
electron spins which are of electron spins and hence unequal electron spins
randomly oriented and there exists a permanent and hence there exists
hence the net magnetic magnetic moment. enormous amount of
moment of atom is zero. permanent magnetic
moment.
2. When the external When the external When the external
magnetic field is applied, magnetic field is applied, magnetic field is applied,
the electrons will align the electrons will align the electrons which are
perpendicular to the field parallel to the field already aligned parallel
direction and hence it direction and hence the will reorient itself along
reduces the magnetic material is magnetised. the field direction and
induction present in the Thus they are named as will be very easily
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 material. Thus they are strong magnets. magnetised. Thus they are
name as weak magnets. named as very strong
magnets.
3. When the material is When the material is When the material is
placed in the magnetic placed in the magnetic placed in the magnetic
field, the magnetic flux field, the magnetic flux field, the magnetic flux
lines are repelled away lines passes through the lines are highly attracted
from the material. material. towards material.
4. The susceptibility is The susceptibility is The susceptibility is
negative (χ = -Ve)) positive and small (χ = positive and large (χ =
+Ve) +Ve)
5. The susceptibility is The susceptibility varies The susceptibility
independent of inversely with the absolute depends upon the
temperature. temperature. temperature.
6. Permeability is less than Permeability is greater Permeability is very much
1. than 1. greater than 1.
7. When the temperature is When the temperature is When the temperature is
less than critical less than Curie less than Curie
temperature, the temperature, para- temperature, the
diamagnetism suddenly magnetic material ferromagnetic material is
disappears and becomes converted into diamagnetic converted into
a normal material material. paramagnetic material.
8. Examples: Examples: Examples:
Gold, antimony, bismuth, Platinum, copper sulphate, Iron, nickel, cobalt, steel,
water, hydrogen, alcohol, chromium aluminium, etc.,
germanium, silicon. manganese sulphate.

1. Antiferromagnetic Materials
Any materials having the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles align
themselves antiparallel to each other are called antiferromagnetic materials.
Antiferromagnetic materials are crystalline materials, which exhibit a small positive
susceptibility in the order of 10-3 to 10-5. Electron spin of neighboring atoms are aligned

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anti- parallel. The susceptibility increases with increasing temperature and reaches a
maximum at a certain temperature called Neel temperature, θ N. With a further increase in
temperature, the material goes into paramagnetic state. The material is antiferromagnetic
below θN.

Fig. Antiferromagnetic material – Temperature Effect.

In the paramagnetic state, the variation of inverse susceptibility (1/χ) with temperature is
linear as shown in Fig. (b). The variation of susceptibility with temperature obeys modified
Curie Weiss law.
The susceptibility
𝐶
χ = 𝑇+θN T > θN
Where, θN - is called Curie temperature
C – is called Curie constant
The opposite alignment of adjacent site spin magnetic moments in these materials is
produced by an unfavorable exchange interaction.
Example – Manganese oxide (MnO) and Chromium oxide (Cr2O3).
2. Structure
The elements like Manganese and Chromium exhibit antiferromagnetism at room
temperature. Antiferromagnetic materials are of little practical interest.
The antiferromagnetic character explained with a consequence of antiparallel alignment of
neighboring magnetic moment in the crystal. As a result, the magnetic moments of A and B
site are cancel with each other. Therefore, net magnetic moment is nearly equal to zero.

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Fig. (a) Alignment of magnetic moment in simple cubic crystal at temperature below Neel
temperature. (b) Alignment of magnetic moment in body centered cubic crystal.
3. Properties
1. The dipoles are aligned antiparallel with each other as shown in fig. Therefore, the
resulting net magnetization is zero.

2. The antiparallel alignment of adjacent dipoles is due to an exchange interaction between

them.
3. The magnitude of susceptibility is small and positive.
4. The susceptibility (χ) increases with increase in temperature upto Neel temperature (θN).
Beyond the Neel temperature (θN), the susceptibility decreases with the temperature.
5. In antiferromagnetic material, Neel temperature (θN) is the temperature at which
susceptibility of the material is maximum.
Examples: Ferrous oxide (FeO), Manganese oxide (MnO) and Chromium oxide (Cr2O3).
Ferri magnetic materials (Ferrites):
There are some magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments of two sub lattices are
opposite in direction but not exactly equal in magnitude as shown in fig. (because of two
different types of ions in the lattice).

Fig. Spin alignment of ferrites

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Such crystals possess spontaneous magnetization and exhibit most of the properties of
ferromagnetic materials. This uncompensated antiferromagnetism is known as
ferrimagnetism.

FERROMAGNETIC DOMAINS
We can observe that ferromagnetic materials such as iron does not have magnetisation unless
they have been previously placed in an external magnetic field. But according to Weiss
theory, the molecular magnets in the ferromagnetic material are said to be aligned in such a
way that, they exhibit a magnetisation even in the absence of an external magnetic field. This
is called Spontaneous magnetisation. i.e., it should have some internal magnetisation due to
quantum exchange energy.
Thus according to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal of ferromagnetic material is divided into
large number of small regions called domains. These domains have spontaneous
magnetisation due to the parallel alignment of spin magnetic moments in each domain. But
the direction of spontaneous magnetisation varies from domain to domain and are oriented in
such a way that the net magnetisation of the specimen is zero as shown in Fig. 3.13. Due to
this reason the iron does not have any magnetisation in the absence of an external field.

Now, when the magnetic field is applied, then the magnetisation occurs in the specimen by
two ways
(i) By the movement of domain walls
(ii) By rotation of domains walls.

(i) By the movement of domain walls

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The movement of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic fields. Due to this weak field
applied to the specimen the magnetic moment increases and hence the boundary of domains
is displaced, so that the volume of the domains changes as shown in Fig. 3.14.
(ii) By rotation of domains walls
The rotation of domain walls takes place in strong magnetic fields. When the external field is
high (strong) then the magnetisation changes by means of rotation of the direction of
magnetisation towards the direction of the applied field as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Experimental Evidence of Domain Structure (Bitter Powder Pattern)
The direct experimental evidence of domain structure is observed from the microphotographs
of domain boundaries obtained by the technique of magnetic powder pattern which
discovered by Bitter.
In this method, a drop of colloidal suspension of finely divided ferromagnetic powder is
allowed to spread over the surface of ferromagnetic material under investigation.

Now, when the colloidal particles are observed through microscope, it is found that the
colloidal particles are collected along the domain boundaries because of the strong local
magnetic field, which exists near the domain boundaries as shown in Fig. 3.16.
Thus the particles are attracted about well-defined lines which represents the domain
boundaries. Now when the external field is applied, the domain walls will start moving and
that can be viewed through the microscope.
DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM
The domain in ferromagnetic solid is understandable from the thermodynamical principle,
(i.e.,) in equilibrium the total energy of the system is minimum. For this, first we consider the

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total energy of the domain structure and then how it is minimised. The total energy of the
domain comprises the sum of following energies. viz.
(i) Exchange energy
(ii) Anisotropy energy
(iii) Domain wall energy
(iv) Magneto-strictive energy.
(i) Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto-static energy
The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is known as
exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange energy has established a single
domain in a specimen of ferromagnetic and it is shown in Fig. 3.17.

Because of the development of the free poles at the ends of the domain, an external field will
be produced around it and the configuration will have a high value of magnetic field energy.
In other words, it is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single
domain and this work done is stored as potential energy.
The magnetic energy can be reduced by dividing the specimen into two domains as shown in
Fig. 3.18 and 3.19. The process of subdivision may be carried further, until the reduction of
magnetic energy is less than the increase in energy to form another domain and its boundary.
This boundary is called as domain wall (or) Block wall.
(ii) Anisotropy energy
In ferromagnetic crystals there are two directions of magnetisation. viz,
(i) Easy direction (ii) Hard direction
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In easy direction of magnetisation, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of
magnetisation, strong field should be applied. For producing the same saturation
magnetisation along both the hard and easy direction, strong fields are required in the hard
direction than the easy direction.

For example in Iron easy direction is [100], medium direction is [110] and the hard direction
is [111] and it is as shown in Fig. 3.21. From the figure we can see that very strong field is
required to produce magnetic saturation in hard direction [111] compared to the easy
direction [100].
Therefore, the excess of energy required to magnetise the specimen along hard direction over
that required to magnetise the specimen along easy direction is called Crystalline anisotropy
energy
(iii) Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy
Bloch wall is a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains, magnetised in different
directions. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic energy.
Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise, namely (i) Thick wall (ii)
Thin wall
Thick Wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spin
changes gradually as shown in Fig. 3.22, it leads to a thick Bloch wall. Here the misalignment
of spins is associated with exchange energy.

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Thin Wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropic energy
becomes very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly proportional to the thickness of the
wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

Note: The Bloch wall should have thickness, balancing these two energies.
(iv) Magnetostrictive energy
When the domains are magnetised in different directions, they will either expand (or) shrink.
Therefore, there exists a deformation (i.e.,) change in dimension of the material, when it is
magnetised. This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction and the energy produced in this
effect is known as magnetostriction energy.
The deformation is different along different crystal directions and the change in dimension
(increase or decrease) depends upon the nature of the material. For example, in Ni the length
decreases; and in permalloy the length increases. But both the increase (or) decrease is due to
the mechanical stress generated by domain rotation.
HYSTERESIS - M VERSUS H BEHAVIOUR
When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of magnetisation, the
variation of M (Magnetisation) with respect to H (Applied field) can be represented by a
closed hysteresis loop (or) curve. i.e., it refers to the lagging of magnetisation behind the
magnetising field.
If a magnetising field H is applied to a ferromagnetic material and if H is increased to 'H
max’ the material acquires the magnetism. So the magnetisation (M) also increases,
represented by 'oa' in the Fig. 3.23.

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Now if the magnetic field is decreased from Hmax to zero, the magnetisation will not fall
rapidly to zero, but falls to 'b' rather than zero. This shows that even when the applied field is
zero (or) removed, the material still acquires some magnetisation (ob) which is so socalled
residual magnetism (or) Retentivity.
Now, to remove this residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is reversed and
increased to - 'Hmax' represented as 'oc' so called coercivity and hence we get the curve 'bcd'.
Then the reverse field (-H) is reduced to zero and the corresponding curve 'de' is obtained and
by further increasing H to Hmax the curve 'efa' is obtained.
EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS ON THE BASIS OF DOMAINS
We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to external field, there is an increase
in the value of the resultant magnetic moment due to two process, viz.,
(i) The movement of domain walls
(ii) Rotation of domain walls
When a small external field is applied, the domains walls is displaced slightly in the easy
direction of magnetisation. This gives rise to small magnetisation corresponding to the initial
portion of the hysteresis curve (OA) as shown in Fig. 3.24.
Now, if the applied field is removed, then the domains returns to its original state, and is
known as reversible domains.

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When the field is increased, large number of domains contribute to the magnetisation and
thus the magnetisation (M) increases rapidly with H.
Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of domain wall to a very
large distance. The domain boundaries do not come back to their original position. This
process is indicated as AB in Fig. 3.24 and these domains are called irreversible domains.

At point 'B' all the domains have got magnetised along the easy direction.
Now, when the field is further increased, the domains start rotating along the field direction
and the anisotropic energy is stored in the hard direction, represented as BC in the Fig. 3.24.
Thus the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetisation. At this position, even after
the removal of external field the material obtained maximum magnetisation, called residual
magnetism (or) retentivity, represented by OD in Fig. 3.24.
Actually after the removal of the external field, the specimen will try to attain the original
configuration by the movement of Bloch wall. But this movement is stopped due to the
presence of impurities, lattice imperfections etc. Therefore, to overcome this, a large amount
of reverse magnetic field is applied to the specimen. The amount of energy spent to reduce
the magnetisation to zero is called as coercivity represented by 'OE in the Fig. 3.24.
Hysteresis Loss
It is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic specimen through a complete cycle of
magnetisation and the area enclosed is called hysteresis loop.
Based on the area of the hysteresis loop, the magnetic materials are classified into soft and
hard magnetic materials.

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SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS EXAMPLES & USES
Soft magnetic materials
The materials which can be easily magnetised and demagnetised are called Soft magnetic
materials
Hard magnetic materials
The materials which are very difficult to magnetise and demagnetise are called hard magnetic
materials.

S. No Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials

1. They have large hysteresis loss They have small hysteresis loss
2. The eddy current loss is high Eddy current loss is low
3. The Hysteresis loop is very narrow The Hysteresis loop is very broad
3. They have small values of They have large values of permeability &
permeability & Susceptibility Susceptibility
4. Domain wall movement is Domain wall moves easily&
difficult& irreversible in nature reversibly
5. The coercivity & retentivity are The coercivity & retentivity are small
large
6. Eg: Carbon steel, Tungsten Steel, Eg: Iron, Ferrites, Silicon Alloys
Chromium Steel.
7. Uses: Uses:
It is used to make the temporary It is used to make the permanent magnets
magnts. They are also used in which is used in magnetic detectors,
switching devices, electro-magnets, microphones and magnetic separations.
matrix storage of computers

MAGNETIC PRINCIPLE IN COMPUTER DATA STORAGE

Now a day, large number of informations are stored in (or) retrieved from the storage
devices, by using the magnetic phenomena. The main part of these magnetic storage devices
is magnetic recording heads and they function according to the principles of magnetic
induction.

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Generally, ferro or ferrimagnetic materials are used in the storage devices, because in this
type of materials only the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles align themselves
parallel to each other. Due to this parallel alignment, even if we apply small amount of
magnetic field, a large value of magnetisation is produced. By using this property
informations are stored in the storage devices.
In the storage devices, the recording of digital data (0's and 1's) depends upon the direction of
magnetisation in the medium.
Magnetic parameters for recording
1. When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is induced. This principle, called
"electromagnetic induction" is used as a basic parameter in the storage device.
2. The ease with which the material can be magnetised is another parameter.
3. We know the soft magnetic materials are the materials which can easily be magnetised and
demagnetised. Hence based on this parameter, a data can be stored and erased easily. Such
magnetic materials are used in temporary storage devices.
4. Similarly we know hard magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetised and demagnetised
easily. So, such magnetic materials are used in permanent storage devices.
5. In soft magnetic materials, the electrical resistance varies with respect to the magnetisation
and this effect is called magneto-resistance. This parameter is used in specific thin film
systems.

Note: If the change in electrical resistance is very high compared to the magnetisation, it is
called GIANT MAGNETO-RESISTANCE (GMR) effect.

Magnetic Medium
Magnetic medium is made of magnetic material (ferrous or ferric oxide) deposited on thin
plastic as shown in Fig. 3.36.

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Read-Write Mechanism
The magnetic medium moves across the read/write heads and either logic 1's or logic O's are
written on the medium. Then, the medium moves across the head again, the magnetised spots
on the medium generate small electrical signals and this different direction signals represent
logic 1's and O's on the medium.
Now, when the recorded medium moves over the read head, the change in magnetic field
generates very small signals in the head winding and they are amplified. From this the logic
signals 1's and O's are read depending on the data stored on the medium.
Volatile and non-volatile memory
Both volatile and non-volatile memories are types of computer memories. The volatile
memory stores data and computer programs that the CPU may need in real-time, and it erases
them once a user switches off the computer. Cache memory and RAM are types of Volatile
memory. Non-volatile memory, on the other hand, is static. It remains in a computer even
after a user switches it off. HDD and ROM are types of non-volatile memory.
Volatile Memory
Volatile Memory is a type of memory hardware that stores and fetches data at a very high
speed. We can also call it a temporary memory. The system stores its data within the volatile
memory until its capacity. It then deletes this data automatically as soon as one shuts the
system down. The fetching and storing of data are very fast and economical in volatile
memory. Some very typical examples of volatile memory are Cache memory and Random
Access Memory (RAM).
Volatile memory is a temporary memory because it can only hold the information until the
device or the computer runs on power. It loses the stored memory as soon as someone
interrupts the power supply. The operating system (OS) loads the memory of RAM. Once the
power suddenly switches off, it wipes out everything from RAM. That’s why users need to
restart their system and wait for the OS to load so that it could work further on that system.
It is faster than non-volatile memory, and takes minimum time for accessing the system files.
Volatile memory has several uses, being the primary source of memory. It can protect
sensitive data because it becomes unavailable once someone interrupts the power. Data
transfer is not very easy with volatile memory, and any processor or device can read it.
Non-Volatile Memory

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Non-volatile memory is a permanent memory. A system does not lose the data and
information stored within the memory even after a user shuts down the system or interrupts
the power supply. This type of memory is not very economical, and it takes time to fetch and
store data. But it can store higher volumes of data. Thus, users can store all the information in
a non-volatile memory that they want for an extended amount of time on their device. The
most common example of non-volatile memory is ROM (Read Only Memory).
Non-volatile memory affects a system’s capacity to a large extent. It is a type of digital
memory that does not lose any content with an interruption of the power supply. One does
not need to refresh it periodically. Since the system can easily retrieve the stored data and
info even after a user turns the power off and back on, this memory is also called permanent
memory. Flash memories, optic discs, hard drives, paper tape, etc., are also a few more
examples of non-volatile memory.
People use this kind of memory for secondary storage or a long-term type of persistent
storage. An operating system takes more time to load this memory. Thus, it delivers less
performance and costs way more than any volatile memory. But it is suitable for storing
important data that a user needs with them for a longer time.
Difference Between Volatile Memory and Non-Volatile Memory

Parameter Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Definition It is a temporary type of computer It is a permanent type of

memory that stores data and computer memory that stores and
information only until it gets a retains the data even after a user
continuous power supply. turns the system off.

Stored Data The volatile memory stores data of The non-volatile memory stores
those programs that the CPU is data from the basic booting
processing in real-time. A system process of any computer system
stores all the frequently used BIOS. It stores all the types of
information and data in the device’s data and media that need to exist
volatile memory. for a longer time or permanently
on the computer.

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Effect on Volatile memory does not affect a Non-volatile memory also affects
Performance system’s performance. A higher a system’s performance and
amount of storage space for cache, storage. A higher amount of
RAM, and other volatile memory storage space lets a user save
increases the efficiency of a more data permanently. Thus, the
computer system. system runs comparatively
smoother.

Speed The volatile memory is the fastest Non-volatile memory is a

form of memory in nature. These relatively slower form of
memories hold the most frequently memory. The process of
used data- and any user can access accessing data from a non-
them quickly. volatile memory is comparatively
slower.

Data It can only retain data until there is a It retains data and info even after
Retention continuous power supply. one turns the power supply off.

Data Transferring data from a volatile Transferring data from a non-

Transfer memory is very easy. volatile memory is very difficult.

Permanency The information and data in volatile The information and data in non-
memory are not permanent. volatile memory are permanent
unless deleted.

CPU Access The device’s CPU can easily access The system needs to copy data to
the data stored on the Volatile the volatile memory from the
memory. non-volatile memory to allow the
CPU to access it.

Amount of A volatile memory has a very low A non-volatile memory, like an

Storage capacity. HDD, has a very high capacity.

Cost Volatile memory is not very cost- Non-volatile memory is very

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 Efficiency efficient. Per unit size is very cheap. Per unit memory is less
expensive here. expensive here.

Reading and In a volatile memory, the process In a non-volatile memory, the

Writing can both read and write. It means process can only read. It means
that the process would have direct that the processor won’t have
access to the data and information direct access to the data and
within it. information within.

Position of You can generally find the volatile You can generally find the non-
Memory memory chips on the memory slot. volatile memory chips embedded
on the motherboard.

Example A few common examples include A few common examples are

the cache, RAM of the computer, optical storage discs, hard discs,
etc. secondary storage like ROM,
flash memory, etc.

MAGNETIC HARD DISK DRIVE [HDD] WITH GMR SENSOR

Introduction
Hard disk drives [HDD] made up of magnetic garnet materials are called magnetic hard disk
drives. It is a mass data storage device recently used for storing data to a very high level in
terms of Tera bytes.
Now-a-days GMR [Giant Magneto Resistive] sensors, which has a very high magnetic
sensitivity are used to read the data at greater speed.
Principle
In Hard disk drives, the binary data in terms of zero's (0) and one's (1) are stored by inducing
magnetic moment in a thin magnetic layer and GMR effect is used as the principle to read the
data in HDD.
Here zero (0) represents missing transition and one (1) represents transition in the medium.
Construction

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The HDD consists of recording medium madeup of thin layer of magnetic garnets grown over
the substrate The GMR sensor, which is made up of ferrites and anti-ferromagnetic materials
is used as reading element. The writing element is made up of inductive magnetic transducer.
The writing element and the GMR sensor shall be made to slide over the recording media in
the longitudinal direction as shown in Fig. 3.40. Hence this method is also called as
longitudinal recording.
The flow of current through the GMR sensor and writing element shall be adjusted and in
turn the magnetization is sensed (or) controlled in the recording media.

Working
Writing / Storing
1. Initially the current is passed through the writing element and a magnetic field is induced
in between the gap of the inductive magnetic transducer.
2. During writing, the amplitude of current is kept constant, and the direction of current is
reversed.
3. Due to reversal of current, the magnetization orientation is reversed in the recording
medium i.e., from South → North as shown in Fig. 3.40.
4. When the induced magnetic field is greater than the coercivity of the recording media, then
data is recorded in the form of 1.

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5. Thus one (1) is stored as data in the recording medium as a magnetic transition.
6. When there is no magnetic transition, then it is referred as zero (0).
7. In this way the zero's (0's) and one's (1's) are stored in the recording medium.
Reading/Retrieving
8. Giant magnetoresistive (GMR) effect is the principle used to read/retrieve the data from
the recording medium.
9. When the GMR sensor is made to move near the recorded medium, then, the resistance of
the GMR sensor varies, with respect to the orientation of the magnetic moments as follows.
10. When the layers are magnetised in parallel manner, then the resistance in the GMR sensor
is minimum and therefore maximum current flows through the sensor, which represents the
data as one (1), as shown in Fig. 3.41.

1. When the layers are magnetised in antiparallel manner, then the resistance in the GMR
sensor will be maximum and therefore minimum (or) no current will flow through the sensor,
which represents the data as zero (0), as shown in Fig. 3.41.
12. Therefore, with the help of the reading current, the zero's (0's) and one's (1's) can be
retrieved from the magnetic hard disk drive.

Advantages
1. HDD's can store data interms of Terabytes and in future it can store data interms of
Petabytes and Exabytes.
Note: 1 Terabyte = 1024 Gigabytes
1 Petabyte = 1024 Tetrabytes
1 Exabytes = 1024 Petabytes
2. It has very large storage capacity.
3. It is compact in size and can be easily transferred from one place to another.

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4. The size of the recording medium in HDD shall be reduced upto few nano-metres using
nanotechnology.
5. GMR sensors are non-diffusive and are very sensitive in reading.
Disadvantages
1. HDD is slower than SSD [solid state drives].
2. They consume more power and will damage, when dropped even at a smaller distance.
3. Sometimes the data in HDD may be corrupted, due to thermal radiation.
4. HDD has bulkier form factor.
5. The GMR noise ratio is high for the nano size recording media as it is temperature
dependent.
Applications
1. HDD's are used as storage devices in cloud applications.
2. They are used in coding and signal processing units.
4. The GMR and spin valve sensors are used in modern HDD by IBM.

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