CALORIMETRY

Evaporation is a process in which a liquid changes into its vapour state.

Heat :- the internal energy of molecules or total KE possessed by all the molecules of a body, constituting the body,
flows from a hot body to a cold body when they are kept in contact AND
Heat is a form of energy which when absorbed from a body makes it hot and when extracted from a body makes it cold.
Temperature :- the quantity which determines the direction of flow of heat when two bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact.
Calorimetry :- Heat is a form of energy which flows from the body at a higher temp to a body at a lower temp. The measurement of the quantity of heat.
Energy degradation: The dissipation o energy in the form of non-useful energy due to friction.
Heat capacity of a body :- The amount of heat energy required to raise its temperature by 10C or 1 K.
Specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temp. of a unit mass of that substance through 10C (or 1 K).
The specific heat capacity of a substance is a constant quantity for a given substance.
Two most common used unit for heatt energy is j and cal. Most commonly used is calorie.
One calorie :- the heat energy required to raise the temp .of 1 g of water from 14.50 C to 15.50 C. 1 calorie = 4 .186 J = 4.2 J (approx)
One kilo-calorie :- heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 14.50 C to 15.50 C, 1Kcal = 1000 cal
It is used for the measurement of energy value of foods,nutrition.
Joule(J) - S.I. unit of heat. Kelvin (K) is the S.I. unit of temp. and Joule per kelvin (JK-1) i the S.I. unit of heat cap.Joule per kg per kelvin (J kg-1 K-1) is the S.I. unit of Spec. H.C
1 calorie = 4.186 J. Modern unit of heat energy is joule Relation of joule with calorie :1 J = 2.4 calorie or 1 calorie = 4 .186 J = 4.2 J (approx)
Heat is a form of internal energy obt. due to random motion and att. force of molecules in a substance and measured by the principle of calorimetry. The S.I. unit of Joule (J)

Temperature is a quantity which determines the direction of flow of heat on keeping the two bodies at different temperatures in contact and measured by a thermometer.
What will be the condition when no heat transfer takes place.:-
There will be a flow of heat rom the hotter body to the cooler body when at least two bodies of different temp are in contact. Ther will be no temp diff b/w the two bodies if
their temp are the same and in this condition, ther will be no heat transfer from one body to the other.
! british thermal unit is equivalent to 252 cal

As energy is measured in units of work,such as joules,foot-pounds,KWH or calories, since all types of enrgy including heat can be transformed into work. Thus the amount of
heat given to OR removed from ta body and the magnitude of the impacts on the body’s condition have exact relationships.
ASSERTION Q:-
Water makes up around 70-75% of the Earth’s surface, and its high sp.heat plays a vital role since it can absorb a lot of heat without causing a major temp rise.
When temperatures drop, the heat that has been stored is released, preventing a quick temp drop.

Hailstorm Q: on the environment, lowering the temp of the environment and making us feel cooler.
Latent cooling capacity :- water to run/flow in pipes around the heated parts of a machine
Molar heat capacity: The molar heat capacity is the energy required to raise one mole of any substance by one degree Celsius. molar heat capacity = J/mole oC
Molar heat capacity(s) is the amount of heat required per mole to raise the temperature by 1K. Thus C/s=moles/mass=1/Mo
Thermal capacity : “The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass of substance through 1°C (1k) is called thermal capacity”
The factors on which the heat energy liberated by a body on cooling depends on m, c, delta T
Relationship b/w the heat cap. of a body to the specific heat cap of its substance is Mass × Specific heat capacity
Heat capacity is the amt. of heat energy required to raise the temp. of the entire body by 10 C. It depends both on the substance and mass of the body. More the mass of the
body, more is its heat capacity. S.I. unit is J K-1. Say Heat capacity of a body is 50 JK-1 means we have to supply 50 joules of energy to increase the temp. of this body by 1 K.
Specific heat capacity (c) is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temp.erature of a unit mass of the body by 1 0C. It does not depend on the mass of the body. The
S.I. unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg -1 K-1). the amount of heat required per unit mass to raise the temperature by 1K. (True)
Water is a liquid which has the highest specific heat capacity of 4200 J kg -1 K-1.
Specific heat capacity of Cu is 0.4 Jg-1K-1 -- to supply 0.4J of energy to increase the temp. of 1g of Cu by 1 K.
The specific heat capacity of a substance A 0.8 Jg-1K-1 is lower than that of B 2.8Jg-1K-1. So, the rise in temperature for B will be more than that of A for same mass and
same heat energy. Less is the specific heat capacity of a substance, the better it acts as a good conductor. Thus substance B is a good condu.r of heat than the substance A
as define the specific heat capacity her with the answer and so substance b gets heated faster.

The three factors on which the heat energy absorbed by a body depends are
(i) The mass of the body: The amount of heat energy required is directly proportional to the mass of the object.
(ii) The increase in temp of the body: The amount of heat energy required is directly proportional to the rise in temp.
(iii) The material of the body and specific Heat capacity :- The amt of heat energy req depends on the substance of the object’s nature which in terms of its specific heat

Heat energy Q received by m( kg ) of a substance of specific heat capacity (c ) J kg-1 K-1 when it is heated through △ to C then Q = c m △t (in joule).
capacity c.

SPH in SI and CGS

Specific heat capacity of ice is less than specific heat capacity of water or 2002 Q why water needs more energy than ice?
Liquid water despite being liquid has higher specific heat than ice because the density of water is 10% more than ice. Water is denser than ice. Therefore, water needs more
energy for a rise of 1 degc than ice at equal mass
Substance with low specific heat capacity shows a rapid and high rise in temp when same amt of heat supplied to two liquids A and B. If the liquid A shows a greater rise in
temp means the heat capacity of liquid A is less than that of B.

then Cp / Cq is 1:2 C = Q / m × △t then Cp / Cq = (Q / 2m × △t) / (Q / m × △t) or Cp / Cq = (Q / 2m × △t) × (m × △t / Q) or Cp / Cq = 1 / 2

Let Cp and Cq be the specific heat capacities of different blocks P and Q resp. with mass 2:1 then the same amt of heat supplied, then their temp rise by the same amount

Principle of the method of mixture or Principle of calorimetry based on law of cons. of energy as Heat energy lost by the hot body = Heat energy gained by the cold body.
IF no heat energy is exchanged with the surroundings, i.e, If the system is fully insulated, then the heat energy gained by the cold body and it is based on the Law of Con.Energy.
Increasing the impurities causes the melting point of ice to decrease.
A wise farmer always waters his fields in the evening, if there is a forecast for frost :- On a cold winter night, due to freezing the atmospheric temp. falls below 0 C, water in
the fine capillaries of plants will freeze, so the veins will burst due to the increase in vol. of water resulting plants will die and the crop will get destroyed. In order to save crop
on such cold nights, farmers fill their fields with water because water has a high specific heat capacity, so it does not allow the temperature in the surrounding area of plants
to fall up to 0 C. So water does not allow the temp, in the surrounding area of plants to fall upto 0°C.

Role of high specific heat capacity of water w.r.to the climate in coastal areas becomes moderate by Land and sea breezes OR Formation of land or sea breeze:-
The specific heat capacity of water is very high about five times as high as that of sand.
Heat energy required for the same rise in temp. by a certain mass of water will be nearly five times than that required by the same mass of sand. (Land absorbs and radiates
heat much faster than sea.) More Heat energy imparted for the same fall in temp by nearly 5 times the mass of sand for the same mass of water
As such sand gets heated or cooled more rapidly as compared to water. Thus a large difference in temperature is developed between the land and the sea due to which land
and sea breezes are formed. The climate near the seashore becomes moderate by these breezes.
Water is used in hot water bottles for fomentation because water does not cool quickly due to its high specific heat capacity, so a hot water bottle provides more heat
energy for fomentation over a longer period. Water provides heat energy for longer time and does not cool quickly as specific heat capacity of water is large.

Water's Specific Heat capacity is HIGH that is the property of water makes it an effective coolant is by allowing water to run/flow in pipes around the heated parts of a
machine. By the law of conservation of energy, heat energy from heated parts is transfered to running water which is comparatively cooler than the heated parts of a
machine acting as a coolant. Water in pipes can extract more heat from the surroundings without much rise in its temperature because of its high specific heat capacity. For
this reason, water is used as an effective coolant.
When water is circulated in the pipes, it absorbs more amount of heat from surroundings (removes heat) without much rise in its temperature because of its high specific
heat capacity.(i) Radiators in car and generator use water as coolant due to high sp.heat cap of water property
(ii) Water is used as a heat reservoir for wine and juice bottles to avoid their freezing due to high sp.heat cap of water property.
Water is an ideal coolant has high specific heat /hermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-cost, and is chemically inert, neither causing nor promoting corrosion of the cooling
system.

A cylindrical vessel which is used to measure the amount of heat gained or lost by a body when it is mixed with the other body is called a calorimeter. It is made up of a thin
sheet of copper because i) Copper is a good conductor of heat, so the vessel soon acquires the temperature of its contents due to low thermal capacity. Ii) Copper has the
low specific heat capacity so the heat capacity of the calorimeter is low and the amount of heat energy taken by the calorimeter from the contents to acquire its
temperature is very small and Heat capacity of the calorimeter should be less. Or lowest spheat cap should be preferred so negl.amt of heat energy through radiation
process. This reduces experimental error and hence helps in calculating correct specific heat capacity of a substance. With the loss of heat due to radiation can be minimised
in a calorimeter by polishing the outer and inner surface of the vessel.

With 4 processs involved in the principle of calorimeter - describe the calorimentry ? Q2 2019.
Write the construction of calorimeter.
When do you say that the system is fully insulated? Pg 56.
What is the purpose of insulators in calorimeter and write the material used?

The base of a cooking pan is made thick and heavy because thick and heavy means greater mass and its heat capacity becomes large due to which it gets heated slowly
and it imparts sufficient heat energy at a slow rate to the food for its proper cooking. Further after cooking it keeps the food warm for a long time and maintain a uniform
temperature while in use. Moreover, the thicker base of cooking pan will increase the thermal capacity that is it will be able to absorb large amt of heat energy and a
comparatively low temp. Thus food will not be charred but will cook at a low temp thereby saving the nutritional value of food. thicker at the base, meaning they tend to
absorb and distribute heat from a stovetop burner more evenly than a thin pot or pan with proper conduction. The base of an electric iron is made thick and
heavy to provide stability and prevent scorching, as well as hold more heat and maintain a uniform temperature while in use. This design also reduces the chances of hot
spots. q5 2009 repeated

A sandwich base is normally a layer of aluminum sandwiched between the bottom of a stainless-steel pan and a second outer layer of stainless steel to improve the pan's
thermal conductivity and cooking performance. Copper is sometimes used but its high expansion rate means it can buckle. 2020

Book: Why is the base (Sole)of a n electric press made of thick and heavy?
The thick and heavy base will increase its thermal capacity. Thus, it will be able to absorb large amt of heat energy and its temp will stay within safe limits. Such that clothes
being pressed do not get burnt. Furthermore, when electric current is switched off, it stays hot for a longer time.
True :- And not it increases the heat capacity of pan

Water has specific heat capacity higher than the oil.

As the specific heat capacity of water is higher than the oil, so for same mass and same heat energy, the rise in temperature for the water will be less than that of the oil.
Water needs and can absorb more energy without much change in temperature as a coolant in car radiators.
Water needs to give out a large amount of heat before reaching freezing temperatures as a heat reservoir to keep juice bottles without freezing.
water has a higher specific heat capacity than oil due to the strong hydrogen bonding between water molecules, which requires more energy to break.

Note: Ethylene glycol is most commonly used in the cooling of a car radiator as an antifreeze during the winter because it has a much lower freezing point than water. Its
specific heat capacity is 2.2 J/g 0C. Its role in an automobile is to absorb heat from the engine. When the temperature of the coolant increases to its boiling point, the system
boils over. Efficient heat transfer and overall corrosion protection have always been the key criteria for engine coolants. The coolant with a higher specific heat capacity serves
as an efficient cooling agent.

By imparting heat to a body, its temperature rises by 150C. then the corresponding rise in temperature on the Kelvin scale is 15 K . because the size of 1 degree on the Kelvin
scale and the size of 1 degree on the Celsius scale are equal. Hence, on both the Kelvin and Celsius scales the difference or change in temperature is the same. Therefore, the
corresponding rise in temperature on the Kelvin scale will be 15 K
MCQ 1K (rise or fall) = 1oC (rise or fall) is correct ans.

A mass m1 of a substance of specific heat capacity c1 at temperature T1 is mixed with a mass m2 of other substance of specific heat capacity c2 at a lower temperature T2.
Deduce the expression for the temperature t of the mixture. State the assumption made, if any.
A mass m1 of a substance A of specific heat capacity c1 at temperature T1 is mixed with a mass m2 of other substance B of specific heat capacity c2 at a lower temperature T2
and final temperature of the mixture becomes T.
Fall in temperature of substance A = T1 – T and Rise in temperature of substance B = T – T2
Heat energy lost by A = m1 × c1 × fall in temperature = m1c1 (T1 – T)
Heat energy gained by B = m2 × c2 × rise in temperature = m2c2 (T – T2)
If no energy lost in the surrounding, then by the principle of mixtures,
Heat energy lost by A = Heat energy gained by B
m1c1 (T1 – T) = m2c2 (T – T2)
We get after rearranging this equation
T = (m1c1 T1 + m2c2 T2) / m1c1 + m2c2 We have assumed here that there is no loss of heat energy.

Thar Desert - part of our country experiences the highest range of temperature in a day and
Coastal areas for the lowest range of temp OR experience less seasonal contrasts in temperature condition
Concept: Evaporation is a process in which a liquid changes into its vapour state. When the temperature is increased the kinetic energy of water molecules is increased. So
the conversion of water to vapours is made easy. Hence option Increase in temperature of water is correct.
The high specific heat of water also helps regulate the rate at which air changes temperature, which is why the temperature change between seasons is gradual rather than
sudden, especially near the oceans. This same concept can be expanded to a world-wide scale.
MCQ: Along a seashore, natural breeze is produced as a result of different specific heats of the sea water and the sand on the shore.
Write 6 dif b/w heat and temp?
Write 6 precutions during determination of SHC?
Ocean currents are streams of water flowing continuously over the ocean surface in fixed directions. Warm/cold currents bring about warm/cold temperature in the regions
near them. Ocean currents __influence__ the temperature conditions of the land area in its vicinity.

Coastal areas have moderate temperature because the land absorbs and radiates heat much faster than sea. So, during the day cool air from sea rush towards the land and
during night cool air from the land rush towards sea. The specific heat capacity of water is very high. It is about five times as high as that of sand. Hence the heat energy
required for the same rise in temperature by a certain mass of water will be nearly five times than that required by the same mass of sand.
Similarly, a certain mass of water will give out nearly five times more heat energy than that given by sand of the same mass for the same fall in temperature. As such, sand gets
heated or cooled more rapidly as compared to water under the similar conditions. Thus a large difference in temperature is developed between the land and the sea due to
which land and sea breezes are formed. These breezes make the climate near the sea shore moderate.
The climate near coastal regions moderate : The sp. heat capacity of water is very high or sp. heat capacity of land is much low as compared to water. As such land (or sand)
gets cooled more rapidly as compared to water under similar conditions. Thus, a large difference in temperature is developed between the land and the sea, due to which
cold air blows from land towards sea during night (i.e. land breeze) and during the day cold air blows from sea towards land (i.e. sand breeze). These make the climate near
coastal region moderate.
True : -Land breeze :Blowing of cold air from land towards sea. During night temp, of land falls more rapidly as compared to water. Since water has high sp. heat capacity
Pressure over sea water decrease and hence air blows from land (high pressure) towards sea (low pressure)
True: Sea breeze :Blowing of cool air from sea towards land. During day time land gets heated up rapidly due to low sp. heat of land as compared to water. Pressure at land
decreases. Hence air blows from sea (high pressure) towards land (low pressure).Question

Why do coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions?

Coastal areas experience less variations in temperature this is because of the moderating effects of water bodies.
Water takes much time to heat up and cool down. Thus on hot days, water absorbs heat, keeping the air somewhat cooler. When the air gets cool, however, water slowly
releases heat to the atmosphere, raising air temperatures. That is why coastal areas are cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
The higher specific heat capacity of water is due to the strong hydrogen bonding between water molecules. These hydrogen bonds require more energy to break, which
means that water can absorb more heat energy before its temperature rises significantly. This property of water makes it an excellent coolant and helps regulate
temperature in various natural and industrial processes.
In contrast, oil molecules do not have strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonds, so they require less energy to increase their temperature. As a result, oil has a lower
specific heat capacity than water. . Land and sea breezes are formed in coastal regions because water has very high specific heat capacity than the land.

d)Wet soil does not get as hot as dry soil in the sun.Water has high sp. heat capacity as compared to soil (dry) and absorbs heat from surrounding for longer time and takes
longer time to set as compared to dry soil. Liguid content of water in wet sand has more mass and density than dry soil
(e)Water is sprinkled on the roads in the evening during hot summer.Answer:Water has high sp. heat capacity and removes heat from the hot soil and decreases its
temperature during hot summer evening.
(f)Water is used for internal heating in cold countries.Answer:In cold countries water is used for internal heating as it can carry large amount of heat energy from the
furnace to the rooms at a fairly moderate temperature.
(g)Cold water is poured on the burns caused on the skin by some hot object.Answer:Water has high sp.heat capacity and can remove more heat from the bums caused on
the skin by hot object and releives of the pain.
(h)Water rubs are kept in warehouses storing fruits and vegetables in cold countries during winter.Answer:Water has high sp. heat capacity and water kept in tubs lose heat
for a longer time and keep the surrounding hot for longer time and save the vegetables from busting due to increase in volume at low temp, of water present vegetables.
1.Explain why the weather becomes very cold after a hailstorm.(ii) What happens to the heat supplied to a substance when the heat supplied causes no change in the
temperature of the substance ? (3)
ANS:- Ice has the highest sp.latent heat of fussion of 335,000Jkg-1. As the ice starts melting after a hailstorm, it absorbs latent heat of fusion from the surrounding air. This leads
to the cooling of atmosphere.

(ii) Heat supplied to a substance during its change of state is called latent heat. It is used up in increasing the potential energy of the molecules of the substance and in doing
work against external pressure if there is an increase in volume. Hence there is no change of temperature.

Expression for the heat energy liberated by a hot body = mcdelta T

m kg of a substance of SPH Jkgdegree C is heated so that its temp rises from t1oC to t2oC.
then the expression for the heat Q supplied = mass * sp.h.cap* rise in temp = mass * Sp.heatcap*( t2 _ t1 )Joule

common substances, about 4184 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1 at 20 °C; but that of ice, just below 0 °C, is only 2093 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1. (2m)
Specific heat capacity often varies with temperature, and is different for each state of matter. Example is Liquid water has one of the highest specific heat capacities among