COMPREHENSIVE COURSE CONTENT

(GNS 302)

COMPILED BY

ADAOBI MUONAGOR (MRS)

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

OCTOBER, 2024

COURSE OUTLINE:
1. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
i. Explain the principles of letter writing
ii. Explain the components of a business letter
iii. Differentiate between a memo and a letter
iv. Prepare a portfolio of correspondence using different presentation techniques:
appointments, promotions, dismissals, commendations, queries, condolences,
congratulations.

2. COMPREHENSION
i. Read passages of expository and argumentative writing
ii. Trace the logic in the passages in 2. 1. Above
iii. Differentiate between facts and opinions
iv. Answer questions on what is read.

3. PROJECT REPORT
i. Explain the characteristics of a project report, viz. parts, format and style.
ii. Select a suitable topic for a project report
iii. Explain the methods of gathering data from primary, secondary and tertiary
sources

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 iv. Use of reference materials for gathering data
v. Use appropriate citation and documentation styles eg: APA, MLA
vi. Explain the procedure for writing a project report
vii. Write an outline of a project report using appropriate numbering, ranking and
phrasing
viii. Write a project report

Letter Writing
Letter writing is the oldest form of written correspondence known to man. It plays an important
part in our private, social and business life. It is more than an academic exercise, and its absence
in one form of communication or the other will bring a crippling effect on man’s social and
business life.

Letters are a form of written communication which contains information or message, sent by one
party to another in a business or private relationship.

Two Major Types of Letter

The two major types of letter are Formal and informal letter
Formal Letter: The type of letter written for business or professional purposes with a specific
objective in mind.

Definition of Formal Letters

A formal letter is any letter written in a standard professional language, with a prescribed format
for a formal purpose, i.e. it can be a recommendation letter, enquiry letter, complaint letter, cover
letter and so on. All business letters are formal, but vice versa is not possible. Such letters are
used for a variety of reasons like a formal invitation, proposal, and reference, making a
complaint or inquiry, applying for a job etc. While writing a formal letter, one should keep in
mind the following things:
 It should be in specified format.
 It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.
 It should be straight to the point.
 It should be relevant and objective.

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  It should be complex and thorough.
 It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.
 It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.
Business Letters
A business letter is a formal document written in a standard version of a language and follows a
certain well-defined laid down formats and conventions. It is usually written for official/business
purposes such as, authorities, dignitaries, colleagues, seniors, etc. and not to personal contacts,
friends and family. Its subject matter is official and business-like hence, it must maintain a
professional standard. This type of letter is strictly impersonal and written to persons in their
official capacity, ie, it is usually addressed not to the name of a person, but the title or the
designation of the person.

The appearance of a business letter is very significant because it tells the recipient something
about the personality of the writer. A good business letter should be neat, and should be free
from errors of grammar, spellings and punctuations.

Objectives of a Business Letter:

 To establish business relationship.
 To make inquiry.
 To create good will.
 To reduce conflict.
 To keep records.
 To save time and cost
 To market or advertise the products/ services of a company/ organization.
 To enhance the image of an organization.

Eight Exclusive Components of a business letter;

Return Address: This is known as the writer’s or sender’s address, or what is traditionally
called the addresser’s address. It is usually situated at the right hand margin of the paper in a
block and semi block formats of business letter writing, but aligns to the left margin in a full
block style. It tells us where the letter originates from and who it originates from.
e.g

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 (Block Style)
Petroleum Training Institute,
P.M.B. 20,
Effurun,
Delta State.

(Full Block Style)

Petroleum Training Institute,
P.M.B. 20,
Effurun,
Delta State.

Inside Address: This is conventionally referred to as the addressee’s address. It represent the
receiver’s address which contains the name and title of the recipient, his company or business,
the location etc. usually positioned a few lines below the return address at the left hand margin of
the paper in all formats of business letter writing (Full block, block & Semi-block). It tells us the
destination of the letter i.e., whom the letter is meant for and where it is going. Eg:

The Director,
Department of Petroleum Resources,
7 kofo Abayomi Street,
Victoria Island,
Lagos.

Date: This identifies or authenticates the day the letter is sent. It serves as a reference purpose
and also makes for easier tracing of the letter wherever the need arises. It comes two lines below
the return address and can be situated at the left or right hand margin of the paper, depending on
the address style chosen by the writer. The most commonly used format are: June 21, 2011 or
21st June, 2011.

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Salutation: This enables the writer to offer greetings to the recipient in line with the principle of
courtesy or politeness. It marks the imitation of communication between the correspondents, and
usually ends with a colon. It comes a line or two below the inside address. e.g:

Dear Sir is preferable and more appropriate when the letter is not addressed to a specific person,
while Dear Prof. Kunle or Dear Mr Obi is preferable when the recipient’s name or title is
known. But when the name or title is unknown, use “To whom it may concern”. And if you do
not know or are not sure of a woman’s marital status or ignorant of her preferred title or choice
of address, use MS.

Body: This is also known as development and is structured into well-developed paragraphs. The
body expresses your letter’s content and represents the longest part of a letter which captures the
intent of the writer in detail. It is usually divided into three sub-categories; Introduction,
Development, and Conclusion. The Purpose of the letter is stated in the introductory paragraph,
the development conveys all necessary detailed information of varying lengths running into
several paragraphs; while the conclusion restate the intent of the letter.

Complimentary Close; It is a word or short phrase that basically means “good bye”. It signifies
the end of the letter expressed as Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully, Yours truly, Best
regards/wishes. It varies in degrees of formality with respect to the relationship between the
correspondents.

Signature: This comes immediately below the complimentary close and comprises signature and
written name (full name & title of the sender)

Title – This presents at a glance the purpose of the letter. It comes a line below the salutation.
Eg: APPOINTMENT TO THE POST OF CHIEF CLERICAL OFFICER

OR

Appointment to The Post Of Chief Clerical Officer.

Optional Components of a business letter

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Attention Line: This is a line of text denoting the intended recipient within an organization,
usually positioned the salutation, captioned “ATTN:” followed by the name of the recipient and
it comes immediately after the inside address. Its aim is to reach the recipient more quickly.

Typist’s Initials: When another person types the letter for the writer, the writer initials is written
in capital letters, while the typist’s initials appears in lower case letters three lines below the
writer’s signature, separates the set of initials with a colon (:) or slash (/) eg. NU/co

Enclosure: This becomes necessary when additional documents such as a report, credentials, a
cheque book or leaf, pamphlet, etc. is enclosed in a letter. The enclosure line alerts the recipient
that the said item has been included in the letter. Any loss therefore, is easily identified. The
word “enclosure” appears by the right margin of the writing paper, about four lines below the
complimentary close.
Copy Notation: This is a necessary when a person other than the addressee is to receive a copy
of the original message or letter. It normally situated below the closing, signature and name of
the writer, at the left hand margin of the paper. For example:

CC: All Directors

HODS
Staff
Students

Styles in Business Letter

i. Indented style
This style is best for letters from individuals to organization. This is because most of
such letters are hand-written.
An example of the indented form is seen below:
182 Ikwere Road
Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt,
12th April 1989
Our Ref: _______________
Your Ref: ______________

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 The Personal Manager,
Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
……………………………………..

(BODY)
(Paragraph)

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………
(Paragraph)

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
D. Wobo

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ii. FULL BLOCK STYLE
In the full block style, everything, including the writer’s address and date must align
from the left hand margin as indicated below:

182 Ikwere Road,

Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt.
12th April 2004

The Personnel Manager,

Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
…………………………………………….

(BODY)
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….

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 Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
Joe Chinda
Managing Director

iii. THE BLOCK STYLE

In the block style, the writer’s address and date remain on the right hand margin. The
addresses are block; the title starts from the left-hand margin and the complimentary
close also aligns from the left-hand margin. The body of the letter must also reflect
the block style by having the paragraphs not identified. Each paragraph must start
from the left hand margin. Spaces are created between paragraphs to give legibility.
A sample of the block style is shown below.

182 Ikwere Road,

Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt.
12th April, 2004
Our Ref: _______________
Your Ref: ______________

The Personnel Manager,

Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
…………………………………………….

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 (BODY)
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)
Joe Chinda
Managing Director

iv. SEMI- BLOCK STYLE

The semi-block style is in-between the block and the indented forms. Here both the
addresses remain in block form, but the title is centralized and the paragraphs in the
body of the letter are indented. The complimentary close aligns from the right hand
margin as is shown below:
182 Ikwere Road,
Mile 3, Diobu,
Port Harcourt.
12th April, 2004

Our Ref: _______________

Your Ref: ______________

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The Personnel Manager,
Jeff-Kabie Co. Ltd.,
P.M.B. 1057,
Port Harcourt.

Dear Sir,

(TITLE)
…………………………………………….

(BODY)
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….................
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
(Paragraph)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….................
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Yours faithfully,
(Signature)
Tai Sola
Managing Director

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF A BUSINESS LETTER

To convey any message effectively, business letter writing needs the application of certain
communication principles. They provide guidelines for the content and style of presentation. A
business letter should be written keeping in view the following basic principles of business
correspondence.

1. Clarity and Coherence: In order to be effective, a good business letter should be

concise, precise, relevant, concrete and consistent. Be clear about what you want to say
and then say it clearly. Difficult words requiring the use of dictionary, flowery
expression and poetic language should be always avoided. The words used should not be
vague or ambiguous. The letter must convey to the recipient the exact meaning which the
writer wants to communicate. The clarity of a letter, to a great extent, depends upon its
unity or coherence. Therefore, a letter should be written in a logical manner and reflect
consistence of thought. One thought should follow another in a proper sequence. An
orderly arrangement of the subject is necessary and the same should be expressed in
appropriate words. It is better to use short sentences and short paragraphs that are easier
to read. “Send telegrams, not essays.”

2. Consideration: The writer of the letter should place himself in the position of the reader
and give a consideration as to what does he needs. Emphasis on “you-attitude” instead of
“I-attitude”.

Example: -

Improper: We sold 4000 dozens of handkerchiefs of this description last month.

Proper: You and other businessmen like you bought 4000 dozens of handkerchiefs of
this description in the last month.

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3. Brevity: A good business letter should be concise and exact. Economy of words is
possible only if the writer of letter has extensive vocabulary at his command. A long
letter containing irrelevant matter gives a poor impression of the writer and also of the
business house. But for the sake of conciseness, completeness or clarity should not be
sacrificed. The letter must explain in full what it all desires. “Be conscious that the reader
does not have much time”.

4. Courtesy and Friendliness: The tone of the business letter should always be courteous
and polite. While drafting a business letter bluntness should never be regarded as a sign
of strength. On the contrary, a poor image is bound to result from an offensive attitude
conveyed through the letter. Courtesy is like the oil which removes friction and creates
goodwill. Courtesy should not be restricted to obligatory words like “Thank you” or
“please”. There must be politeness even in declining a proposal. Words like “please and
“kindly” always bring positive response. However such words ought to be used without
sacrificing one’s self-respect and dignity.

5. Conciseness: A business letter should be concise and direct, written in simple language
with a natural flow of words. Wordy phrases and high flow expressions should be
avoided. The letter should not contain quotations, or words which are pedantic (bookish)
and which sound artificial. Business people are very busy and may be irritated by
unnecessary lengthy letters. Therefore, one must focus directly on the message.

6. Correctness: A business letter should be grammatically correct and factually accurate.

Incorrect information and inaccurate facts conveyed through a letter are bound to make
the position of the writer vulnerable. The addressee, may stop further dealings with the
writer of the letter. In letters of enquiry, orders, complaints, references, etc. information
given should always be correct and exact. If, for some reason, it is not possible to
communicate the necessary information, the reason may be clearly stated in a polite
language.

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7. Completeness: A business letter should include all the necessary facts and background
information that supports the message being sent. An enquiry which does not contain
necessary particulars, or explanation which is partial, is never appreciated. An incomplete
letter may compel the receiver to make further correspondence on the subject involving
waste of time or prompts him to act according to his own judgment, which may lead to
disputes.

8. Originality: Originality of form, expression and style are often necessary to make
business letters more appealing, particularly for sales promotion, and on special occasion,
such as introduction of a new product. Indeed, with changing times, old and stereo-typed
forms and expressions have been replaced by more appealing forms, expression and style
of presentation of matters in business letters. For instance, the layout of the contents of a
letter is often intended to mark-out significant lines. New phrases are used in place of old
ones, and a conscious attempt is made to give a personal touch where necessary.

9. Neatness: A neat and tidy letter, clearly typed or written on a reasonably good paper with
proper paragraphing makes a letter attractive to the reader. Any overwriting, rubbing or
cutting of expressions, improper spacing between paragraphs etc. do not create a
favourable impression. So the appearance of a business letter should be impressive, neat
and tidy to the maximum extent possible.

10. Effectiveness: The ultimate goal of a business letter is the desired response in a positive
manner within a reasonable time. Obviously, delayed or negative response shows the
ineffectiveness of the letter. The time and stationery used in writing such letters involve
wasteful expenditure. Thus, effectiveness may be regarded as the most essential feature
for a business letter.

Types of Business Letters

1. Cover Letters

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 A cover letter is a one-page document that candidates submit along with their resumes. It
takes the employer on a guided journey of their greatest career & life achievements. It
doesn't matter if you are a student or an experienced professional, a cover letter is an
important document to show your skills, experience, and why you are fit for the position
you are applying for.

Tips:

Don’t try to fit your whole career in your cover letter. It should have a carefully curated
collection of stories.

Don’t state a skill that you don’t actually have. You’ll definitely regret it when you’re
asked to use that skill in the interview.

Keep it concise and to the point. The employer does not have time to sit down and read
an entire memoir.

2. Business Invites

These letters are a formal way to reach out to a company or an individual and invite them
to attend an event hosted by your company. As business events tend to be formal, an
invitation letter is most likely to be formal as well. But, if you are organizing a casual
event, it should be reflected in your invite and tone.

Tips:

Write the letter in such a way that it builds anticipation about the event.

Clearly mention the date, time, and venue.

Set a friendly follow-up to remind them of the event.

3. Complaint Letter

This letter is a way to formally express your disappointment formally. You can report a
bad experience, poor customer service, or let a company know that their products didn’t

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 meet your expectations. The key to this letter is that it shouldn’t sound like you are
nagging, but also shouldn’t lose its importance if you want to be taken seriously.

Tips:

Don’t get too emotional or over-the-top angry. Just state the facts.

Be cordial and professional. Let them know the entire story and how you would like them
to rectify their mistakes.

4. Letter of Resignation

A letter of resignation is a document that notifies your employer that you’re leaving your
job. Whether you work at a coffee shop or a big-shot company, it is proper protocol to
submit a letter of resignation before you leave. Also, if you have an urge to send an
incendiary letter of resignation, don’t give in! You might cross paths with these people
again.

Tips:

Keep it simple, stick to the facts, and don’t start complaining. Resignation letters are not
the right place for complaints & critiques. Thank your boss and/or the company for the
opportunities and describe some of the key things you learned on the job.

If you’re in a high-profile position, consider your words super carefully because your
letter would likely be made public.

Sample of Resignation letter

Ayeni Fashola

123 fox Road

By wahala Promax bus stop

Agidimgbi

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 Ikeja

Lagos

December 30, 2024

KuuLu Temper Investment Company

11 Ojo-Alaba Expres Way

Ojo

Lagos

Dear Hiring Manager,

I am writing to inform you of my decision to resign my appointment on 13 th of February 2023,

exactly. Three weeks from today. I have greatly enjoyed working for you for this company for
the past five years and I have learned a lot. And grown professionally during my time in your
employ. I very much appreciate the opportunity to have worked with such a great group of
people.

Please feel free to contact me with any questions about the projects I have been working on. In
the coming weeks before February 13, I am happy to help in any way with the transition process.

Thank you for your understanding of my decision to leave the company, and all your support
over the years. I wish you all the best for your continued success.

Sincerely,

(sign)

Ayeni Fashola

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5. Order Letters

Also known as “purchase orders”, these letters are used to order things or buy material.
They act as a legal record, documenting the transaction between the buyer and seller.
These letters are generally written by one business to another business to make an order
or to modify it.

Tips:

Be concise and clear to avoid any misunderstanding or confusion.

Include everything the seller would need to deliver the order and get the payment.

Provide contact information for future conversations or follow-up.

6. Letter of Recommendation

These letters intend to recommend someone for an internship, job, fellowship, or other
such opportunities. Before hiring an employee, many employers ask for such kinds of
letters. It tells why the person the letter is about is a good person to hire and describes
their strengths & abilities.

Tips:

Be honest and don’t agree to write a letter to someone you don’t know.

Use specific examples to highlight the person’s strengths, skills, and abilities.

Include why you believe the candidate would excel in the role.

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 Many times, people overlook the importance of writing persuasive business letters
because the concept just doesn’t interest them. As a result of which, people don’t know
how to write a business letter.

Writing a clear and concise business letter isn’t a big deal, as long as you follow the
established rules for layout and language.

SAMPLE OF RECOMMENDATION LETTER

Opebi Allen

Managing Director

ABC Group

204 Coal Avenue

Coal City

Enugu

March 21, 2023

Barr. Lai Asiocha

Solicitor in law

Lai & Sons Law Firm

123 Ojukwu Drive

Enugu GRA, Enugu

Dear Barr. Lai

It is my pleasure to recommend Achi Ogadi for employment with your organization. I have
known Ogadi for over two years during which time she worked as a communication
assistant in my office.

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I have been consistently impressed with Ogadi’s attitude and productivity during the time
that she has worked in the office.

Ogadi is both very bright and quite motivated. I am confident that she will devote herself to
a position with your organization with a high degree of diligence. She is a quick learner and
has shown the ability to digest large volumes of information. Miss Achi has demonstrated
the ability to articulate information and ideas in both verbal and written forms

Ogadi has also been effective in her efforts to engage the media we outreach to. She has
been able to write interesting press releases and articles and convince editors to publish
those pieces. Miss. Achi is willing to take risks. She will reach out to people and involve
them with projects. I particularly appreciated Ogadi’s willingness to take the initiative to
help the office serve its constituents more fully.

I recommend Miss. Achi without reservation. I am confident that she will establish
productive relationships with your staff and constituent. Please let me know if you have
need for additional information about this outstanding young woman.

Sincerely,

Signature

Opebi Allen

Step 1: Sender’s Information

If you want a reply, you need to understand how to address a business letter properly.

In this section, you have to write your address, contact number, and email address.

Many people include their full name at the top too. However, others think that it’s unnecessary
because you are going to sign the letter with your name anyway.

if your company has a letterhead, you can use that instead of typing out all the information.

Step 2: Date

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Rather than abbreviating with numbers, write the entire date.

When you’re writing to American companies, use the American date format i.e, put the month
before the day.

Example: October 20, 2016

Write the date before the month if you’re sending a letter in the U.K. or Australia.

Example: 20 October 2016

Step 3: Recipient’s Address

This is the address where your letter will be delivered.

A man with a business letter Write the recipient’s name, their title (Ms./Mrs./Mr./Dr), and their
address. Make sure you’re as specific as possible so that it reaches the right destination.

If you don’t know the person’s name, a little research won’t harm you! Call the company or
speak to the employees of the company to find out the name.

Example:

Mr. Mike Brown

Executive Director

XYZ, Inc.

602 Melrose Avenue

Victoria Island, Lagos

Tips:

In case you’re unsure about a woman’s preference in being addressed, use ‘Ms’.

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If you think that your recipient uses ‘Dr’ or has some other title, use that. (Usually, people don’t
mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess, but they don’t want to be
addressed by a lower one.)

Step 4: The Salutation

A salutation isn’t just a simple greeting, it’s an indicator of respect. You can choose the
salutation based on how well you know the person and the context of your letter.

If you know the person you’re sending the letter to, and you mostly address them with their first
name, it is okay to use their first name in the salutation. (For example, Dear Mike)

However, there are exceptions to this case too.

Let’s take an example.

The dean at XYZ college might be your uncle, but if you’re writing to him regarding an official
matter, it would be best if you use the salutation “Dean (Last Name)” or “Dr. (Last Name)”
because there’s a chance that other people handle his letters and emails.

If you don’t know someone, always use the personal title and their last name.

If you are not sure of someone’s gender, you can use their full name. (For example, Dear Taylor
Brown)

If you don’t know specifically whom you’re sending the letter to, use “to whom it may concern.”

Whatever the situation is, make sure that you end the salutation with a colon. (Not a comma!)

Step 5: The Body

This is the most important part of your letter. The body should contain a few (mostly three)
concise paragraphs, each with a clear purpose.

If you want your reader to get the best possible impression, keep your message crystal-clear.

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In the opening paragraph, introduce yourself and clarify the point of your letter. You can also
mention mutual connections here, in case the recipient doesn’t know who you are.

Not sure how to start?

You can write “I am writing to you regarding…” as the opening line.

In the next paragraph, go into the details of your main point.

In the closing paragraph, briefly summarize your points, restate the letter’s purpose and tell your
planned course of action.

Tip: Try to avoid lengthy, meandering sentences and just get straight to the point.

Step 6: Closing

Here, you’ll mention that the recipient can contact you or your team if he has any concerns or
questions. You can also thank him or her for reading the letter.

Make sure that the closing isn’t more than two sentences long!

For instance, you can write:

Kindly email me at (your email) to schedule a meeting. Thank you!

If you have any queries, don’t hesitate to call me at (your contact number).

Step 7: Complimentary Closing

This is a short remark that marks the end of your letter. You’ve got a lot of options here but
choose the one that reflects the formality of your relationship.

Recommended formal closings include “Yours Truly” or “Respectfully” or “Sincerely”.

If your letter is less formal, you can write “All the best” or “Thank you” or “Regards” or “Best”.

Regardless of what you choose, add a comma to the end of it.

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Step 8: Signature

Below the complimentary close, sign the letter.

Make sure that you skip at least four lines so that there’s enough room for your signature. After
that, type out the name that has to be signed.

You can include your job title below your full name too.

Here’s the format:

Your signature

Typed full name

Title

Step 9: Enclosures (If applicable)

If you plan to send anything along with your business letter, you can indicate this simply by
writing Enclosures after the signature.

Consider it the print version of “please find attached” for emails.

If you have included many documents, make a list that tells the recipient what he needs to look
for in the envelope.

For example:

Enclosures (5): 2 Brochures & 3 Flyers

When it comes to a business letter, using the right justification and accurate structure isn’t good
enough.

You need to strike the right tone.

You need to ensure that your recipient understands your letter’s intent.

Let’s uncover the secrets of writing a business letter that stands out!

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TIPS ON WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Keep it short and simple

Word choice can make or break the effectiveness of your business letter. Avoid flowery
descriptions and jargon unless you’re sure the recipient will understand what you’re
talking about.

As Benjamin Franklin once said, “Time is money.”

Keep the letter clear and concise. Get to the point as quickly as possible.

2. Right Tone

Keep your tone conversational, yet professional. You don’t want to come off as arrogant
or boastful, do you?

Save casual language for emails and messages – your printed business letters should be a
little professional.

With that said, make sure that you sound like yourself. You don’t want your letter to
come off as something written by a machine!

Tip: Use verbs that have an active voice instead of passive. Active voice shows that you
care and that you’re responsible for your actions. (Example: “We will deliver it to you by
December 15.” Not… “Your item will be delivered by December 15.)

3. Proofread, proofread, and proofread!

As you might have already understood, a business letter is not the place to be sloppy.
Triple-check it for spelling and grammatical errors.

Also, don’t forget to review the spelling of your recipient’s name. If you spell it
incorrectly, that’ll increase the chances of your letter winding up in the trash.

At all costs, avoid grammatical mistakes. They suggest that you lack professionalism and
attention to detail. Make sure to also do a spell check while you’re at it.

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APPOINTMENT LETTER

This also known as employment letter. It is a formal letter pounded in writing to a prospective
hire joining for employment. It gives in depth description of the position offered, benefits,
confidentiality policy, work policy, starting date, and important information about the
employment. It is usually provided after offer letter on the first day of the candidate’s resumption
and would return a signed copy to the employer in ie. one copy of mutually signed is retuned by
the employer while the new hire retain another signed copy this shows that contractual obligation
to be fulfilled by both parties has come into existence and has become binding.

It is printed on letter head of the employer and signed by the management or HR Manager
authorized to hire the candidate.

It is the first piece of document handed to a prospective hire who has gone through the interview
and has been selected for the position, a confirmation that the person has been appointed for a
particular job; an intimation letter given to the selected new hire for a particular designation like
classroom Teacher, Web designer, editor, security officer etc.

Features of appointment letter

 Name of the person been employed

 Designation
 Company name and date of appointment
 Date if joining and date of commencement
 Job location
 Roles and responsibility
 Working hours
 Condition for formation
 Amendment and enforcement
 Leave policy
 Probation period
 Terms of condition of appointment

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 Appointment letter is a reward a job seeker now an employee gets after he must have applied
for a job on availability of vacancy, and after having gone through the process of retirement
and passed. It is a legal and official document

Sample of Appointment Letter

Letter of Appointment

Date:

Name:

Address:

Dear (Name of the candidate)

Appointed as (Name of the designation)

We refer to your recent interview for the above position and are pleased to inform that we are
offering you the position with our company effective from (Date) under the following terms
and conditions:

 Salary: The salary offered to the candidate during the interview

 Probationary Period: The probationary period need to be served by the candidate, after
joining the job.
 Working Hours: The working hours to be followed by the employee, Monday to Friday
working, (Saturday and Sunday Off), Lunch Break
 Leave Policy: Mention number of leaves granted per year. Details of sick leave, earned leave,
casual leave, maternal leave, and paternal leave. Etc.
 Notice Period Clause: If the employee desires to leave the company, he/she needs to serve
the notice period as per stated by the present company in the appointment letter

(Name of the Employee) (Name of the Provider of Appointment letter)

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 (Signature) (Signature)

DISMISSAL LETTER

DISMISSAL LETTER: A letter issued for an employee to terminate her from the service of the
organization. It is a formal document for terminating an employee to ask him/her to leave the
company and the reason for which an employee is issued a dismissal letter can be misconduct,
poor performance, theft, poor attendance etc. before issuing this letter, the organization has to
ensure that it should not be a wrongful or an unfair dismissal.

PROCESS OF DISMISSAL

 The organization must first and fore rose issue a verbal, followed by a written warning,
followed by quarry (chief letter to the employee asking explanation for the misconduct, and
if the response is unsatisfactory and the employee is found guilty, in the enquiry then this
letter is issued to the employee who is guilty in which he is asked to leave the organization
permanently.

Reasons for Dismissal

It is unlawful and violation of the right of an employee to be unfairly dismissed by his/her

employer. Every employee has a right to fair dismissal, hence, it behooves on the employee to
justify the dismissal of any employee by a genuine and valid reason in order to avoid the risk of
filing an unfair dismissal claim before an employment tribunal.

In section 98 of the Employment Rights Act (ERA) 1996, a valid reason for a fair dismissal can
include any of the following:

The employee’s capability or conduct, for example, where there are serious act of
insubordination or serious misconduct issue.

 Issues that prevent the employee from legally doing their job, for example, a HGV driver
losing their driving hence, or an employer coming down with a terminal illness etc.

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 Redundancy
 A dismissal ensuing from a personality clash between employees that makes it impossible for
them to work together.
 A dismissal ensuing from a reputation risk to an employer’s business due to a situation where
an employee has been convicted of a criminal offence.
 A dismissal arising from a conflict of interest with an employer’s legitimate business interest,
e.g. where an employer has a close relationship with a competitor.

The dismissal process

To be deemed to have acted reasonably an employer must have

 Undertaken a proper and thorough investigation where appropriate

 Followed all relevant procedures for the dismissal in question e.g. any disciplinary
procedures for a conduct or performance issue.
 Informed any affected employees why they were being considered for dismissal and / or
undertaken some form of consultation
 Provided affected employees with a sufficient time to consider any proposals and to make
representations before any decision made.
 Responded to any representations made or objection raised by or on behalf of any affected
employees.
 Considered all reasonable alternatives to dismissal such as demotion, redeployment or
otherwise.
 Allowed the employee to be accompanied by a colleague or a trade union representative or
official at any disciplinary or dismissal hearing(s).
 Provided the employee with the opportunity to appeal.
NB: What constitutes a fair dismissal procedure will depend upon the circumstances of
the case.

SAMPLE LETTER OF DISMISSAL

(Name of dismissed Employee)

29
(Date)

Subject Dismissal Letter

Dear. Ms/Mr./Mrs. (Name)

The management has noticed that despite constant warnings regarding the office’s timing. You
are late continuously. It has been more than a week and we don’t seen any improvement. For us,
punctuality is essential and your careless behaviour affects the performance of the entire team.
Hence, the management decided to dismiss your services immediately. You are supposed to hand
over your work to Ms. (name) by today evening.

Since your probation period has not ended yet, there is no need for a notice period by both sides
and you can collect your final dues from the Account department.

In case you need a reference letter, we will be happy to help you with that just let us know.

In case you have any issues or need any clarification, then feel free to contact us via mail or a
call

We wish you good luck with your future job.

Best Regards

(signature)

(Sender)

PROMOTION LETTER

PROMOTION LETTER

This is a type of formal correspondence used to offer an employee a promotion, raise or new role
within a company. It is a form of communication that lets an employee know that they have

30
been promoted to a new position within the same company. The employer to appreciate the
employee and thank them for their growth within the organization.

AIMS OF PROMOTION LETTER

 Offer an opportunity for the employer to thank the promoted employee(s) for their
commitment to the company
 A chance to confirm all detail related to the promotion
 Clarification of roles and responsibilities that is expected of the employee by virtue of his
new upgraded position
 In addition a personal touch that shows the employee that you are generally interested in and
supportive of their promotion.

CONTENT OF A PROMOTION LETTER

 The employee’s full name: The first and the last name of the employee in the letter of
promotion to ensure there is no confusion. This is especially important in a company where
there is more than one person with the same name.
 Appreciation of the employee: The letter usually starts with congratulation to the employee
on the promotion e.g. “Congratulation on your promotion to (now job title)! Is enough and
conveys a professional yet personal message.
 The exact title of the employee’s new role: Ensure the exact title of the position the employee
is being promotion to is included for the employee to know the formal designation of the new
role
 The employees updated salary information: Be save to state information on salary increase
by it comes with the promotion) in addition to the promotion; as well as the payment
schedule and the business and commission if any
 Who the employee will answer to information regarding the reporting structure for the new
position is very important especially if the employee is being promoted to a new department
or a new leadership position.

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 Date of effect of the promotion: intimate the employee on when the new position will into
effect for him to know when to begin reporting to a new department, or supervisor or when to
assume office.
 Other necessary details: Include any other release detail that the employee should know
before starting the new position such as pack or benefits of the new position, responsibilities
and obligations of the job, the location of the new job position of different from where the
employee currently works, and the department in which the employee will now work
 A request for acceptance: This becomes necessary if the employee has yet to accept the
promotion prior to the sending of the letter. This necessitating a request that the employee
acknowledge the acceptance of the new role as soon as possible.
 Use a professional format: ensure the use of a formal template so that the letter comes off as
professional
 Proof read the letter to eliminate all errors
 Use formal language: This entails maintaining a professional attitude irrespective of the
writer’s relationship with the promoted employee. As much as possible avoid the use of
emoticons or excessive punctuation marks and abbreviations. Emoticons ( a representation of
facial expression such as: smileys, and others

Finally, promoting an employee in a higher position is an exciting event and should be done
professionally and effectively.

PROMOTION LETTER SAMPLE

(Company Name)

(Company Address)

(Data)

Dear (Employee Name)

It is with great pleasure that I inform you of your well-deserved promotion to (position Title).
Your outstanding performance, dedication, and commitment to our organization have not gone
unnoticed, and we are delighted to recognize your hard work with this promotion.

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Your new role will involve (Brief Description of New Role and Responsibilities). We have no
doubt that you will excel in this new position, bringing your expertise and enthusiasm to the role
and contributing to the continued success of our organization.

Effective (Date of Promotion), you will receive a salary increase of (Amount) in recognition of
your new role and increased responsibilities. You will also be eligible for additional benefits,
including (Brief Description of Additional Benefits, if applicable)

We understand that this is an exciting but challenging time to you. We want to assure you that
we are committed to supporting you in your new role and providing you with the necessary
resources to succeed. We have every confidence that you will rise to the challenge and deliver
excellent results in your new position.

Please acknowledge your acceptance of this promotion in writing by (Date). If you have any
questions or concerns about your new role, please do not hesitate to contact me or (Name of
Manager or HR Contact)

Congratulations once again on your well-deserved promotion. We look forward to your

continued success and contributions to our organization.

Sincerely,

(Your Name)

(Company Name)

COMMENDATION LETTERS

These messages written to express gratitude and general recognition for a special deed: usually
unsolicited in many instances and after reward for the action being recognised, such as a
promotion or pay bonus.

Position commendation serves as an incentive for better performance on the part of the
employee. They do not only cite employment relationships but also used to acknowledge
exemplary service to anyone who deserves it.

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Template for letter of commendation

 Introduction - a formal introduction of your recipient

 Body – address your reason for commending and why their action deserves recognition
between two to four paragraphs
 Closing – end by thanking your recipient

STEPs TO COMMENDATION

 Introduce your recipient – a formal introduction of the recipient by name, title, or working
relationship including an explanation on your years of working together. Just after the
introduction to establish who the recommendation is for and its positive purpose. This also
help give the letter a personal touch.
 State reasons(s) for commending by explaining the importance and positive aspects of the
letter. Give explanation on the actions of the employee and how they benefited the company
and the employer that brought about the commendation.
 Summarize the reasons for this deserving recognition
 Thank your recipient in your closing remark.

Appreciation Letter to Employee for Good Performance

From,

Davies Asogwa

Human Resource Manager

Genius Technology Pvt. Ltd.

Asaba

Delta State

Date

34
Recipient

Name

Address

NY 526126

Dear Ms.(name)

We are writing this letter to appreciate you for the incredible work you have done on the
launch of our new “Design”. On behalf of the Management, I would like to recognize the
extended working hours that you have put in this project and amazing creativity that you
have exhibited in making this launch the biggest launch of the company ever.

The management has been keeping a close watch on the progress of the project at every
level as this is one of the most prestigious products of the company and therefore, a lot was
at stake with this project. We have seen you work beyond working hours, work with
dedication and focus, show amazing professionalism dealing with all the challenges that
came your way. Your commitment and zealous approach towards your job is the reason
behind the impressive performance that you have delivered.

Seeing such a remarkable performance, the Management has decided to announce an interim
bonus for you as a reward for your hard work and success. We are hopeful that other
employees of our company will also take inspiration from your work and exhibit better
performances.

With this new design” you have sent new benchmark for yourself and for others around you.
We are expecting that you that you will again impress us with your finest work in future and
give us successful results.

On behalf of the management, I thank you once again for such brilliant performance.

Best Regards

Davies Asogwa

Human Resource Manager

Genius Technologies

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WHAT IS A MEMO?

Unlike business letters which addresses people in other organizations, business

memorandum (memos for short) addresses people within the same organization that often
reports briefly and directly on a very specific topic: an answer to a question, a progress
report, an evaluation etc.

A business memo is usually more informal in tone than a business letter. Particularly if they
know the addressee and very concise and mainly used foe internal communication within an
organization as it is used in reporting the day to day operations of an establishment.

Characteristics of a memo.

 The memo has no return address, inside address, salutation, or close.

 The heading of a memo typically consists of the date, the addressee’s name, the
writer’s name, and a subject description or title.
 A memo is never signed, though you may initial your name in the heading.
 A memo is direct and brief. In other words, be succinct in your presentation.
 It is more informal in tone than a business letter.

Differences between a memo and a business letter

 A memo is an internal means of business communication in organizations while

business letters are external means of communication within and outside an
organization.
 A memo is underscored by succinctness and conciseness; a business letter is usually
lengthy and detailed.
 It is more informal in tone than the business letter because sometimes the writer of a
memo may know the recipient while in business letters, the case is not usually the
same.
 A memo lacks addresses (inside & return addresses), a business letter has both.
 A memo lacks salutation and close, while they are compulsory requirements of a
business letter.

36
COMPREHENSION
English Comprehension test evaluates a candidate’s verbal ability with the English
language. Comprehension is the process of understanding what is being read or heard. It involves
decoding the text or audio and making sense of it. Comprehension can be difficult but can be
improved on with practice.

When we talk about comprehension, it goes beyond reading; it also includes listening to an
audio, video, or being present in an event and comprehending the situation in that particular
event. The focus of this course is on reading comprehension.

Comprehension is an essential skill that students and working professionals need to understand
events or reading materials, etc. When a student or professional comprehends a text or a situation
accurately, they can understand, identify the main points and provide answers to questions from
a textbook or events.

Reading comprehension is the capability to comprehend or understand, what you are reading.
This is an intended and active part of reading and takes place before, during, and after you read
something. By being able to understand what you are reading, you can extract meaning from the
text and better learn what the author is trying to convey

There are two elements of reading comprehension: text comprehension and vocabulary
knowledge. Vocabulary knowledge is the capability to comprehend the language being used,
while text comprehension is using this language to invent an awareness of what the meaning is
behind the text.

The Importance of Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is essential for several reasons and can deliver many benefits. Being
able to effectively read can enhance both your personal and professional life and can improve
your overall enjoyment of reading. Knowing how to understand a text can help increase your
knowledge in certain areas and help you learn new skills and information quickly.

Other benefits of good reading comprehension skills possess:

37
‌Being capable to understand, analyze and respond to documents and written communication in
the workplace

‌Enhanced your ability to write clearly and effectively

‌The ability to understand and engage in current events that are in written form such as
newspapers

‌Heightened ability to focus on reading for an extended period.

‌Better enjoyment of and inspiration to read.

Types of Reading Comprehension Passages

The various writing styles or types of Reading Comprehension differ from each other. It does
rely on some aspects like structure, choice of words, expression, and complexity of language.
Normally, Reading Comprehension passages present information in the following mentioned six
writing forms:

 ‌Narrative
 ‌Descriptive
 ‌Factual/Expository/Informative
 ‌Argumentative/Persuasive
 ‌Analytical
 ‌Abstract

Narrative Style

To start with, the Narrative style of writing is one of the most comfortable forms to recognize
since these passages are written in form of a story. The author plans to narrate some events or
personal experiences through such passages. In other words, these passages would seem most
enjoyable to read if you are a bibliophile! Novels, anecdotes, autobiographies, histories, etc. are
mainly written in a narrative style. One way to identify a narrative passage is by looking for
elements of storytelling such as dialogue, narration, and description. Another way to identify a

38
narrative passage is by its purpose—to tell a story. After all, any narrative passage needs you to
visualize the scenes and setting and understand the characters to connect with the plot. All you
would need to do is:

‌Try to identify the main ideas articulated in the start, middle, and the last

‌While reading the passage, try to drag the underlying message that the author wants to share
through the story.

‌Also, the tone of the author will help you comprehend the emotions he/she is going through
while narrating the story. Both the direct and the indirect questions may be asked from these
passage

Reading Comprehension questions are a tricky ball game in every competitive exam. Reading
Comprehension passages can be time-consuming, energy-sapping, and information intensive. On
the other hand, the bonuses they offer are mesmerizing if you read a passage well, you should be
able to get most questions in a single passage correct, and this implies you earn quite a few
marks by solving one set of questions. At the best of times, you are likely to see a passage that
you have never read previously. One of the most important factors for solving reading
comprehension and being factual in this area revolves around the approach you adopt for this
topic. How you cope with such a challenge becomes a major aspect of how you perform in
reading comprehension.

Descriptive Style

The next type of Reading Comprehension is the descriptive style of writing. As you would think,
descriptive passages plan to describe a place, person, thing, or event in sumptuous detail. Such
passages typically include a lot of adjectives, adverbs, and metaphors to paint a picture of that
particular thing in the reader’s mind. Suppose you visit a famous tourist place, how will you
explain the beauty of it? Here, you would require to adopt a descriptive style. Most tourist
guides, journals, magazines, and poetry are written descriptively. While diving into descriptive
RC passages, just hold a few things in mind:

39
A good concept for such passages is to go through the questions before reading the passage. This
will save time and enable you to spot the needed answers easily since most of the questions
asked from these passages are direct.

Do not get diverted by the figurative language used in the passage. Rather, try to stay attentive to
understanding the contextual meaning and answer the vocabulary-based questions accordingly.

Factual Style

Another type is the factual form of writing. The goal of the factual style of writing is to impart
information to the reader logically and objectively along with some facts and figures. Likely,
such passages won’t engage you if you are not in the habit of reading newspapers. News stories,
teaching manuals, research papers, and reports present information in a factual form. Well, if you
are fond of cooking, then you would know that even recipe books are written factually. A great
thought to master such passages is to begin reading news reports, which will finally help you in
later phases also. While reading factual passages you should keep in mind:

Facts and figures may lean to confuse you, so concentrate on the main points and intention of the
passage. Here also, you are recommended to glance through the questions before reading the
passage. This way, you will be able to make mental notes of the necessary information required
to answer the questions.

Most of the questions asked are direct and need you to identify the key points. g. key features of
a scientific report/research.

Argumentative Style

A standard type of writing is an argumentative/persuasive style of writing. The author writes in

an argumentative way to persuade the reader of certain beliefs and opinions concerning a subject.
In other words, such passages cite examples, justifications, and facts to help a stand taken on the
given topic. You must have come across advertisements that tend to affect you to buy some
products or services. Well, most of them, advertisements, reviews, and complaint letters are
written in a persuasive form. A good way to comprehend such passages is, to begin with reading
newspaper editorials that sustain a particular point of view regarding the latest policies or events.
You can ace such Reading Comprehension passages by:

40
Understand the author’s point of view concerning the subject being discussed. This way you will
also be capable to understand the implied information and answer ‘the author agrees/disagrees’
questions well.

This style of writing often employs continuity words like ‘in the same way, likewise,
additionally’.The manner and organization of the passage also help to answer the indirect or
inferential questions.

Levels of Comprehension

Levels of comprehension vary from person-to-person depending on their level of education,

experience, and the complexity of the subject. Comprehending any subject requires an in-depth
study of a topic or event.

Level One: Literal Comprehension

Literal comprehension means understanding a text, including facts, ideas, vocabulary, events,
and stated information. It involves getting specific answers to questions or information gathering
for questions that start with “what, where, when, who,” etc.

For example:

Who stole Ade's money?

What did Ade do when he realized that his money was stolen?

Where did Ariel go to live at the end of the story?

Literal comprehension requires direct and explicit answers to questions extracted from a text.

Literal comprehension is an essential ability because it serves as a building block to the more
advanced levels of comprehension. The literal level of comprehension requires some abilities
that are necessary for comprehending any text or statement in general, and they include:

41
‌The ability to understand what a sentence is saying without analyzing it.

‌The ability to understand the literal meaning of words.

‌The ability to understand the literal meaning of sentences.

To develop the above-highlighted abilities and extract answers from any document seamlessly,
as a student or working professional, you have to develop literal comprehension skills such as
key-wording, skim reading, and scanning. These skills will enable you to locate and use
information more quickly. At the literal level, you can recall the information explicitly stated in
the material. The ability to quickly skim and scan a large volume of materials and extract or
recall essential information from the document is a vital productivity skill that literal
comprehension offers.

Level Two: Inference Comprehension

Inferential comprehension is the ability to make valid inferences from the facts and information
received or found in a text. At this level, you must read between the lines to understand the texts
in the reading material. It involves understanding the facts even if not explicitly stated in the
reading material.

It explores answers to questions that begin with “Why and How” because, such questions have to
get their implied meanings answered or comprehended. There are several different types of
inferences, categorized as generalizations, comparisons, conclusions, assumptions, predictions,
inferences of cause and effect, etc.

For example:

Why did Mike want to be awarded the most productive worker of the year?

How did Mike react when he saw that the recognition of the most productive worker of the year
was awarded to Thomas?

The answer to the first question highlighted above requires inferences based on assumptions on
why Mike wants to be the most productive worker of the year.

Now such inferences or conclusions may be based on facts or opinions.

42
The second question requires comparing how Mike acted when he thought he would be the
year’s most productive worker and how he reacted when he lost the recognition to Thomas.

Level Three: Evaluative Comprehension

Evaluative comprehension requires a deeper understanding of the topic or event. It involves

analyzing and weighing an event or an author’s intent, opinion, language, and style of
presentation. It also includes evaluating the appropriateness of the author’s devices in achieving
his aim and then making inferences based on the fact or idea implied in the event or reading
material.

For example:

How did Mike feel about losing the recognition award to Thomas?

If you were Mike, how would you have reacted?

Evaluative comprehension can be applied to one’s performance at work or school, including

others, in case you hold a supervisory role.

It involves making extrapolations or conclusions on material or events. The evaluation can be

positive, negative, or neutral.

Evaluative comprehension also involves understanding the implications of the evaluation. For
example, Thomas was evaluated as the most productive worker of the year, so he might
understand that the assessment is positive and take pride in it.

However, if Thomas had been evaluated as unproductive, he might have realized that the review
was negative and felt embarrassed.

Level Four: Reorganization

Reorganization comprehension is based on a literal understanding of reading material or event

and then using information gained from various parts of the material or event and rearranging
them into new patterns that integrate them into your idea for further understanding.

43
Reorganization comprehension requires some creativity and curiosity. It also requires an ability
to analyze, digest, evaluate and come up with a unique view of a situation or event.

For example:

What could have been the consequence if Mike had been recognized as the year’s worker instead
of Thomas?

Level Five: Appreciative Comprehension

Comprehension goes beyond merely decoding the text or audio and making sense of it. It also
involves giving reactions and thoughts about material or events based on a deeper understanding
of the situation or text.

The appreciative level of comprehension fits here as it requires reading beyond the lines and
involves recognizing the author’s philosophy and purpose of reading material. The philosophies
are not stated explicitly but are implied in the text and involve having an emotional response and
reflections on the material.

To get to the appreciative level of comprehension means that a reader fully understands the
literal meaning of the reading material, has carefully evaluated the situation and can use the ideas
gathered and apply them to real-life events or similar conditions.

For example:

How would you feel if you were in Mike’s shoes and had lost the recognition award to a
colleague at your workplace?

Do you think awarding the recognition to Thomas instead of Mike was appropriate?

You can see that from the questions asked; the answers will require an appreciative level of
comprehension as the answers are not found in the text or event but from the reader or observer.

Conclusion

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As you can see from the levels of comprehension discussed above, comprehending a text or
events, as the case may be, is a crucial skill a student or any working-class person should have.
Also important is the ability to comprehend information fast.

Comprehension can be challenging, especially for people with learning disabilities. So they find
it tasking to build up skills that take them beyond reading the text to reading between and beyond
the text, which is a more advanced level of comprehension.

As mentioned earlier, comprehension is an essential skill that both students and professionals
should have if they want to be productive.

Thankfully, there are steps that you can take to improve your comprehension ability, one of them
being to learn how to read fast.

Top Six Reading Comprehension Strategies?

These are sometimes called the “super six” reading comprehension strategies, commonly in
classrooms today and can help students better understand their reading materials and learn to pay
close attention to details.

1. Making Connections

Also called activating prior knowledge or schema, this strategy focuses on teaching
students to make connections between a text and their own experiences and
understandings. Research into the science of reading has shown enhanced comprehension
when students are able to connect new information and information they already know.

This comprehension strategy can be framed within these three concepts:

text to self

text to text

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 text to world.

Students can ask themselves how the text may relate to something in their life, to another
text that they know, or to something from the real world.

2. Predicting

With this reading comprehension strategy, students use “clues” from the text combined
with their own knowledge and experiences to anticipate what will happen next. As they
read, students gain more information and use that to revise their predictions.

3. Questioning

‌In this comprehension strategy, students ask and answer questions to clarify the meaning
of the text and deepen their understanding. When you center questioning activities on the
familiar open-ended prompts of who, what, when, where, how, why, and which, students
assert their understanding and identify any gaps in their comprehension of the text.

Questions can be posed by a teacher, by their peers, or by the students themselves.

4. Monitoring Comprehension

When monitoring comprehension, students reflect on and assess their understanding as

they progress through the text. In this metacognitive process, students may ask
themselves questions like “Is this making sense?” or “Do I need to read this again?”

Some comprehension strategies that may be effective may include going back to reread a
section of a text, slowing down or speeding up your reading rate, and using text features
to help understand difficult parts of a passage. All of these strategies are active reading
strategies that students can do to help them better understand what they are reading, while
they are reading!

While the process of monitoring asks students to identify hurdles and barriers, students
also benefit from connecting this reading comprehension strategy with explicit strategies
to help them past their hurdles.

5. Visualizing

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 Visualization provides both teachers and students with another means to extend their
exploration of a text and deepen understanding. This reading comprehension strategy
asks students to create and describe an image in their mind, centered on a place, situation,
or character in the text. Visualizing has been proven in research to improve student
recall!

Using the five senses is a great way to scaffold student comprehension through
visualizing.

6. Summarizing

Summarizing is a reading comprehension strategy that asks students to reflect on the text
and communicate their understanding of it. A well-formed summary is made up of the
main idea of the text and the key details that support the main idea, showing that the
student has understood what they’ve read well enough to write a summary that’s not
merely a repetition of the text.

When summarizing, students may complete one or more of the following:

 Recount the text in their own words

 Identify the main idea, topic, or purpose
 List key words or phrases
 Identify structural elements of the genre
 Seven Strategies of Highly Effective Readers

Strategy for Understanding and Answering Comprehension Question:

Activating: “Priming the cognitive pump” in order to recall relevant prior knowledge and
experiences from long-term memory to extract and construct meaning from text

Inferring: Bringing together what is spoken (written) in the text, what is unspoken
(unwritten) in the text, and what is already known by the reader in order to extract and
construct meaning from the text

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 Monitoring-Clarifying Thinking about how and what one is reading, both during
and after the act of reading, for purposes of determining if one is comprehending the text
combined with the ability to clarify and fix up any mix-ups

Questioning: Engaging in learning dialogues with text (authors), peers, and teachers
through self-questioning, question generation, and question answering

Searching-Selecting: Searching a variety of sources in order to select appropriate

information to answer questions, define words and terms, clarify misunderstandings,
solve problems, or gather information

Summarizing: Restating the meaning of text in one’s own words — different

words from those used in the original text

Visualizing-Organizing: Constructing a mental image or graphic organizer for the

purpose of extracting and constructing meaning from the text

PROJECT REPORT WRITING

In the modem complex world every society today is faced with serious social, economic and
political problems. These problems need systematic intelligent and practical solution. Problem
solving is a technical process. It requires among all other things accumulation of new knowledge.
Research provides the means for accumulating such a fund of knowledge and wisdom.
In other words research is a systematic effort at gathering, analysis interpretation of the problems
confronted by humanity. It is a thinking process and a scientific method of studying a problem
and find solution.

Research is not the exclusive preserve of a chosen few. Any individual belonging to any field of
activity can undertake research or activities to repeat a search. Research or activities to repeat a
search. Research helps to push the frontiers of knowledge beyond the horizon. It is an in-depth
analysis based on reflective thinking of the various phenomenon or observed units to make a

48
generalization. Research is essential for building up of the knowledge base in social science. It
develops concepts, theories and tools of measurement. It also provides the research investigator
necessary skills to analyze problems scientifically and find solutions.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A PROJECT TOPIC

1. Knowledge of the subject: The researcher should be an expert in the study of the subject
which he is going to research. Hence he should read all texts on the matter, and form a
clear cut idea about the subject under study. Such knowledge helps him in preparing
questionnaire and schedule to get proper information. He can enter into face to face
discussion and remove any doubts arising the minds of the people regarding the study.
2. Knowledge of the technique of research: The research worker should also possess an
intimate knowledge of the technique that is to be applied to the problem. In his study he
would be using different research tools He should not use them simply for the sake of
using but fully well know their use. He should properly get himself trained in the use of
these tools so that, if difficulties arise be should be in a position to overcome them.
3. Personal taste in the study (Interest and Passion): A personal taste in the study will
inspire him and keep his morale high in times of difficulties. A forced work is often
monotonous and very tiresome.
4. Familiarity about the Information: The researcher should be familiar with the people or
phenomenon he is studying. Familiarity will help him to get in-depth information.
5. Unbiased attitude: The researcher should have no preconceptions about the subject under
study. He should go to his research with absolutely a clean state, He should maintain an
open mind and look for data which world substantiate and give his theory a new meaning.

No researcher can be, without shortcomings It is therefore essential that he should be

fully aware of that so that while arriving at some conclusions he is in a position to take
into consideration his drawbacks and shortcomings as well.

Steps in Preparing a Research Design

A research design usually comprises of the following major of steps. Selection of research
problem

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The research problem may be selected from the following sources:

1. Theory

2. Every day problems

3. Technological changes

4. Unexplored areas

5. Discussions with supervisor

The selection of research problem depends on whether research is being conducted for obtaining
a degree or it is for academic interest. If the research is for Master’s Degree level, M.Phil. Or
Ph.D., the problem may be more specific and limited in scope and may offer itself for
completion within a specified time. On the other hand if the research is for academic interest,
time should not be a binding factor. Here the sole objective is to enrich the knowledge through
the application of advanced research methods special assignments, research reports and articles
may suggest some additional areas of needed research.

Title of the research project

The title should be brief, precise and should project the scope of the problem in generalized
terms.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of any research is the acquisition of knowledge. A brief mention of the significance
of the study area in the present context of social life should be attempted highlighting the main
purpose which prompted the investigator to take up the present study.

Review of literature
As a next step the researcher should go through all the existing literature relating to his problem.
This is essential to know whether the problem has already been investigated before. If so how
and to what extent. Through the review, the researcher will get acquainted with the different

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areas covered by various studies. Finally a critical appraisal of previous studies is more
meaningful, useful and a correct approach in any field of investigation.

Statement of the problem

Once the researcher is able to get a complete knowledge of the subject under study from various
sources, he must be in a position to state his research problem in unambiguous and more precise
terms. He should be very clear in his plan of research.

Scope of the investigation

The researcher should decide in the very beginning as so what he is going to investigate. He
should take into consideration the time, money available to him, availability of sample, his
ability to collect information from the respondents etc. Once the scope of the investigation is
delimited, the investigator will report the scope in explicit terms while giving out the limitations
of his study.

Objectives of the study

If the researcher lacks a clean understanding of the purpose of his research—its theoretical and
practical implications, he is likely to be insensitive to the nature of the problem to be studied, the
type of data needed, the appropriate approach and the level of precision required. Care has to be
taken that the objectives of the study are well within the scope of the investigation envisaged by
him.

Concepts and variables used in the investigation

It is desirable that the research worker should make himself familiar with the concepts—normal
and operational definitions used in the investigation. He should also possess the intimate
knowledge of the variables that are to be applied to the problem. In the absence of such
knowledge of the concepts and variables the researcher is likely to commit methodological errors
and the deduction drawn by him may not be sound.

Selection of hypothesis

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Hypothesis are tentative solution to a problem. The success of a research study depends upon
how best hypothesis has been selected by the researcher. The hypothesis should be clear,
specific, capable of empirical test and must be related to body of theory and available technique.
So the researcher’s job is to clearly lay down the hypothesis for testing and verification. This will
help him in delimiting the scope of his study.

Selection of the sample

Sampling study is becoming more and more popular and important in any investigation. The
vastness of population, the difficulties of contacting people, high refusal rate, difficulties of
ascertaining the universe make sampling the best alternative in case of research studies. While
selecting the sample, the investigator should consider the definition of the population, size of the
sample, representatives of the sample. The results and sampling should attain a sufficiently high
standard of accuracy.

Data collection
Collection of data is of at most importance for a research investigation. If the data is not accurate
and adequate, the findings are bound to be misleading.
The researcher should decide the method which are to be used for data collection, whether it is
questionnaire, an interview schedule, a case study or observation method or any of these. All the
same the researcher must be unbiased, sharp and courteous to respondents so that he can get
proper feedback relevant to the research problem.

Processing, analysis and tabulation of data

All collected data need to be processed for their inconsistencies on inaccuracies. Planning of
analysis in advance is not always possible because new ideas occur to the investigator as he
collects the information. Depending on the nature of the data and the information required by the
hypothesis the investigator should subject the data to appropriate statistical analysis. Each
statistical technique serves a special purpose and has a special set of assumptions which must be

52
met before it can be used for analysis and interpretation. The researcher is advised to tabulate the
results in a meaningful way. Each table should be followed by a discussion.

Interpretation of the results

Knowledge of previous studies will have a great impact on the interpretation of results. The
researcher should be very definite that his plan of research is based on sound scientific lines, it
can safely generalize the findings obtained in his study through inductive inference. The results
of the investigation are to be interpreted to uncover any additional factors which could not be
visualized by the investigator earlier.

Verification
The conclusion drawn through a research study is subject to verification at any time. Verifiability
presupposes that the phenomena must be capable of being observed and measured: The results
should not contradict the earlier findings which were proved to be correct.

Conclusions
The results verified can be used for drawing Conclusions. Hence verification helps in drawing
specific conclusion.

Suggestions for future research

Research is not an end in itself. The researcher should be able to give right directions to the
future researchers from the insights he has gained during the investigation.

Bibliography
In preparing the research design, the researcher is expected to give the references for further
information on various aspects of research work. Name of the author, title, year, publication and
page number should be included in bibliography.

Appendixes

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Appendixes are relatively short sections normally reported before bibliography. Big tables,
figures, notes, copy of questionnaire, case study, to name a few are included in the appendixes.
To conclude, research design varies in its complexity and adequacy depending on the nature of
the problem, the data, the facilities for carrying out the study, the research sophistication and
competence of the investigator.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION – 1

OBSERVATION
Definition
Goode and Hatt say, “Science begins with observation and must ultimately return to observation
for its final validation”. Moses and Kalton are of the opinion that, “observation implies the use of
the eyes rather than of the ears and the voice”. Observation may be defined as systematic
viewing, coupled with consideration may be defined as systematic viewing, coupled with
consideration of the seen phenomena, in which main consideration must be given to the larger
unit of activity by which the specific observed phenomena occurred (Young). Observing natural
phenomena, aided by systematic classification and measurement, led to the development of
theories and laws of nature’s forces. It is the classic method of scientific enquiry. The
accumulated knowledge of biologists, physicists, astronomers and other natural scientists is built
upon centuries of systematic observation, much of it of phenomena in their natural surroundings
rather than in the laboratory.

Components of Observation
Observation involves three processes, i.e., (1) sensation. (2) attention and (3) perception.
Sensation is gained through the sense organs which depends upon the physical alertness of the
observer. Then comes attention which is largely a matter of habit. The third is perception which
involves the interpretation of sensory reports. Thus sensation merely reports the facts as observed
but perception enables the mind to recognize the facts. Observation helps in studying collective
behaviour and complex social situations; following up of individual units composing the
situations; understanding the whole and the parts in their interrelation; and getting the out of the
way details of the Situation.

54
Characteristics of Observation
Firstly, observation is at once a physical as well as metal activity. The use of sense organ is
involved as in observation one has to see or hear something.
Secondly observation is selective because one has to observe the range of those things which fall
within the observation

Thirdly, observation is purposive. Observation is limited to those facts and details which help in
achieving the specified objectives of research. Fourthly, observation has to be efficient. .. Mere
watching alone is not enough. There should be scientific thinking. Further, these observations
should be baked on tools of research which have been properly standardized.

Fifthly, in observation, the researcher makes direct study. It is a classical scientific method for
the collection of primary and dependable data.

Sixthly, through observation, it is possible to establish cause-effect relationship in social

phenomena. Last but not the least characteristic feature of the observation method is that the
investigator first of all observes things and then collects data.

Aids of Observation
Diaries, note-books, schedules, photographs and maps are the commonly used devices for
observation. Diaries record data when the impressions are fresh and vivid. Notes recorded in the
note books serve as an aid to the memory and are particularly useful in stamping impressions
upon the minds of the investigators. Schedules draw up lists of points to be covered and helps the
investigator to note down the answers. Photographs are more realistic and revealing than words
and they remind field workers of certain details that the pen fails to record. Besides pictures lend
authenticity to the facts describe and preserve the actual character of social situations. Maps are
useful in gathering and analysing information. Different types of information and facts can be
shown on maps by plotting rainfall, vegetation, distribution of soil conditions, location of schools
etc.

Types of Observation
Subjective and objective observations: Observation has two components: - the object (what
is observed) and the subject (the observer). Sometimes one may have to observe one’s own

55
experience. This is called subjective observation or self-observation or Introspection. In this kind
of observation, the observer takes stock of himself. Persistent self observation and criticism by
others may help in avoiding prejudices and biases. It sensitises the observer to the problems of
others and creates sympathetic insight which helps in understanding the problems. In many
investigations the observer is an entity apart from the things observed. This is objective
observation or extrospection In recording social data, objective observation is more appropriate
as compared to subjective observation.
Intra-Subjective and Inter-Subjective Observations If the repeated observations of a constant
phenomenon by the same observer yield constant data, the observation is said to be intra-
subjective. If repeated observation of a constant phenomenon by different observers yield
constant data, observation is said to be inter-subjective. Validity and reliability are qualities that
are essential to the effectiveness of any data gathering procedure.

Casual and Scientific Observation : An observation may be casual or scientific Casual

observation takes place without preparation and it is a matter of chance that the right thing is
observed at the right time and in the rig place. On the other hand, scientific observation is carried
out with the help of tools of measurement.

Simple and Systematic Observation: Observation is found in almost all research studies. Data
collected through such observation is known as simple observation. Its practice is not
standardized. Systematic observation employs standardized procedures, training of observes,
schedules for recording and other devices to control the observer-and sometimes even the
subject.

Direct and indirect observations: The direct method describes the situation in which the
observer is physically present and personally monitors what takes place. This approach is very
flexible because it allows the observer to react to and report subtle aspects of events and
behaviour as they occur. He is also free to shift places change the focus of observation or
concentrate on unexpected events. A weakness of this approach is that the observer’s perception
may become overloaded. Observer’s fatigue, boredom and distracting events can reduce the
accuracy and completeness of such observation. Indirect observation is the term used to describe
studied in which the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic means. Such

56
methods are less biased and less erratic in their recording accuracy. Another advantage of this
method is the permanent record which can be reanalyzed with respect of different aspects of an
event. Electronic devices are used more frequently in observation.

Behavioural and Non-Behavioural Observations : The concept of observation involves not

only watching but also listening and reading. Thus observation includes the full range of
monitoring behavioural and non- behavioural activities and conditions. Non-verbal analysis,
linguistic analysis, extra-linguistic analysis and spatial analysis are the four major categories of
behavioural observational study of persons. Record analysis, physical condition analysis and
physical process analysis are the three major categories of non-behavioural study of persons.

Non-Verbal Behavioural Observations: It includes observation of body movement, motor

expressions and even exchanged glances. Body movement is an indicator of interest or boredom,
anger or pleasure in a certain environment. Motor expressions such as facial movements can be
observed as a sign of emotional studies. Finally exchanged glances might be of interest in studies
of interpersonal behaviour. Linguistic behaviour is a second frequently used form of behavioural
observation. The familiar example is the annoying words or sounds which a professor utters
during the class.

There are four dimensions to extra linguistic activity viz, vocal, temporal, interaction and verbal.
Spatial relationship, analysis is a study as to how one relates physically to others. A study about
the effects of crowding in a work place is an example of spatial relationship observation. Record
analysis involves analysis of historical or current records, public or private records, written
printed, sound recorded photographic or video recorded. The content analysis of competitive
advertising, the analysis of personnel records are the examples of this type of observation.
Physical condition analysis refers to store audits, studies of plant, safety compliance, analysis of
inventory conditions etc. Physical process or activity studies include time studies of
manufacturing process, traffic flows in a distribution system, paper work flow in an office and
the study of financial flows in our banking system.

Participant and Non-Participant Observations: Observation can also be classified into

participant observation and non-participant observation. If the observer participates with the
activities of the group under study, it is known as participant observation. In this the observer

57
makes himself a part of the group. He freely mixes with the social activities of the group, their
normal working, functions and festivals. He has to maintain the relation and rapport with the
group. The members of the group should not have even slightest doubt about the originality and
authenticity of the researchers.

Merits

1. The group can be observed in its natural behaviour as they do not know that they are
being observed.
2. The participant observer is much more loser and the group also accepts him, places him
in an advantageous position.
3. Being associated with the groups, one develops greater sympathy and feelings to the
group activities.
4. Participant observer can educate the people and is able to observe what he wants to
observe by “striking the iron when it is red”.
5. Being one of the group members he solicits better information than the non-participant
one.

Demerits

1. Participant observer, due to emotional involvement, sometimes kills the objectivity by

introducing his subjective judgments.
2. Participant observer acquires a certain status in the group and thereby loses scientific
reference.
3. Being a party to the activities in day-to-day life, the range of experience as well as
keenness to minute observation is diminished.
4. Sometimes a participant observer involves himself in group conflicts and thereby forgets
his original purpose.
5. In certain cases, there cannot be active participation..

Non-participant observation: When the observer does not actually participate in the activities of
the group, but simply observes them from outside, it is known as non-participant observation.

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This situation in pure form is rather non-achievable. Only quasi-participant observations are in
practice.

Advantages

1. The researcher is able to acquire information with influence because he keeps himself
away from the activities of the group.
2. Non-participant observation gives the observer an impartial status and thereby objectivity
is being achieved.
3. Observer remains stranger and gets advantage of the situation and learns the weaknesses
as well as makes minute observations without attachment.

Disadvantages

1. The observer can observe only those activities that take place before him, but they form
only a small part of the whole range. He cannot understand them in proper sequence
unless he has actively participated.
2. People who are being observed by a stranger sometime do not give their valued and real
actions, feelings as nobody open their treasure (opinion, attitude) before a new man, with
whom they have not developed oneness.

“Structured and Unstructured Observation: One of the most useful bases of

classification of observational procedure is the degree of structuredness. Accordingly
observation may be structured or unstructured. The structured observation is one in which
the units to be observed, information to be recorded, the selection of data for observation
and standardization of conditions of observation are clearly defined. It is used in studies
designed to provide systematic observation or to test casual hypothesis. The use of
structured observational technique presupposes that the investigator knows that aspects of
the situation under study are relevant to his research purposes and is in a position to
develop a specific plan for making and recording observations before he begins the
collection of data. Structured observation may take place in the natural field setting or in
laboratory setting. Sound recording, motion pictures, radios, flannel graphs, flash cards
and televisions can also be used as a systematic process of observation in structured

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observation. The reliability of structural observation can be obtained by proper training of
observers and in developing the needed skill in categorizing, recording, coding and
interpreting the observation.

The unstructured observation is diametrically opposed to the structured observation. In

this, the researcher becomes participant observer and takes the role of a member of the
group and participate in its functioning. The unstructured observation is often used in
exploratory analysis. Everything cannot be observed in single observation and by a single
observer. Therefore, reasoning has to be evolved on the clues of exigency of events.
However, the technique is of significance in formulating tentative generalizations or
hypotheses. Being unstructured in nature, it may need a very keen observer with a sharp
focus on the problems or events to be observed. Regarding the time of recording the
events, it should be on the spot and during the events, because of disturbances in
naturalness, suspicion of the persons observed, divided attention and painstaking
elaborate statements. The best way to overcome the situation is to write down the key
words for guidance, using indexing system or developing a certain code for elaborating
the issues. But the detailed write-up should be taken up as soon as possible. Accuracy of
observation and interpretation is generally difficult in unstructured observation. For this,
it is better to have two or more people to observe the same event which provides
opportunities to compare their findings and check bias.

Uncontrolled Observation: Pauline V. Young calls the uncontrolled observation as

unaided type of observation. In this, observation is made in the natural environment
without being influenced by outside controls or external forces. The observer does not
plan his study in advance. As Young has observed the researcher resorts to careful
scrutiny of real life situations making no attempt to use precision instruments. This
results in the study of situations in natural surroundings. Most life situations must be
studied in the socio-cultural setting as they occur, rather than in artificial surroundings
created through controls. Most of the knowledge about the social phenomena generally is
derived through this type of uncontrolled observation only. This enables first hand
acquisition of knowledge and collection of data. In this the techniques are not
standardized non variables controlled.

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One serious limitation in this type of observation is that the observer may try to
generalize from a single situation. As Bernard has generally pointed out that the data are
so real and vivid and feelings about them are so strong that there are chances of making
mistakes about the emotions. In the uncontrolled observation, the observer has to collect
the data sometimes which is not relevant for the research purpose. Thus this type of
investigation consumes more resources, both human and otherwise. Another danger is
that because of the wider coverage, due to absence of controls, data collected may not be
directly related to the phenomena under observation. The uncontrolled observations may
have bias, and sometime go without checks. Thus the conclusion derived from such
observations may not be of much significance for making generalisations.

Controlled Observation: Controlled observational technique has been developed to

overcome the problems faced in non-controlled observation. The idea of such observation
is to get a precise accurate and objective data, having the characteristics of verifiability
and validity. It is done by controlling errors, biases as well as the influence of outside
var1able The control exercised in the observation is two types: (I) Control over the
phenomena and (2) control over the observation or observer.

Control over the Phenomenon: In this type of controlled observation method, the
phenomenon is put under the guided conditions and the study is made. Since social
research deals with social phenomena it is not easy to put it in a laboratory or under
controlled conditions.

Control over the Observation or Observer: In the systematic observation the control
has to be exercised over the observer and the observed. But it is possible to exercise
control over the observer only. Following kinds of Control devices are generally used to
carry out controlled observation 1. Detailed observation plan; 2. Observation schedule; 3.
Team observation; 4. Use of control groups; 5. Use of hypothesis; 6. Use of sociometric
scales and 7. Use of mechanical appliances.

Organization of Field Observation: For successful field observation, organization and

planning has to be done. For valid and useful field observation, the following steps have
to be taken:

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(a) Determination of the Method of Study: If the research is to be carried on the
basis of observation it is essential to determine the method of study.

(b) Determination of the Nature and Limits of Observation: After determining the
method of study, the plan of observation has to be prepared on the basis of the
hypothesis formulated. This helps the observer in determining the factors to be
observed.

(c) Decision Regarding Directness of Observation: The relationship between

observer and subject may be either direct or indirect. The direct method describes
the situation in which the observer is physically present and personally monitors
what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the observer to
react. In indirect observation recording in done by mechanical, photographic or
electronic means.

(d) Determination of Expert Investigators: In some cases, the researcher has to

seek the help of various experts to cooperate in the task of observation.

Therefore, right type of field workers should be selected and arrangement for their
training should be made. They must be explained as to what is to be observed and
how.

(e) Determination of Time, Place and People to Study: The next step is to decide
the time, place and people to be observed. The process of observation may be of
short duration or may be continued over long periods. For a period of long time,
special arrangements are needed. For both short and long period study, prior
determination of people to be observed and the place of observation is necessary.

(f) Provision of Mechanical Appliances: In order to collect valid and reliable data,
the field worker must make use of various instruments like photo camera, movie
camera, tape recorders, charts, maps etc. Arrangement should be made for the
provision of such appliances. The field worker must be trained to make use of
such aids and tools. The schedules must be pre-tested so that the collected data is
dependable.

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 (g) Collection of Data: After the arrangements are made to provide necessary tools
and equipment the researcher should collect data to test the hypothesis.

(h) Data Analysis: Once the collection of data is complete, it should be analyzed and
processed through classification tabulation etc. in accordance with the subject
matter. If several field workers are employed, they should be called upon to give
their observations and processing should be done.

GENERALIZATION: Once the data are tabulated, it becomes possible to give interpretations
and inferences. On this basis, general conclusions may be drawn. It is after generalization, the
research report is prepared. Only when all these steps are successfully completed, observation
can be effective and useful. Advantages of observation. Observation is used extensively due to
many reasons.

1. Simplicity: The method of observation is simple and non-technical and requires

relatively less training to become a trained observer.
2. Direct and realistic study: It is the most direct means of studying a wide variety of
phenomena based on actual and first-hand experience.
3. Useful for formulating and testing of hypothesis: In all social sciences, the method of
observation is the basis for formulating hypothesis. Through observation, the researcher
is able to know the cause and effect relation. This forms the basis for hypothesis.
4. Accurate and reliable data: The data collected through this method is accurate and
reliable, because they are collected directly. It does not depend upon reflection or
retrospection.
5. Dependable results: As the data collected are accurate and reliable, the results and
conclusions are more dependable and convincing,

Problems of Observation

1. Difficulties in simultaneous observation of events.

2. Considerable time (delay) involved in waiting for the occurrence of desired behaviour.
3. Non-occurrence of particular type of behaviour, while observation.

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4. Behaviour may fail to reveal the true feelings of the individual.
5. Influence of other forces, factors or variables on the behaviour.

Limitations

Observation, although have wider use, have certain limitations.

1. The observer may not have the capacity to observe correctly and relevantly. This may
lead to faulty perceptions and it can be rectified by training.
2. if the people are aware of the fact that they are being observed, it may lead to unrealistic
behaviour. This can be eliminated by informing the subject and somehow taking the
observation with standardized instruments.
3. Interpretations are being mistaken to observation. This can be overcome by recording the
events by avoiding inferences.
4. Personal bias of the observer is yet another limitation of observation.
5. Another important limitation is the absence of system in observation.

Unsystematic, loose and unscientific observation cannot be used for valid generalization.
The use of valid instrument like pretested, pre-structured schedule can contribute
substantially in overcoming this limitation.

6. Sometimes unforeseeable factors like weather conditions, alternate attractions and the
like interfere with the task of observation. The observer, therefore, must keep these
limitations and drawbacks of observation method in mind while using it for data
collection.

Questionnaire: Questionnaire is an important tool in obtaining the important information in a

particular field of enquiry. In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing
answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself. On the other and
schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled in by
interviewer in a face to face situation. In both the cases, the wording of the questions is the same
for all respondents.

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Structure of Questionnaire: An important feature of the questionnaire is in the design of the
questions; whose form and content depend upon the research objectives and hypothesis. The
questions should be such as to translate fully the objective, minimize the distortion of the
response and elicit accurate replies as there is little opportunity to seek further clarification.

The questions should reflect the main objective of the survey, that is, the inclusion of every item
in a questionnaire should give an answer that is significant for hi central problem. Developing a
questionnaire can be thought of as moving from the ‘inside’ outward. The researcher should
layout tentatively the logical implications of his problem and then prepare questions which are
relevant for these logical implications. The researcher should consult colleagues, friends and
experts on the problem to get their thinking on the problem. On the basis of this ground work, a
preliminary set of refined questions is arranged. A pilot survey must be conducted to test the
usefulness of this final draft. The experience in the pilot survey enables the researcher to redraft
the questionnaire in a final form.

The structure of the questionnaire should be such as to minimise the distortion of the response.
Maximizing respondent orientation depends on the bumper, sequence and language of the
questions as well as on the kind, quality and volume of information required.

a. To ensure the attention of the respondent, the questions should be few, limited to facts
and of interest to the informant. There is always a temptation to ask too much or all
interesting points. This tendency should be resisted. Lengthy rambling questionnaires are
as demoralizing for the interviewer as for the respondent. (For eg. a survey to ascertain
what daily newspapers different kinds of people read is undertaken. One may be tempted
to ask details about reading of periodicals, books, the money spent on these things, habits
of going to library etc. The questionnaire grows from a short list of questions to a
document. In a professional survey field, such unnecessary questions are avoided.
b. The sequence or frame of reference should be such that one question leads to another and
makes its relevance obvious. The ‘Funnel approach’ or the flow from general to specific
questions is often advocated.
c. Question content is equally important. The wording of the question must be in familiar
language and unequivocal and straight forward. The questions should be framed bearing

65
 in mind the common language. Technical terms and Jargons are to be avoided in surveys
of general population. The questions should use the simplest words that will convey the
exact meaning.

A common mistake often made is to ask a general question when a specific issue is wanted. If
one is interested specifically in a canteen’s meal prices, the quality of its service, then we should
avoid questions like “Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with your canteen?” The questions to be
asked should touch the necessary frames of reference. The two questions to be asked are

1. Are you satisfied/dissatisfied with the prices of meals in your canteen?

2. Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with the service in your canteen?

Ambiguous questions are to be avoided. If an ambiguous word creeps in, different people will
understand the question differently. The following example from a University research survey
makes the point clear. The women respondents were asked a question—”Is your work made
more difficult because you are expecting a baby?” Suppose they were to answer ‘No’, it would
mean, “No, I am not expecting a baby or “No, my work is not made more difficult by the fact
that I am expecting a baby.”

Vague questions should be avoided: For example, if one asks— “What kind of house do you
have?” some may answer that it is suburban, others may say that it is very pleasant.

Leading questions should b9 avoided: A leading question is one, which by its content,
structure or wording, leads the respondent in the direction of a certain answer. (The question
form ‘you don’t think do you?” leads to a negative answer. The question form “should not
something be done about ----?” leads to a positive answer.

Presuming questions should not be included: Questions should not presume anything about
the respondent. Question like; “How many cigarettes a day do you smoke?” should be asked only
after a filter question ‘Do you smoke?’

Hypothetical questions are not advisable for inclusion A question like “what would you do if
you were to win a lottery?” has an element of wishful thinking. However such questions are
included in market surveys of big firms to gauge the reaction of the people to a proposed change.
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It is often necessary to decide whether personalized questions should be included or not. In a
health survey, 98 per cent of the respondents answered ‘Yes’ to the question “Do you think it is a
good idea to have everyone’s chest regularly checked for cancer?” But only 54 per cent
answered ‘Yes’ to the personalized question, “Have you ever checked your chest?”

Embarrassing questions should not be included. Subjects which people do not like to discuss in
public present a problem to the questionnaire designer Respondents are often embarrassed to
discuss private matters, to give low prestige answers and to admit socially unacceptable
behaviour. Respondents may refuse to answer questions on sexual behaviour frequency of taking
a bath, or cheating in examinations. In such cases it is better to ask in an indirect way—”Some
women using this shampoo find a lot of fat in it. Can you guess what they are objecting to?”

Questions involving memory should be carefully worded. For example, a question like “what
programs did you see yesterday on T.V.? Would take some time for the respondent to think and
there is always the possibility that he may give a wrong response. Instead, it is better to list all
the programs to ask for the information.

To sum up the nature and content of the questions following points may be noted.

a. Leading and loaded questions which suggest the required answer should be avoided.
b. Questions which give scope for rationalized answers as well as vague answers should be
discarded.
c. The wording must be in a familiar language and straight forward.
d. Each question should be strictly limited to a single idea and global questions should be
avoided.
e. The information sought must be appropriate to the respondents’ level.

Otherwise he might be so embarrassed that he would either not respond at all or even he
may pretend to respond when he does not know anything at all.

f. The scope for answers must be such that it demands minimum time of’ the respondent.

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g. Questions answerable only through personal interviews should be avoided, where ever
personal questions are asked and answered, assurance must be given that they would be
treated as confidential.

On the whole it is useful to make a personal appeal in a letter explaining the purpose of the
enquiry and appealing for the respondents’ co-operation. If properly framed, the questionnaire
has the advantage of ensuring anonymity to the respondent and so it gives more scope for
reliable answers. But it also affords the opportunity to read the questions ahead and thus ‘to
adjust’ the answers. On the whole questionnaire makes possible a great variety and a number of
alternative questions which may not be possible in a schedule or interview.

Types of Questions

a. Structural Questions: Questions which allow only a few alternative ways of answering
are structural questions. The simplest example of a structural questions “What is your
age?” There can be only one answer to this question.

If there are possibilities of different but definite answers, it will be of the following form:
Are you at present

(I) Single _________

(2) Married _________

(3) Divorced ________

(4) Separated _________

(5) Widowed__________

It is better to have structural question like about for marital status because a general
question like what is your marital status may result in a confusing answer like ‘fine’:

b. Unstructured or open ended questions: When the question can get any type of answer
it is unstructured or open-ended question. Example what factors about a job should one
consider before accepting it?

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 There is a wide choice of answer for the respondent. Usually unstructured questions are
included in the pilot surveys and the answers obtained are used to prepare structural
questions in the final schedule or questionnaire.

c. Dichotomous Questions Dichotomous questions result in ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers or they

are questions where only two alternative answers are possible. a) Sex of the respondent
Male/Female. (b) Are you a member of Diner’s Club? Yes/No.
d. Multiple Choice Questions: Here the answer is selected ‘from among several
alternatives, care should be taken to include as many alternatives as possible. To be on
the safeguard, the last alternative can be written as “any other”.

Example
Nature of career you propose to take?

a. Business or industry
b. Government service.
c. Private.
d. Profession
e. Vocation
f. Any other (specify)

E. Ranking Item Questions: Here different alternative answers are given for the question
and the respondent is asked to rank them or show his preference by numbering them 1,2,3
etc.

Example: You are given a job, where would you like your posting to be? Number your
preference. 1) Delhi 2. Bombay 3. Madras 4. Nagpur.

(F) Factual Versus Opinion Questions: Factual questions refer to questions which seek
information. The chief difficulty with factual questions is to ensure that the respondents
understand them. Opinion questions seek the opinions of the respondents. It is always
difficult to elicit information on opinion questions because the respondent may not have
had any opinion on the matter yet try to answer it wrongly.

69
For example if the opinion of the respondent is sought on the capital punishment he may
not know what a capital punishment is. Even if he knows it his opinion may be many
sided. Thus he may be against capital punishment on moral grounds, but may favour it on
legal grounds. Due to intensity of opinions, the answers may be biased. It is always easy
to cross- check factual questions but not so in the case of opinion questions.

Degree and Reliability of the Response: The degree and dependability of response are
related to three main factors: (1) the subject of enquiry. (2) the class of respondents. (3)
The structure of the questionnaire.

In Under Developed Countries, where even such simple questions as saving are treated as
highly personal, the response will be both poor and not very accurate for a Questionnaire.
The schedule would be a better device in such an environment. Where the respondents
are not civic conscious, the replies will be few and far between. But as in U.S.A. where
there is a highest degree of education and social consciousness, even an enquiry into the
very intimate problem of sex behaviour could be successfully tackled.

Broadly speaking, a high reliability could be expected in answers to objective and factual
questions and low reliability from questions regarding attitudes (opinion questions). Of
the questionnaire is short and simple and attractively worded without too many details
reliability is greater. The tendency to send out elaborate and vague questionnaires should
be avoided.

Advantages of Questionnaires: By its very nature the questionnaire is likely to be a less

expensive procedure than interview. It requires much less skill to administer than an
interview. In fact questionnaires are often simply mailed or handed to respondents with a
minimum of explanation.

Questionnaires can often be administered to large number of individuals simultaneously.

An interview usually calls for questioning each individual separately.

Questionnaires can often be administered to large number of individuals simultaneously.

An interview usually calls for questioning each individual separately

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 Questionnaires can be sent through the post (mailed, Questionnaire). This is not possible
in interviewing. Therefore with a given amount of funds, it is usually possible to cover a
wider area and to obtain information from more people by means of questions than by
personal interviewing of each respondent.

The impersonal nature of a questionnaire, standardised wording offers some uniformity

from one measurement situation to another. The interviewing situation may or may not be
uniform from one interview to the next.

The respondents to questionnaires may have greater confidence in anonymity and feel
free to express their views. The respondents of an interview may doubt even if he is
assured about anonymity.

In questionnaire method the subjects have enough time for filling out the questionnaire
instead of giving any answer that comes to his mind.

5. Interview: The interview is the implement par excellence of the field worker; particularly
in an underdeveloped country both because of the types of problems tackled and the
environment from which data are to be collected.

The interview is a conversation with a purpose. Therefore it is more than a mere oral
exchange of information. Its importance arises from the necessity to come into contact
with individuals to get access to facts and opinions and to receive facts directly from the
persons. Where the source is accessible to the investigator, the interview is the device to
tap it. Apart from accessibility, the controlling factor in the success of the interview is the
reaction of the personalities involved namely the investigator and the respondent.

There are three necessary conditions for a successful interview: (1) first is the
‘accessibility’ of the required information to the respondent. (2) The second condition is
that of ‘cognition’ or understanding by the respondent of what is required of him. (3)
Third condition is ‘motivation’ on the part of the respondent to answer the questions
accurately.

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The Interviewer’s Task: The core of the interviewer’s task is to locate or select her
sample members, to obtain interviews with them to ask the questions and record the
questions as instructed. The amount of time spent by an interviewer on different aspects
of work depends on the length of the questionnaire and the nature of the sample. Yet the
practical experience of

American Research Organizations has proved that only 1/3 of the time was spent on
interviewing. The other two thirds being divided between travel time and locating
respondents, editing the interviews and other clerical work.

The interviewers are to be carefully selected and trained. Following are considered as the
qualities of an ideal interviewer (a) Interviewers must be honest and scrupulous. (b) They
should have real interest in the work. (c) They should be accurate in their recording of
answers in the way they follow instructions. (d) The interviewers should be willing to
adopt to any type of circumstances in which he or she may have to work. (e) The
interviewer’s personality and temperament should be congenial. While he should be
friendly and interested, he should not get too emotionally involved with the respondent
and his problems. (f) The interviewer must be intelligent enough to understand and
follow complicated instructions

The interviewers selected on the above basis should be trained. A researcher wishing to
train a team of interviewers might proceed as follows. New interviewers should be given
some insight into the general work of the organisation and should be told why the survey
is being done. The importance of the interviewer’s role should be explained. This should
be followed by some instructions on interviewing methods. Dummy interviews can be
organised among the trainees. In the last stage they can be given a chance of pre-testing
the questionnaire and instructions in the field.

When the interviewers are sent to the field they should be given clear instructions and
guidelines. Questionnaire instructions should be printed on the questionnaire or given to
him as, a separate document. Some supervision of interviewers is essential when they are
in field work. The researcher should conduct ‘field work ‘checks’ to find out whether an

72
interviewer has really made all the interviews and whether she has asked questions and
interpreted them correctly according to instructions.

These are the various aspects of formal interviews. There is also informal interviewing.
These are conversational or casual interviewers. There is no set questionnaire. In some,
the respondent is given a good deal of freedom, to cover a given set of topics in a more or
less systematic way. This is known as ‘the guided or focused interview’.

Informal interviewing requires greater skill for the interviewer than in the case of formal
interview. Informal interviewing may give rise to personal influence and bias. The main
advantage of informal interviewing is the depth of information obtained. The interviewer
can dig deeper and get a richer understanding of a particular problem which is not
possible in a formal interview.

Usefulness of Interview Technique as a Research Tool:

Being direct, it is the only way in which certain types of information can be obtained. It is
as trustworthy a means of getting facts as participant observation.

Being highly flexible, it permits of maximum variations in directing the enquiry and there
in scores over the questionnaire. People unwilling to answer even the shortest
questionnaire, will talk and freely too owing to the informality of the occasion. The
interviewer helps to supplement personal information and check on experience and ideas.
The interviewer uses his tool in the same way like a physician when he talks to a patient
to describe how he feels and what he thinks is the matter with him.

Interviews can be used with almost all types of population. In this respect it is better than
the questionnaire which is appropriate for only with some amount of education,
complicated questionnaires requiring extended written responses can be used only with a
very small percentage of population. The only problem with interviewing is to limit the
responses of the verbose and enthusiastic respondent.

Surveys conducted by personal interviews have another advantage. They usually yield a
much better sample of the general population surveyed. Many people are willing to co-

73
 operate in a study where alt they have to do is to talk. Questionnaires do not usually elicit
so high a completion rate as either personal or telephone interviews. When questionnaires
are mailed, the proportion of returns is usually varying between 10-50 per cent.

The interview is the most appropriate technique for revealing information about the
complex emotionally laden subjects or for probing the sentiments that may underline an
expressed opinion. If a verbal report is to be accepted at face value, it must be elicited in
a manner that encourages greatest possible freedom. On the other hand, the more or less
rigid structure of questionnaires, the inability to explain fully in writing one’s anti-social
or pro-social feelings and behaviour, all these work against frank discussions of socially
controversial issues in response to a questionnaire.

THE RESEARCH REPORT

Report writing is the last activity of the research process. Research report writing is thus the
culmination of the research investigation. It is a brief statement of most significant facts that are
necessary for understanding the generalizations drawn by the researcher, it is a technical activity
which “requires considerable thought, effort, patience, skill and penetration and an overall
approach to the problem, data and analysis, as well as firm control over language and greater
objectivity”. The preparation of the report is then the final stage of the research and its purpose is
to “convey to interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged
as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the
conclusion”. It is the dissipation of knowledge, broadcasting of generalization and helping
further research in the related field.
While writing the research report it is essential to keep in mind certain issues.

 A report could be simple to write all the relevant details which were finally developed. It
should be very carefully worded, understandable and represent knowledge and wisdom of
the researcher on the one hand, his drafting capacity on the other. Besides, perfection in
the research report is achieved by continuous and persistent thought and creative and
intelligent writing. The problem of the researcher in the first instance is to find out
whether the report is meant for publication? Who will do this job and what will be the
cost? The second step is that the report should be presented in an attractive form ie. the

74
 researcher should know whether the report is to be typed? Photographed, printed. The
third point is that the researcher should know the level acknowledge of the readers. There
are three broad categories of readers. (1) The layman and the general public, (2) the
administrator and the project sponsor and (3) the fellow researcher and the technical
expert.
 Target group in report writing: The preparation of research report for layman mast he
interesting, simple and lucid. For the general public the emphasis should be on clarity,
correct exposition, expression and simplicity. For example if a businessman orders a
market survey to be conducted for his product, the report submitted must be non-
technical in nature. Otherwise he would not be able to make any use of it. More and more
reports are now being written by the journalists for the society because utilitarian outlook
is being considerably developed in all the societies. For the administrator report should
neither be too general nor too technical, If the researcher tries to simplify it too much, the
report may become either too vast or too simple and unable to carry the required
impression. The report may contain some technical aspect but on the whole simple and
direct. Every branch of knowledge has not only its technical terms but also its own
specific way of expression. Unless it is followed the report would appear simply childish
and would lose its research fervour. Therefore it is necessary that in order to understand
the report the reader himself has to rise higher, rather than let the researcher stoop too
low for him. For the project sponsor the report should stress the relevance of the Study
and its contribution to the general knowledge. The research report must contain the
necessary information about statement of the problem, the research procedure, the results
and the implications of the research study. For the fellow researcher, the research report
must be helpful to throw some new light which can make the building up of a new
hypothesis and a new theorizing. For the technical expert the researcher is expected to
give full account of the technical aspects both in the sampling methods and subject
matter. Fellow professionals are more concerned about the methods employed. in fact the
value of the findings and therefore of the report itself depends on the techniques adopted.
Conceptual and analytical framework sample design should be adequately explained. A
technical report contains the research aspects like the problem and its nature, the method
and scientific accuracy, the data and their dependability, the logical relationship logically

75
 and sequentially with simplicity, clarity and brevity. Thus a report written for an expert
must be more rigorous, more informative than what is written for the general readers.

There may be various types of research reports e.g., thesis, monograph, journal article
and so on. Because of the spatial limitations and selectivity, a journal article cannot
discuss every aspect of the research in details as can be done in a thesis. The style of the
report depends on purpose. It may not be the same everywhere but by and large, a pattern
emerges as we shall see a research report usually follows a fairly standardised pattern
given below:

 Contents of a Report: The format is divided into three broad categories namely (1)
Preliminary section (2) main body of the report (3) reference section. The Preliminary
section will vary according to the type of research one has undertaken. The headings
below this-section are meant as a guide and one may decide to omit some of them or to
amalgamate when this seems appropriate.

The main body of the report is divided into five Sub-sections, namely introduction,
review of the literature, design of the study, presentation and analysis of data, summary
and conclusions. Introduction is the starting point.

We should say why we undertook the research—what the problem is and why it is
important Depending on the particular piece of research, the review of literature is
introduced. This division will show what is known already and how our research will fill
a gap in knowledge or replicate earlier work.

The description of the design of our research will depend on the particular project we
have undertaken. It includes procedures, methods and description of the findings. The
section presentation and analysis of data will interpret the results of the research. Tables,
figures will substantiate the analysis. The summary division will organize the results and
point out the implications of the findings for policy or for other researchers and show
what further research needs to be done.

The last category namely the reference section should include bibliography, appendices
and index in a proper form.

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Format of the Research Report:
(A) Preliminary Section:
 Title page
 Certificate
 Declaration
 Acknowledgements
 Preface or Forward or Abstract
 Table of contents
 List of Tables (if any)
 List of Figures(if any)

(B) Main Body of the Report:

1. Introduction
 Statement of the problem
 Significance of the study
 Purpose
 Definition of important terms
 Objectives
 Hypothesis
 Methodology
 Period of study
 The study area
 The data
 Chapterization

2. Review of the Literature:

 Critical analysis of the previous research
 Brief restatement of the present study

3. Design of the study:

77
  Procedures used
 Methods of gathering data
 Description of data.

4. Presentation andAna1ys, of Data:

 Text
 Tables
 Figures

5. Summary and Conclusion

 Brief restatement of the study
 Description of procedures used
 Main findings and conclusions
 Recommendations for further research
 Reference Section:
 Bibliography
 Appendix
 Index
TEN KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF FINAL YEAR UNDERGRADUATE
DISSERTATIONS AND PROJECTS, PLEASE REACT
A dissertation or final year project will usually have several key characteristics which are
common to most, though not necessary all, disciplinary or interdisciplinary areas whether
undertaken on campus, in the workplace or in the community. Dissertations and final year
projects are likely to require:
 An extended piece of work
 Research and inquiry
 An element of originality, innovation or creativity
 A discipline-based or interdisciplinary topic
 Work which is underpinned by relevant sources
 Critical thinking and assessment
 Contextualization and recognition of the provisionality of knowledge

78
 Methodology
 Self-reflective commentary
 A build-up to conclusions
 It needs to be an extended piece of work.
1. This means that the dissertation or project tackles a central question or issue in depth.
 It needs to be research or inquiry based.
2. There are a great variety of approaches to research, but central to all of them is a desire to
find out something significant about ourselves or our world. For example, research can be
qualitative, quantitative, laboratory based, design based, artistic, ethnographic, participative,
action research, research ‘on’, ‘for’ or ‘with’ people, first person inquiry, or any other
scholarly approach.
 It needs an element of originality, innovation or creativity.
3. Dissertations and final year projects need to go beyond stringing together facts from books.
The originality could come from, for example, the application of a theoretical framework to
new data, critical evaluation of the arguments surrounding a controversial issue, bringing
together information from multiple sources and presenting it in an innovative way, or
applying theory to real-life issues.
 It needs to be relevant to a discipline or take an interdisciplinary approach.
4. The student usually has the opportunity to choose their subject matter, but it should be
relevant to the student’s areas of interest and hence maybe disciplinary or inter-disciplinary
in nature. Sometimes the project’s focus may be work or community based.
 It needs to be underpinned by a range of relevant sources.
5. Sources that inform dissertations and projects include textbooks, journal articles, interviews,
experiments, blogs, wikis, practice reports and direct personal experience. What is
appropriate depends on the situation and the purposes that the source is being used for, and it
should be recognized that all sources have strengths and limitations.
 It needs an element of critical thinking and evaluation.
6. Students are required to consider and examine relevant sources, questioning what they learn
and the ideas which are presented to them. They should consider a variety of ideas, leading

79
 up to their final and reasoned conclusions and implement the skills that they have
accumulated throughout their degree to research, analyze, and discuss.
 It needs to be contextualized and show recognition of the provisionality of knowledge.
7. It is essential that students understand and demonstrate the context of the work on which
they draw and are contributing to within their fields. Dissertations and final year projects in
higher education should recognize that knowledge is uncertain and provisional.
 It needs a clearly defined methodology and appropriate methods
8. These provide a structure, purpose and rationale for the dissertation or project and should be
appropriate for its aims and objectives.
 It needs to be supported by an element of reflective commentary
9. This helps to understand the student’s reasoning and to place the dissertation or project in its
setting.
 It needs to build up to its conclusions.
10. Dissertations and final year projects should build on all the above points to reach a coherent
set of conclusions which relate to both the particular topic and the research process.
APA STYLE: SEVENTH EDITION

These guidelines follow the 2020 7 th edition of the American Psychological Association’s Publication
Manual, which is widely used in the health and social sciences. They focus on documentation, but the
manual addresses issues from abbreviations to layout and should be consulted for further information.
In an APA-style paper, you’ll identify the author and year of each source any time you use it. That
information directs readers to more detailed entries on a reference list at the paper’s end.

■ Citing Sources in Your Paper Your readers can’t know where any word, idea, or information in your
sentence comes from unless you tell them. It could be your own idea, or from the source you just
mentioned, or from a completely different source. That’s why you need to tell them! Once you’ve told
them, they may want to find out more about that source. To help them, your citation will always include
the first word(s) of your reference page entry--usually the name of the person(s) or group considered
the “author” of the work. Direct quotations require page or paragraph numbers, but paraphrases usually

80
don’t. Both can be cited narratively (author’s name as part of the sentence) or parenthetically (author’s
name in parentheses after the sentence).

1. Dates. APA includes the year of publication in every parenthetical citation and in the first
narrative citation of each source in any paragraph (although some teachers require it in all
narrative citations). Only the year of publication goes in your in-text citation, even if the
reference page entry includes a month. Manual, p. 262.
2. Page numbers. APA requires specific page, paragraph, or location numbers for all direct
quotations. Specific page numbers are rarely included for paraphrases and most teachers don’t
allow them, although APA does.

List all digits in every page number. For written sources without page numbers, use “para.,” the
paragraph number, and, when possible, the section heading. Put document-specific headings in
quotation marks and shorten them if needed. For video or audio sources, use the timestamp;
for PowerPoint presentations, use the slide number. Manual, p. 264.

(Drew, 2002, para. 4)

(Marvin, 2009, Introduction, para. 12)

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 … (Fayne, 2013, “Idaho Dentists Find,” para. 3)

Major classical works like the Qur’an, The Odyssey, and Macbeth have standard numbering
systems that cross all editions and translations, so use those systems instead of page numbers.
Manual, p. 274.

(Shakespeare, 1623/2003, 1.5.45-60)

(King James Bible, 1769/2017, 2 Sam. 12:1-10)

3. Names. The body of an APA paper typically uses last names only, even on first reference.
Endings like “Jr.” and academic degrees are not included. Manual, p. 262.

Garland and Wilder (2013) found that…

Other research suggests that this model may be inadequate (Garland & Wilder, 2013)

APA doesn’t use first names or initials in citations unless that’s the only way of distinguishing
between two sources. However, be aware that some fields like English may expect first and last
names on first narrative reference. Manual, p. 262. 4.

4. No author. When you don’t know the name of your source’s author, use the first words of its
title. Italicize the title of a periodical, book, or report; use quotation marks for an article.
Manual, p. 265.

Book: (Eating Disorders, 2018) or the book Eating Disorders (2018)

Article: …benefits have been demonstrated (“Holistic Approach,” 2002)

5. Multiple authors. If your source has two authors, cite both every time. If it has three or more
authors, use the first author’s name with “et al.” Note that “et al.” is not italicized and that there
is a period after “al.” If you name two authors in a narrative citation, write out the “and”
between their names. In a parenthetical citation, use “&.” Manual, p. 266.

One study of peer relationships… (Granger & Patil, 1997).

A later study of peer relationships… (Longbottom et al., 1999).

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6. Group authors. When the author of your source is an organization, its name is spelled out in full
on first reference. If it’s well-known or will be used at least two more times, an abbreviation (in
parentheses) follows the full name and replaces the full name later. Don’t go back and forth
between the full name and the abbreviation. Manual, p. 268.

7. One author, multiple works. If you’re citing two works written by the same author(s) in different
years, cite them as you normally would. If you have two works written by the same author(s) in
the same year, however, those works will be listed alphabetically by title on your reference
page, where they’ll be labeled (YYYYa) and (YYYYb). Manual, p. 267.

Cisneros (2011a) found…. …..direction for future research (Cisneros, 2011a).

8. One citation, multiple sources. If you refer to several sources within the same parentheses, put
them in the same order in which they appear in your reference list and separate them with a
semicolon. Manual, p. 263.

(Andrews et al., 1996; Gillis, 2017; Gillis, 2019; Shirley & Blythe, 2013)

9. One paragraph, multiple references to same source. If all the information in a paragraph comes
from one part of one source, identify its author and date at the beginning. If you use transitional
phrases and pronouns like “these findings” to show that each following sentence paraphrases
material in the same source, you won’t have to repeat the citation unless your teacher requires
it. Manual, pp. 269-270.

If you cite a source by putting the author’s name in your sentence, you don’t have to include the
date again in other sentences within the same paragraph (although some teachers will expect
you to). You do have to include the date in any parenthetical citations. Manual, p. 265.

Travers (2006) found that the children underestimated the amount of sugar in their diets.
Travers also found that the children in the study consumed more than twice the recommended
amount of sugar. They also failed to recognize the sugar content of many common foods.

If your paragraph moves back and forth between different sources or between one source and
your discussion, you’ll cite the source of each sentence to help keep the reader on track. Any
sentence you don’t cite is understood to represent your own words and ideas.

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 Ray and Kelly (2014) proposed that creative writing assignments be integrated into composition
classes. It is unclear, however, that this suggestion would improve test scores. Although 72% of
students surveyed believed that creative writing exercises improved their written fluency (Ray &
Kelly, 2014), other research suggests that those gains in fluency do not transfer to research
assignments (Collins, 2011).

10. Secondary citations. If an idea or phrase that you want to use is quoted in another source, find
the original source if you can. If not, name the original source in your sentence and then use
parentheses and the words “as cited in” to identify the source (listed on your reference page)
where you found it. Manual, p. 258.

Laurence (2001) found no correlation between the variables (as cited in Brooke, 2003). No
correlation was found (Laurence, 2001, as cited in Brooke, 2003).

11. Email and personal interviews. Personal communications that a reader can’t retrieve (ex. letters,
memos, e-mail, interviews, and telephone conversations) appear as in-text citations only. Don’t
put them in your reference list. Include your source’s initials and last name and as exact a date
as possible. Manual, p. 260.

S. Crewe argued that not all sources agree (personal communication, May 3, 2012). Not all
sources agree (S. Crewe, personal communication, May 3, 2012).

12. Long quotations. If you use a quotation that’s 40 or more words long (also called a “block
quotation”), set it off from the rest of your paper by indenting it five spaces (one tab space).
Double space it and don’t use quotation marks. The final period goes before, not after, the
citation at the end. Manual, p. 272-273.

13. How much can I quote? As a general rule, not more than 10% of any paper should consist of
direct quotations. Formal research papers in APA style often include no quotations at all.

THE REFERENCE LIST

The reference list at the end of the paper contains all the sources cited in the paper. Its purpose is to
help readers find the materials you used, so each entry must be complete and accurate

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14. Page format. The reference list starts on a new page. Every line is double-spaced, without extra
spaces between entries. The word “References” is centered at the top and bolded. The pages
are numbered as if they were part of your paper. Manual, pp. 66, 303. Use the “hanging indent”
format: start the first line of each entry at the left margin, but indent all subsequent lines one
tab space (five spaces). Manual, p. 66.

15. Order of references. List each source alphabetically by the last name of its first author. If there is
no author, alphabetize the source by the first word of its title (excluding a, an, the) Manual, pp.
303-304.

16. Names. Shorten all first and middle names to initials. List all authors by last name first, then
initials. If a source has multiple authors, don’t change the order they’re in. Manual, p. 286.

17. Mulitiple authors. If a source has up to 20 authors, list them all. If it has 21 or more, list the first
19, add an ellipse (three dots separated by spaces), and name the last. Manual, p. 286.

18. One author, multiple works. List more than one work by the same author in the order of the
years they were published. If multiple works were published in the same year, alphabetize them
by their titles and label them (2011a), (2011b). Manual, p. 304.

World Health Organization. (2012). Immunization: Closing the gap… World Health Organization.
(2015a). Global vaccination targets… World Health Organization. (2015b). Keeping Syrian
children free from polio…

19. Dates. Put the year of publication in parentheses immediately after the author’s name(s). In a
book, the date is usually on the copyright page behind the title page. The date of a website is
trickier: don’t use a “Last Reviewed” date or a website copyright date. Use a “Last Updated”
date only when the update clearly applies to the information you’re reading as opposed to some
other feature of the page. If your source truly provides no date, use the abbreviation “n.d.” (“no
date”) instead of the year. Manual, pp. 262, 290.

If you’re citing a work that’s been republished, put the recent publication date in the usual
place, after the author’s name. The original date closes the citation, after any DOI or URL, and
looks like this: (Original work published 1815). Manual, p. 265, 325

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20. Capitalization. In the title and subtitle of a book, chapter, or article, capitalize only the first word
and any proper nouns. In journal, magazine, and newspaper titles, capitalize all major words.
Manual, p. 291.

21. Italics. Italicize titles of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers. Also italicize volume
numbers in journal references. Leave article and chapter titles alone: don’t italicize them or put
them in quotation marks. Manual, p. 293.

22. Publication information. The publication information required for books includes only the name
of the publisher; if the publisher is the same as the author, it doesn’t even need that. The
requirement for articles includes volume, issue, and page numbers. Manual, pp. 295-296.

23. Databases. APA doesn’t include database information unless a source is available only from a
particular database, like Cochran. If you include a database name in your reference (some
archival documents can only be found in electronic databases), put it in italics. Manual, p. 296.

24. DOIs. Many sources have a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), a permanent number that goes with
them wherever they’re published online. If your source has a DOI, your citation must include it.
The doi itself looks something like 10.xxxx/gobbledygook. It can appear in many formats, but
APA only uses one. If you find a doi as part of a larger URL that doesn’t look like the one below,
cut out everything except the doi and reformat it. Don’t put a period at the end. Manual, pp.
299-300.

htpps://doi.org/10.xxxx/gobbledygook

25. URLs. If an electronic source has a DOI, don’t include the URL. No DOI? Try to find a URL that
links to the source directly. Don’t use a URL specific to a particular library; don’t use a URL
specific to a general database like EBSCO or Academic Search Complete. If those are the only
URLs you can find, don’t include a URL in your citation. Manual, pp. 299-300.

If your source is available only from a specific database and the URL linking to the document
doesn’t require a login, use that URL. If it does require a login, list the URL for the database
instead. A URL begins with “http” or “https”: don’t put a “retrieved from” statement before it
(except in special situations—see F. below) or a period after it. You can leave your URLs live and

86
 hyperlinked (blue, underlined) or you can remove the hyperlinks. Check your teacher’s
preference. Manual, pp. 298-299.

26. Retrieval dates. Don’t include retrieval dates for online sources unless the source is both
unarchived and expected to change over time (e.g. online dictionary, Google map). Wikipedia
pages are archived, so you don’t need to include a retrieval date for them. Manual, p. 290.

SAMPLE REFERENCES

A. Book with subtitle. Manual, p. 321.

Fraser, C. (2017). Prairie fires: The American dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder.

Metropolitan Books

B. Book with two editors instead of author. Manual, p. 322.

Melendy, R., & Kincaid, C. (Eds.). (2018). Birth order and personality. Doubleday.

C. Essay, chapter, or section in edited work. Manual, p. 326.

D. Journal article with DOI. Manual, p. 317. Slethaug, G. E. (1986).

The paradoxical double in Le Guin’s A Wizard of Earthsea.

Extrapolation, 27(4), 326-333. https://doi.org/10.3828/extr.1986.27.4.326

E. Magazine article, online, no volume issue or pages. Manual, p. 320 Beck, J. (2015, May 3).

Science’s love affair with The Lord of the Rings. The Atlantic.

ttps://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/05/sciences-love-affair-with-the-lord-
ofthe-rings/392216/

F. Unsigned entry in continuously updated, unarchived online dictionary. Manual, p. 328. Merriam-

Webster. (n.d). Literacy. In Merriam-Webster dictionary. Retrieved January 10, 2020,

from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/literacy

G. Wikipedia entry. Manual, p, 329. Stonehenge. (2020, January 16). In Wikipedia.

87
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge

H. Website article with author. Manual, p. 351.

Spritzler, F. (2017, January 29). 13 ways to prevent type 2 diabetes. Healthline.

https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/prevent-diabetes

G. Website article without author or date. Manual, p. 351

What are pulses? (n.d.). Half-Cup Habit.

https://pulses.org/nap/what-are-pulses/

Gale, D. (2008). Innocence abroad. In L.F. Baum (Ed.), The way home (pp. 27-43). Cyclone Press.

MLA Guide (7th edition)

The examples provided in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources
using the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (seventh edition). For types of
resources not included in this guide (e.g., government documents, manuscript collections, video
recordings) and for further information about the examples included below, please consult
the MLA Handbook itself, and/or a Reference Librarian. For help with layout, margins, spacing

88
and page numbering, see the MLA Handbook (Fig. 12, page 131). Consider using RefWorks to
help you track your research and automatically create a bibliography in MLA style.

PARENTHETICAL DOCUMENTATION
When using MLA documentation style, you need to reference your sources by using a
combination of a list of works cited (see below) and parenthetical notation. Whenever you
refer to or use another's words, facts or ideas in your paper, you are required to cite the source.
Generally, brief parenthetical notations consisting of the author's last name and a page
reference are sufficient. For example: (Drucker 30).
Note: If you mention the author in your sentence, then you need only cite the page number.
And if you cite more than one work by the same author, include the title of the work in your
notation. For example: (Drucker, Management Cases 30).
Examples:

1. ONE AUTHOR
The character Folly denies satirizing Christianity when she says, "it is no part of my present plan
to rummage through the lives of popes and priests," yet she spends much of her encomium doing
just that (Erasmus 115).

2. TWO OR MORE AUTHORS

Max Weber purported that value systems could be studied "without the social scientist's own
values distorting such studies" (Keat and Urry 196).
According to Russell Keat and John Urry in Social Science as Theory, Max Weber believed that
value systems could be studied "without the social scientist's own values distorting such studies"
(196).
Max Weber believed that individuals can objectively study values without their own values
interfering with their judgment (Keat and Urry 196).

3. CORPORATE AUTHOR
Children of Central and Eastern Europe have not escaped the nutritional ramifications of iron
deficiency, a worldwide problem (UNICEF 44).

89
4. NO AUTHOR
Marketers of health services and products will find the National Center for Health Statistics' site
useful, particularly its statistics on mortality rates. Discovering a population's leading causes of
death "tells the researcher a lot about its underlying health problems" ("Information to Die For"
40).

5. WORK IN AN ANTHOLOGY
Cite the author of the essay or story and not the editor of the anthology unless they are the
same.
Although some critics disliked Mel Brook's 1993 parody of Robin Hood, it is actually "in the
mainstream of the Robin Hood tradition" (Knight 461).

6. INDIRECT QUOTATION
Chief Joseph concluded his surrender by stating eloquently: "[.. .] I will fight no more forever"
(qtd. in Safire 108).

7. ONLINE RESOURCE
If the work is not paginated, include the name of the author or editor within the context of
your sentence (for example, from a discussion list).
Posting on the VICTORIA listserv, Karen O'Connell mentioned a relevant novel by Wilkie
Collins that deals with the 19th-century use of arsenic as a complexion improver.
If the work is paginated, cite it as you would a print resource.
Marketers of health services and products will find the National Center for Health Statistics' site
useful, particularly its statistics on mortality rates. Discovering a population's leading causes of
death "tells the researcher a lot about its underlying health problems" ("Information to Die For"
40).
Imagine that the sentences above could somehow be synthesized and used in a single paper.
The works cited page would look like this:

WORKS CITED
Erasmus, Desiderius. The Praise of Folly. Trans. Clarence H. Miller. New Haven:

90
 Yale University Press, 1979. Print.
"Information to Die For." Marketing Health Services 22.1 (2002): 40-42. ABI/Inform.
Web. 14 Aug. 2009.
Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science. 2nd ed. London: Routledge
and K. Paul, 1982. Print.
Knight, Stephen. "Robin Hood: Men in Tights: Fitting the Tradition Snugly."
Robin Hood: An Anthology of Scholarship and Criticism. Ed. Stephen
Knight. Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer, 1999. 461-467. Print.
O'Connell, Karen. "Re: Poisoning." VICTORIA. Indiana U. 3 Nov. 2000. Web.
14 Aug. 2009.
Safire, William. Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History. New York: W. W.
Norton and Company, 1992. Print.
UNICEF. Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the
Former Soviet Union. Ed. Alexander Zouev. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.
Print.

PREPARING THE LIST OF WORKS CITED

As demonstrated above, a works cited page consists of an alphabetical listing of the books,
articles and other sources that you parenthetically noted in your paper. The works cited page
occurs at the end of your paper; however, it is useful to create a draft of it before you begin
writing. Following are typical examples of the types of references you will use in your research.
A. Books
Include some or all of the following elements in your book citation:
1. Author or editor
2. Title (italicized)
3. Translator or compiler
4. Edition
5. Volume(s) used
6. Name of series
7. Place of publication, publisher, and date of publication

91
 8. Page numbers
9. Name of vendor, database, or provider (italicized)
10. Medium of publication consulted (e.g., Print)
11. Date of access (Web only; day, month, year)
12. Supplementary information and annotation
Examples

1. ONE AUTHOR OR EDITOR

Cather, Willa. The Professor's House. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1925. Print.
UNICEF. Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe
and the Former Soviet Union. Ed. Alexander Zouev. Armonk: M. E.
Sharpe, 1999. Print.
Hudson, Valerie N., ed. Culture and Foreign Policy. Boulder: L. Rienner
Publishers, 1997. Print.

2. TWO OR MORE AUTHORS OR EDITORS

Names should be given in the order in which they appear on the title page.
Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science. 2nd ed. London: Routledge
and K. Paul, 1982. Print.
Kennedy, Mary, Kathy Lubelska, and Val Walsh, eds. Making Connections: Women's
Studies, Women's Movements, Women's Lives. London: Taylor and Francis,
1993. Print.

3. ELECTRONIC BOOK
Include the vendor, database, or provider's name (italicized) and date of access (day,
month, year).
Turam, Berna. Between Islam and the State: The Politics of Engagement. Stanford,
CA: Stanford UP, 2007. NetLibrary. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.
If the book is accessed from a SCHOLARLY PROJECT, also include the project
name, place of publication, and the date of the electronic publication if available.
Child, Lydia Maria. An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans.

92
 Boston: Allen and Ticknor, 1833. Women Writers Online. Brown U. Web. 14
Aug. 2009.

4. ANTHOLOGY
Knight, Stephen. "Robin Hood: Men in Tights: Fitting the Tradition Snugly."
Robin Hood: An Anthology of Scholarship and Criticism. Ed. Stephen
Knight. Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer, 1999. 461-467. Print.
Barrick, Richard, John Sullivan, and Alexander White. "The American Bloody Register."
Pillars of Salt: An Anthology of Early American Criminal Narratives. Comp.
Daniel E. Williams. Madison: Madison House, 1993. 233-258. Print.

5. INTRODUCTION, PREFACE, FOREWORD, OR AFTERWORD

Ritterson, Michael. Introduction. The Odin Field: A Story. By Wilhem Raabe.
Trans. Michael Ritterson. Studies in German Literature, Linguistics, and Culture.
Rochester: Camden House, 2001. xi-xxvii. Print.

6. MULTIVOLUME WORK
Tomkins, Silvan S. Affect, Imagery, Consciousness. 4 vols. New York: Springer,
1962-1992. Print.

7. EDITION
Anthony, Robert N., and James S. Reece. Accounting Principles. 7th ed. Chicago:
Irwin, 1995. Print.

8. TRANSLATION
Erasmus, Desiderius. The Praise of Folly. Trans. Clarence H. Miller. New Haven:
Yale, 1979. Print.

9. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK

"Audubon, John James." The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Micropaedia. 15th
ed. 2002. Print.
"Audubon, John James." Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 2009. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

93
10. SERIES
Ebeling, Richard, ed. Global Free Trade: Rhetoric or Reality? Hillsdale, MI: Hillsdale
College Press, 1993. Print. Champions of Freedom 20.
B. Articles in Periodicals
Include some or all of the following in your article citation:
1. Author
2. Article title (usually in quotation marks)
3. Periodical title (italicized)
4. Series/Issue number or name
5. Volume number
6. Issue number (if available)
7. Publication date (year for scholarly journals; day, month, year for others, as available)
8. Page numbers
9. Medium of publication
10. Name of database (italicized and placed before medium of publication) (Web only)
11. Date of access (day, month, year) (Web only)
Examples:

1. SCHOLARLY JOURNAL
Freedman, L. "The Changing Forms of Military Conflict." Survival 40.4 (1998): 39-56.
Print.
Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor." American Journal of Philology 118.4
(1997): 517-554. Print.
Online Journal -- Use n. pag. to indicate the absence of inclusive page numbers.
Ketabgian, Tamara. Rev. of The Body Economic: Life, Death, and Sensation in
Political Economy and the Victorian Novel, by Catherine Gallagher. Bryn Mawr
Review of Comparative Literature 6.2 (2007): n. pag. Web. 19 Aug. 2009.
Chan, Winnie. "Curry on the Divide in Rudyard Kipling's Kim and Gurinder Chadha's
Bend it Like Beckham." ARIEL: A Review of International English
Literature 36.3-4 (2005): 1-23. Web. 14. Aug. 2009.

94
 Full text of an article from a Database -- Include the name of the
database, the name of the database provider and the date of access.
Use n. pag. to indicate the absence of inclusive page numbers.
Freedman, Lawrence. "The Changing Forms of Military Conflict." Survival 40.4 (1998):
39-56. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.
Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor." American Journal of Philology 118.4 (1997):
517-554. JSTOR. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

2. MAGAZINE
Monthly or Bimonthly
Goldberger, Paul. "Machines for Living: Architectonic Allure of the Automobile."
Architectural Digest Oct. 1996: 82.
Weekly
Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone. "Silicon Valley Reboots." Newsweek 25 Mar.
2002: 42-50. Print.
Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone. "Silicon Valley Reboots." Newsweek 25 Mar.
2002: 42-50. Academic Search Premier. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

3. ANONYMOUS ARTICLE
"Information to Die For." Marketing Health Services 22.1 (2002): 40-42. Print.
"Information to Die For." Marketing Health Services 22.1 (2002): 40-42. ABI/Inform.
14 Aug. 2009.

4. NEWSPAPER
Pianin, Eric. "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End." The Washington Post 13
Feb. 2002, final ed.: A2. Print.
Pianin, Eric. "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End." The Washington Post 13 Feb.
2002, final ed.: A2. LexisNexis Academic. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

5. REVIEW
Nash, Alanna. "Hit 'em with a lizard!" Rev. of Basket Case, by Carl Hiaasen. New

95
 York Times 3 Feb. 2002, late ed., sec. 7: 24. Print.
Nash, Alanna. "Hit 'em with a lizard!" Rev. of Basket Case, by Carl Hiaasen. New
York Times 3 Feb. 2002, late ed., sec. 7: 24. LexisNexis Academic. Web. 14
Aug. 2009.
C. Web Sites
Following are elements to include when citing entire Web sites. Keep in mind that
if you cannot find all of the elements, you should include whatever is available on
the site. The URL is no longer required unless locating the site requires it or your professor
requires it.
1. Author or editor
2. Title of Web site (italicized)
3. Site publisher/sponsor
4. Date of site's publication (if none, use n.d.)
5. Medium of publication
6. Date of access (day, month, year)
Examples:

1. SCHOLARLY PROJECT
Crane, Gregory, ed. Perseus Digital Library. Dept. of the Classics, Tufts U.
n.d. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

2. PROFESSIONAL SITE
Financial Accounting Standards Board. Feb. 2002. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.

3. PERSONAL SITE
Lewis, Paul. The Wilkie Collins Pages. n.d. Web. 14 Aug. 2009.
<http://www.paullewis.co.uk/>.
See also Electronic Book and Periodicals above.
D. Online Postings
To cite a posting from a discussion list, include the following elements if available:
1. Author of posting

96
2. Title of posting (from subject line of posting, in quotes)
3. Name of discussion list
4. Date of posting
5. 5. Medium of publication
6. Date of access
Example:
O'Connell, Karen. "Re: Poisoning." VICTORIA. Indiana U. 3 Nov. 2000. Web.
14 Aug. 2009.

97