Chapter 3: Methodology

By: Enoch Caryl Taclan, BSBiol MScBiol*

 What are the sections
in Chapter 3

◆ Research Design/Methodology
◆ Research Locale
◆ Subject/respondents of the Study
◆ Sampling procedure/sample size
◆ Instruments Used; scoring
procedures
◆ Conduct of the study
◆ Ethical considerations
◆ Treatment of Data
Research Design

◆ Research design is the plan or method

which the researcher used in answering
the problems set in the study and in the
conduct of the research.

◆ This is categorized as to the procedure

upon which the researcher collects and
analyzes the data.

◆ A research design is a master plan of how

and where the data are to be collected
and analyzed in order to answer the
research question of test hypothesis
Research Design

◆ A research design is a plan or strategy that is

drawn up for organizing the research and
making it practicable, so that research
questions can be answered based on
evidence and warrants (Cohen, Manion &
Morrison, 2018, p.173).

◆ A research design constitutes the plan or the

blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data

◆ There is no “fit for all design in research. The

selection of design is determined by the
purpose of research which in turn informs the
For example

◆ If the purpose of the research is to describe

the characteristics of a sample, then a
survey design might desirable

◆ If the researcher intends to determine the

effects or impacts of a specific intervention on
a sample, then an experimental or action
research design may be appropriate;

◆ If the researchers aims to have in-depth

study of a culture of a people is to be
studied,, then an ethnographic design might
be suitable.
Quantitative Research Designs

EX POST
FACTO/ EXPERIMEN
SURVEY CAUSAL- TAL
COMAPARAT
IVE
• Correlatio
nal • Retrospect
• Cross- ive • True
Sectional • Prospectiv • Quasi
• Longitudin e
al
Research Methodologies

◆ Descriptive Research - a method that

describes the characteristics of a
population or phenomenon, without
attempting to explain why or how it
occurred
◆ Correlational – measures the relations
between two or more variables without
manipulating them
◆ Causal-comparative - examines the
relationship between variables to
determine if one thing affects another.
– Retrospective - the researcher investigates a
Research Methodologies

◆ Historical - involves studying primary

and secondary sources
◆ Experimental Research - that involves
manipulating one or more variables to
observe the effect on another variable. It's
often used in the social sciences,
medicine, and psychology to test theories
and hypotheses
– True - a research method that establishes
cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
– Quasi - a type of experiment that involves
Qualitative Research Designs

CASE GROUNDED
ETHNOGRA
STUDY THEORY
PHY

BIOGRAP
HY/
PHENOMENOL
NARRATIV OGY
E
RESEARCH
Mixed Method Research Designs

CONCURREN CONCURREN
T T NESTED OR
TRIANGULAT EMBEDDED
ION DESIGN DESIGN

SEQUENTIAL SEQUENTIAL
EXPLORATORY EXPLANATO
DESIGN RY DESIGN
Research Locale

◆ The research locale indicates the

place or location where the study is
conducted or undertaken.
◆ Its description should have
relevance to the topic/content of the
study.
◆ The locale could indicate the
population, the boundaries and the
variables.
◆ In many instances, the researcher
provides a map for its geographical
◆ When this is done, the map
should reflect what the
researcher highlights in the
study.
◆ This map should be accurately
plotted out with correct scaling
and legends, otherwise if the
locale is adequately describe,
the map could be omitted.
Subject of the study

◆ The subject of the study could be

“people” or “non-people”.
◆ For people it can either be taken
from population.
◆ If the total population is very large
then the sampling is used.
◆ The researcher should describe the
subject of the study as to the size of
the population or the sampling
Respondents

◆ The respondents are those who

participate in answering the
instruments used in the study.
The respondents could also be
the subjects of the study, hence
sometimes the subheading for
this section is the subject-
respondents.
Sampling Procedure

◆ In conducting a research work we

are often faced with the dilemma on
what constitute a reliable and
acceptable sampling. When the
population to be studied is very
small, we do not need to get a
sample, as we can take the whole
population. This is because the
population size is manageable.
There are instances when we take
the whole population even if it is
very large, and this happens when
we conduct a census.
Population

◆ Gay (1976) defines a population

as a group to which the
researcher would like the result
of a study to be applicable to the
general body. He used the word
“generalizable”.
◆ Kerlinger (1973) defines
population as all members of any
well-defined class of people,
events or objects.
Sample

◆ Ferguson (1976) defines a

sample as any sub aggregate
drawn from a population. It is the
small group that you observe
from a given population where
your generalization is made.
◆ A sample refers to a subset of
the larger population from which
data is collected.
Sampling

◆ Sampling (Ary, Jacob and Razavieh)

is the process which involves taking
a part of the population by making
observations on this representative
group and generalizing the findings
to the bigger population.
◆ It refers to strategies which enable
one to pick a subgroup from a
larger group and then use this
subgroup as a basis for making
judgment about the larger group
(Vockell, 1983)
The steps used in sampling

◆ identification of a
population,
◆ determination of a required
sample size
◆ selection of a sample.
Sample size

◆ Slovin’s Formula
◆ n = N/(1+Ne2)
where n = sample size, N = population
size, and e = desired margin of error,
which is the percent allowance for non
precision because of the use of the sample
instead of the population.
For example, in a population of 9000 and a
margin of error set at 2%
n = 9000/[1 + 9000 (.02)2]
n = 1,957
Sampling Strategies

◆ Probability - refers to a group of

sampling methods in which each
member of the population has a
known, non-zero chance of being
selected
➢ simple random sampling
➢ lottery
➢ systematic sampling
➢stratified sampling,
➢ cluster sampling.
◆ Non-probability sampling
➢ Purposive or deliberate sampling.
This is sampling taken on purpose.
➢ Quota sampling. One identifies a
set of important characteristics of
a population and then select the
desired sample in a non random
way until the quota is reach.
➢ Convenience sampling. This is
based on the convenience of the
researcher, like through
telephone, or survey, etc.
Instruments

◆ Questionnaires requires the

respondents to write or answer
questions
◆ Checklists - respondents are given
a list of items where they simply
check based from the given
question
◆ Interviews are done by the
researcher orally to get information
about some issues/concerns.
◆ Focus Group Discussion/Interview is
a carefully planned and moderated
informal discussion where one
person’s ideas bounce off another’s
creating a chain of relation of
informative dialogue
◆ Observations are concerned with
the recording of events and
behaviors of those being studied in
their natural setting
◆ Semantic Differential – rating
scale designed to measure the
connotative meaning of things,
events and concepts
◆ Q-sort is ranking of variables
typically printed on cards
according to some instructions
◆ Likert Scale – scale showing
agrrement or disagreement of
attitudes or opinions
Treatment of data

◆ Could be qualitative or
quantitative
◆ Statistical treatment makes use of
statistical tools and techniques to
discover relationships between
variables, develop
generalizations that may be used
to explain phenomenon, and
predict future occurrences.
◆ Descriptive statistics are
those that involve mere
counting and tabulation like
frequency counts, percentages,
averages, spreads.
◆ Inferential statistics requires
statistical tests of significance
where one can make
inferences. It can be
parametric or non-parametric
◆ Parametric tests are the z-test, t-test
and F-test.
◆ Non-parametric tests do not depend
always on specific type of
distribution like the normal curve.
They are also called distribution-
free statistics, applied to both
nominal and ordinal data.
◆ The chi-square is a commonly used
non-parametric test
Mean and Standard Deviation

◆ Mean gives the average of the

data
◆ Standard deviation -
Considered as the most useful
index of variability or
dispersion
Test for comparison

– Test whether the coefficient of

correlation is significant at a
particular level
– T-test for difference between
means (t-test for independent
means, t-test for dependent
means
Analysis of Variance

– To determine if there are significant

differences among the means of more
than two groups; ANOVA; The F-
value is the ratio of two variances or
mean squares
– MANOVA – multivariate analysis of
variance -general form of analysis of
variance which incorporates two or
more independent variables in the
same analysis
Different correlational
techniques

◆ Pearson-product moment
correlation – measure of
relationship between two
variables that are usually of the
interval type of data
◆ Spearman Rank - order
correlation coefficient- measure
of correlation between two sets of
ordered pairs
Some non-parametric techniques

◆ Techniques for independent samples: The

median test – applied to see if two groups
come from population having the same
median;
◆ The Mann-Whitney U test – non parametric
equivalent to the t-test when one is
dealing with ordinal data;
◆ The Kruskal-Wallis One way Analysis of
Variance - non parametric equivalent to
the One-way ANOVA when one is dealing
with ordinal data
◆ Techniques for dependent samples:
◆ In case there are three or more
correlated or matched groups
involved the Friedman Two-way
ANOVA is appropriate
Tips for writing Chapter 3

◆ First, examine the problems you set in the

study
◆ Check the type of research methodology
based from the problems
◆ Conduct a needs assessment
◆ Know how to describe the locale in
relation to the study
◆ Determine the subject-respondents,
sample size from the given population in
your study
◆ Decide on what instrument to use. Surf the
net to check if there are available
instruments
◆ Prepare the instruments, have these
checked, tried-out, validated. Get the
reliability when needed.
◆ Consider the scoring procedure, the
criteria used, and the rating scale
◆ Get the approval of the thesis committee
prior to the launching of instrument
◆ Get appropriate and adequate
sample size to launch the
instrument
◆ Retrieve the accomplished
questionnaire; survey; etc.
◆ If interview/FGD is conducted
transcribe the discourses
◆ Tabulate the data/ put the
transcriptions in matrices
◆ Determine the treatment of
data to be utilized for analysis
◆ Analyze the results based from
the scoring criteria/descriptive
ratings/ qualifying statements
Remember

◆ Always follow correct technical

format
◆ Be systematic and succinct in the
discussion on the procedures
◆ Be clear and consistent in your
presentations
◆ Maps and figures have to be clear
and accurate
◆ The conduct of the study have
to be discussed in detailed to
guide the reader
◆ Avoid being repetitive
◆ Check sentences and edit your
work. You can ask another
person to read your write-up if
this could be understood.
◆ Research ethics have to be
strictly followed
◆ Informed consent form should be
accomplished by the
respondents of the study,
especially for minors.
◆ Follow correct protocol. Be
courteous in the conduct of the
study.
Assignment:

Draft Chapter 3 of your research

paper to include
◆ Research methodology/design
◆ Locale
◆ Subject/respondents
◆ Instruments
◆ Conduct of the study
◆ Treatment of data