General English

CONTENTS:

➢ PART OF SPEECH

➢ SUBJECT- VERB AGREEMENT

➢ TENSE

➢ CONDITIONALS

➢ ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

➢ DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

➢ WORD FORMATION

➢ ESSAY WRITING

➢ PRECIS WRITING

➢ PARAGRAPH WRITING/ AMPLIFICATION

Compiled and edited by:

Mete-u Therie
(Educator)

INTENSIVE COACHING INSTITUTE

BAYAVU, KOHIMA
 A. PART OF SPEECH
Parts of speech include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions interjections and
determiners.

Parts of Speech Definitions and Examples:

1. Nouns are words that are used to name people, places, animals, ideas and things. Nouns can be classified
into two main categories: Proper nouns and Common nouns.
Proper nouns are more specific like Charles, The White House, The Sun, etc.
Common nouns are generic like ball, car, stick, etc. Common noun has three types, i) Concrete noun (physical)
ii) Abstract noun (not physical) iii) Collective noun (A group of a particular thing).
Examples of nouns used in sentences:
• She bought a pair of shoes. (thing)
• I have a pet. (animal)
• Is this your book? (object)
• Many people have a fear of darkness. (ideas/abstract nouns)
• He is my brother. (person)
• This is my school. (place)

2. Pronouns are words that are used to substitute a noun in a sentence. There are different types of pronouns.
Some of them are reflexive pronouns, possessive pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. I, he,
she, it, them, his, yours, anyone, nobody, who, etc., are some of the pronouns.
Subject pronoun Object pronoun Possessive pronoun
I, We, You, They Me, Us, You, Them My, Mine, Our, Ours, Your, Yours, Their, Theirs
It, He, She It, Him, Her It, Its, His, Her

Examples of pronouns used in sentences:

• I reached home at six in the evening. (1st person singular pronoun)
• Did someone see a red bag on the counter? (Indefinite pronoun)
• Is this the boy who won the first prize? (Relative pronoun)
• That is my mom. (Possessive pronoun)
• I hurt myself yesterday when we were playing cricket. (Reflexive pronoun)

3. Verbs are words that denote an action that is being performed by the noun or the subject in a sentence. They
are also called action words or state of being. Some examples of verbs are read, sit, run, pick, garnish, come,
pitch, etc.
Types of verbs: i) Transitive verb (S+V(only action verb)+O) and Intransitive verb
S+V+Adverb/Prepositional phrase/ S+V(not an action verb)+O
ii) Finite and Non- Finite verb: Finite verbs change according to the tense, number and person of subject. It is
flexible. Whereas Non- Finite verbs do not change. It is not flexible.
*Non-Finite verbs includes
a) infinitive- adding “to” to the base form of verb. Eg to buy, to sing, to run etc.
b) Gerund: Verb (ing) form acts as a noun. Eg, Dancing, Swimming, Running etc.
c) Participle: Present and past participle act as an adverb or adjective.
Examples of verbs used in sentences:
• She plays cricket every day.
• Darshana and Arul are going to the movies.
• My friends visited me last week.
• Did you have your breakfast?
• I want to work in New York.

4. Adverbs are words that are used to provide more information about verbs, adjectives, other adverbs and
even the whole sentence. There are five main types of adverbs: adverbs of manner, adverbs of degree, adverbs
of frequency, adverbs of time and adverbs of place. Some examples of adverbs are today, quickly, randomly,
early, 10 a.m. etc.
Examples of adverbs used in sentences:
• Did you come here to buy an umbrella? (Adverb of place)
• I did not go to school yesterday as I was sick. (Adverb of time)
• Savio reads the newspaper everyday. (Adverb of frequency)
• Can you please come quickly? (Adverb of manner)
• Tony was so sleepy that he could hardly keep his eyes open during the meeting. (Adverb of degree)

5. Adjectives are words that are used to describe or provide more information about the noun or pronoun in a
sentence. Some examples of adjectives include good, ugly, quick, beautiful, late, etc.
Examples of adjectives used in sentences:
• The place we visited yesterday was serene.
• Did you see how big that dog was?
• The weather is pleasant today.

Adjectives have three degrees: absolute or positive(describing one thing, like messy), comparative (comparing
two things, like messier), and superlative (indicating the highest degree, like messiest). Comparatives often use
–er or more, while superlatives use –est or most.

6. Prepositions are words that are used to link one part of the sentence to another. It is usually placed before
a noun or pronoun. Prepositions show the position, time and place of the object or subject in a sentence. Some
examples of prepositions are in, out, besides, in front of, below, opposite, etc.
Examples of prepositions used in sentences:
• The teacher asked the students to draw lines on the paper.
• The child hid his birthday presents under his bed.
• Mom asked me to go to the store near my school.
• The thieves jumped over the wall and escaped before we could reach home.
Common prepositions
*Beside (position). *Besides (in addition to)
*In/on (at rest). *Into/onto/upon (in motion)
*Between (2 things). *Among/Amongst (3 or more things)
*From (all tense). *Since (Only present perfect continuous tense)

7. Conjunctions are a part of speech that is used to connect two different parts of a sentence, phrases and
clauses. Some examples of conjunctions are and, or, for, yet, although, because, not only, etc.
Examples of conjunctions used in sentences:
• Meera and Jasmine had come to my birthday party.
• Jane did not go to work as she was sick.
• Unless you work hard, you cannot score good marks.
Correlative conjunction (it works in pair)
*Either/or. *Neither/nor. *Both/and. *Whether/or
*No sooner/than. *Rather/than. *Hardly/when. *Scarcely/when
*Barely/when. *Not only/but also. *If/or. *Though/yet

8. Interjections are words that are used to convey strong emotions or feelings. Some examples of
interjections are oh, wow, alas, yippee, etc. It is always followed by punctuation marks (.,!?)
Examples of interjections used in sentences:
• Wow! What a wonderful work of art.
• Alas! That is really sad.

9. Determiner is a word that is used to modify or introduce the noun in a sentence. It mostly acts like an
adjective in that it refers to the noun. Determiners include articles, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative
adjectives, possessive adjectives, etc. A determiner need not always be in the beginning of a sentence; it can be
used with nouns placed anywhere in the sentence.
Determiners are classified into five main types;
• Articles (such as ‘a’, ‘an’, and ‘the’)
• Possessive Determiners (such as ‘my’, ‘your’, ‘his’, ‘her’, ‘its’, ‘our’ and ‘their’)
• Demonstrative Determiners (such as ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘those’ and ‘these’)
• Quantifiers (such as ‘some’, ‘a few’, ‘many’, ‘a little’, ‘little’, ‘few’, ‘none’, etc)
• Distributive Determiners (such as ‘every’, ‘each’, ‘either’, ‘neither’, ‘both’, ‘all’, ‘half’, etc.)
Examples of determiners used in sentences
• My house is being renovated.
• This movie is interesting.
• She gifted me an autographed copy of my favourite book.
• Few girls have gone to practise for the Teachers day programme.
• I need those books I had given you last month.
• Joseph bought a knife and some nails.

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 B. SUBJECT- VERB AGREEMENT

[Key: Subject = bold Verb = Italic and underlined]

*Rules of Subject-Verb agreement

1. Basic rule:
• If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.
Examples: She writes every day.
• If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Example: They write every day.

2. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by “and” use a
plural verb.
Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.

3. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still agrees with the subject,
not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentence.
Examples:
• The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.
• The student with all the master’s degrees is very motivated.
• Strategies that the teacher uses to encourage classroom participation include using small groups and
clarifying expectations.

4. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "Either/or" or "Neither/nor," use a singular
verb.
Examples:
• Either John or Bill is responsible for the accident.
• The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.

5. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by "or" or "nor," the
verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb. This is also called the rule of proximity.
Example:
• Neither the dog nor the cats are available in the market.
• The student or the committee members write every day.
• The committee members or the student writes every day.

6. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody," "anyone,"
"anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and require a singular verb.
Examples:
• Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.
• Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.
 • No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.

7. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds, contents, and
valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
Examples:
• The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.
• The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in the city.
• Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply chains.

8. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since "there" is not the
subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Examples:
• There is little administrative support.
• There are many factors affecting teacher retention.

9. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular unit and take a
singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee," "family," and "class."
Examples:
• The group meets every week.
• The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.
(However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is much less common.
Example: The committee participate in various volunteer activities in their private lives.

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C. TENSE

1) PRESENT TENSE

i) Simple present tense: [Subject + verb (present)]

Simple present tense is when you use a verb to tell about things that happen continually in the present, like
every day, every week, or every month. We use the simple present tense for anything that happens often or is
factual. Examples:
• I go to school every day.
• Emma watches cartoons every day.
• Izzy drinks milk every night before going to bed.
• Johnny goes to the gym daily.

ii) Present continuous tense: [Subject +(is / am/ are) + verb (ing)]
The present continuous tense is used to talk about the ongoing actions, events, or conditions that are still not
finished. Examples:
• She is playing basketball.
 • Birds are flying in the sky.
• I’m learning English.

iii) Present perfect tense: [Subject + (have/has) + verb (past participle)]

The present perfect tense is used to describe a situation or event that has already occurred but has immediate
ramifications. The present perfect tense can be used to describe experiences, and situations that occurred in the
past but still have an influence on the present.
Examples:
• She has not finished her work yet.
• I have seen that movie twice.
• We have visited LA several times.

iv) Present perfect continuous tense [Subject + have/has+ been + verb (ing)] + time duration
The present perfect continuous tense shows a situation that has started in the past and continues in the present.
Examples:
• I have been learning English for many years.
• He has been working here since 2010.
• We have been saving money for six months.

2) PAST TENSE

i) Simple past tense [Subject + verb (past)]

The simple past tense is used to describe or show complete action.
Examples:
• Lisa went to the supermarket yesterday.
• They sang a song.
• My brother saw you yesterday.

ii) Past continuous tense [Subject +(was/were) + verb (ing)]

The past continuous tense is used to describe events or actions that have already occurred in the past. It's
employed to describe any ongoing action in the past interrupted by another action.
Examples:
• I was watching TV when he called.
• We were sleeping when the doorbell rang.
• She wasn’t eating her lunch.

iii) Past perfect tense [Subject + had + verb (past participle)]

The past perfect tense is used to describe an event that occurred before a completed action in the past.
Examples:
• I was sick because I had eaten too much the previous night.
• She had written a letter before he apologized.
• John had become famous before his father died.
 iv) Past perfect continuous tense [Subject + had been + Verb (ing) {optional- time of action.}
The past perfect continuous tense represents any action or event that started in the past and sometimes
continued into another action or another time in the past.
Examples:
• We had been playing games for 6 hours when Dad came home.
• She had been reading magazines for 1 month before she decided to apply for the job.
• Had she been washing dishes all day?

3) FUTURE TENSE

i) Simple future tense. [Subject+ will/shall+ verb(present)]

The simple future tense is used to refer to actions or states that begin and end in the future. These events have
not happened yet, but will happen sometime in the future. [Shall- Used with the subjects I and We (But only
with time reference)
Examples:
• The monkeys will eat any bananas that their handlers give them.
• She will be late.
• I/We shall go and meet him in the evening.

ii) Future continuous tense [Subject + shall/will be + verb (ing)]

The future continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action that will occur or occur in the future and
continue for a short period of time.
Example:
• He will be coming to visit us next week.
• He will be writing a letter to Mary.
• I/we shall be driving to Portland tomorrow.

iii) Future perfect tense [Subject + shall/will + have + verb (past participle)]
The future perfect is used to describe an action that will be completed between now and a certain point in the
future. It is focused on the completed action.
Examples:
• They will have finished the film before we get home.
• She will have cleaned the house by 9pm.
• I/we shall have completed my/our work by 1 pm.

iv) Future perfect continuous tense [Subject + shall/will + have been + verb (ing)]
{(optional) = time instant.}
We use the future perfect continuous to focus on the duration of an action before a specific time in the future. It
is focused on future ongoing action with duration.
Examples:
• He will have been studying hard for 2 weeks before the exam.
• By the time the alarm goes off, we will have been sleeping for 8 hours.
• By June 2023, I shall have been writing this novel for 6 months.
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D. CONDITIONALS

What are conditionals in English grammar? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They describe the result of
something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but didn't (in the past) . They are
made using different English verb tenses. The “if clause” and main clause are interchangeable.
There are four main kinds of conditionals:
i) The Zero Conditional: [if + present simple, ... present simple)]
Zero conditional sentence is made with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if clause' and one in the 'main
clause')
Example. If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.

This conditional is used when the result will always happen. It talks about facts and in general. The result of the
'if clause' is always the main clause. The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when/whenever'
without changing the meaning.
More examples:
• If people eat too much, they get fat.
• If you touch a fire, you get burned.
• People die if they don't eat.
• If babies are hungry, they cry

ii) The First Conditional: [if + present simple, ... will + infinitive(present verb)]
The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:
Example: If it rains tomorrow, they will go to the cinema.

It is used to talk about things which might happen in the future and about specific situation. This describes
possible things, which could easily come true.
More examples:
• If it rains, I will not go to the park.
• If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
• If I get my salary, I'll buy some new shoes.

iii) The Second Conditional: [if + past simple, ... would + infinitive(present verb)]
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
Example: If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.

(We use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing. Used for fantasy,
dream, imagination, wish). Firstly, it is used to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be
true.
More examples:
 • If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
• If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
• She would travel all over the world if she were rich.

Secondly, it is used to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true.
Example:
• If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me to call
him).
• If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

iv) The Third Conditional [if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle]
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the past participle in
the second part of the sentence:
Example: If I had gone to bed early, I would have caught the train.

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this
situation.
More examples:
• If she had studied, she would have passed the exam. (She didn’t study so she failed)
• If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).
• If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
• She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university.

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E. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

➢ What is Voice of a verb?

The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject in the sentence has performed or received the action.
Example: The watchman opens the door. (Active)
• The door is opened by the watchman. (Passive)

*Verbs have two voices (i) Active Voice (ii) Passive Voice

Active Voice – When the subject performs the action (expressed by the verb). Example: Hens lay eggs.
Passive Voice – When the action expressed by the verb is received by the subject. It focus on the action and
not the subject. Example: Eggs are laid by hens.

*Sentence structure
• Active: Rita wrote a letter. (Subject + Verb + Object)
 • Passive: A letter was written by Rita. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject).
• Active: She cooks food. (Subject + Verb + Object)
• Passive: The food is cooked by her. (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject)

*Rules For Conversion of Sentence (From Active to Passive voice)

Rule 1. Identify the (S+V+O) Subject, Verb and object in the active sentence to convert to passive voice.
Example: He drives car. (Subject – He, verb – Drives, object – Car)

Rule 2. Interchange the object and subject with each other, i.e. object of the active sentence become the
subject of the passive sentence. (We do not change the position of prepositional phrase)
Example :
• Active: She knits a sweater. (Subject – She, Verb – Knits, Object – Sweater)
• Passive: A sweater is knitted by her. (Object sweater is interchanged with the subject She).
• Active: They drew a circle in the morning.(Prepositional phrase)
• Passive: A circle was drawn by them in the morning.

Rule 3. Use the suitable helping or auxiliary verb (is/am/are/was/be/been/being/has/have/had) according to the
new subject, tense and number or person of subject.
Examples:
• Active: She bought a book. Passive: A book was bought by her.
• Active: They are eating chocolates. Passive: Chocolates are being eaten by them.
• Active: I have eaten an apple. Passive: An apple has been eaten by me.

Rule 4. For main verb, past participle/third form verb is always used in a passive sentence. Base verbs are
never used in passive voice sentences. (We do not change the modal verbs i,e will, shall, could, would, might,
may etc.)
Examples:
• Active: She writes a letter. Passive: A letter is written by her.
• Active: The police will catch the thieves. Passive: The thieves will be caught by the police.

Rule 5. Preposition “by” is usually used before the new object. Sometimes “in” “to” “with” is used according
to the new object.
Examples:
• Active: She prepares dinner. Passive: Dinner is prepared by her.
• Active: She knows him. Passive: He is known to her.
• Active: Juice fills the jar. Passive: The jar is filled with juice.
• Active: Darjeeling grows tea. Passive: Tea is grown in Darjeeling.

Rule 6. While conversion of Active voice sentence to Passive voice sentence, the pronoun used in the sentence
also changes in the following manner.
Active Voice Pronoun Passive Voice Pronoun
I, We, He, She, They You, It Me, Us, Him, Her, Them, You, It
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F. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech – reporting the message of the speaker in the exact words as spoken by him.
Example: Maya said, ‘I am busy now’.

Indirect speech: reporting the message of the speaker in our own words
Example: Maya said that she was busy then.

*Reporting verbs:
➢ Three most common reporting verbs (Said, told and asked)
i) Said: Used without an object. If use with an object, add preposition “to”

ii) Told: Only used with an object.

( Conjunction “that” is needed in most case when we change it from direct to indirect speech)

Example: Direct: Mary said, “I am unwell.”

Indirect: Mary said that she was unwell.

Direct: John said to me, “I am learning to play guitar.”

Indirect: John told me that he was learning to play guitar.

iii) Asked: Used with a question.

( Conjunction “if/whether” is needed in most case when we change it from direct to indirect speech)

Example: Direct: She asked, “Do you like coffee?”

Indirect: She asked if/whether I liked coffee.

Direct: My father said to me, “Have you paid your bills?”

Indirect: My father asked me if/whether I had paid my bills.

In interrogative Sentences, no conjunction is used, if a sentence in direct speech begins with a question
(what/where/when/how) as the “question-word” itself acts as a joining clause.
Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the boy.
Indirect: The boy asked/enquired where I lived.
 ➢ Other reporting verbs
In Direct speech, the words actually spoken should be in (‘’) quotes. Different Punctuations such as full
stop, comma, exclamation or question mark, (,.!?) are used in Direct speech and placed inside the
closing inverted commas. However, only full stop (.) is used in Indirect speech. Instead of punctuation
marks, Indirect Speech is supported by some reporting verbs like requested, ordered, suggested and
advised. Forbid-forbade is used for negative sentences. Therefore, the imperative mood in the direct
speech changes into the Infinitive in indirect speech.
Direct: She said to her ‘Please complete it’.
Indirect: She requested her to complete it.
Direct: Hamid said to Ramid, ‘Sit down’.
Indirect: Hamid ordered Ramid to sit down.

*In Exclamatory sentences that express grief, sorrow, happiness, applaud, Interjections are removed and
the sentence is changed to an assertive sentence.
Direct: She said, ‘Alas! I am broken’.
Indirect: She exclaimed sadly that she was broken.

*Rules for converting Direct into Indirect speech

To change a sentence of direct speech into indirect speech there are various factors that are considered, such
as reporting verbs, modals, time, place, pronouns, tenses, etc.

Rule 1. Change in Pronoun

(i) The first person pronoun “I and We” in direct speech changes as per the subject of the
speech.
Direct: He said, “I am in class Twelfth.”
Indirect: He says that he was in class Twelfth.

(ii) The second person pronoun “you” of direct speech changes as per the object of reporting
speech.
Direct: She said to them, “You have done your work.”
Indirect: She told them that they had done their work.

(iii) The third person pronoun (he, she, it) of direct speech doesn’t change.
Direct: He says, “She dances well.”
Indirect: He says that she dances well.

Rule 2. Backshift the tense

➢ When the reporting verb of direct speech is in past tense then all the present tenses are changed to the
corresponding past tense in indirect speech.
Direct: She said, ‘I am happy’.
Indirect: She said (that) she was happy.
i) Simple Present Changes to Simple Past
Direct: “I am unwell”, she said.
Indirect: She said that she was unwell.
ii) Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect
Direct: She said, “Irvin arrived on Sunday.”
Indirect: She said that Irvin had arrived on Sunday.
iii) Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect.
Direct: “I have been to Boston”, she told me.
Indirect: She told me that she had been to Boston.
iv) Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous
Direct: “I am playing the guitar”, she explained.
Indirect: She explained that she was playing the guitar.
v) Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous
Direct: “We were playing basketball”, they told me.
Indirect: They told me that they had been playing basketball.
vi) Present perfect Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous
Direct: She said, “I have been washing my clothes.”
Indirect: She said that she had been washing her clothes.

➢ Exception:
✓ In indirect speech, tenses do not change if the words used within the quotes (‘’) talk of a habitual action
or universal truth.
Direct: He said, ‘We cannot live without air’.
Indirect: He said that we cannot live without air.
✓ The tenses of direct speech do not change if the reporting verb is in the future tense or present tense.
Direct: She says/will say, ‘I am going’
Indirect: She says/will say she is going.

Rule 3. Change in time and expression

➢ Change in Time: In direct speeches, the words that express nearness in time or place are changed to
words that express distance in indirect speech. Such as:
Direct. Indirect
• Now then
• Here there
• Ago before
• Thus so
• Today that day
• Tomorrow the next day/ the following day
• This that
• Yesterday the day before/ the previous day
• These those
• Hither thither
• Come go
• Hence thence
• Hereafter thereafter
• Tonight that night
 • Last night/week/month/year the previous night/week/month/year
• Next night/week/month/year the following night/ week/month/year

Examples:
Direct: He said, ‘His girlfriend came yesterday.’
Indirect: He said that his girlfriend had come the day before.
Direct: Shivani asked, “Are they leaving tomorrow?”
Indirect: Shivani asked if they were leaving the next day.

➢ Change in Modals
While changing direct speech to indirect speech, the modals used in the sentences change like:
Direct. Indirect
• Will would
• Shall should
• Can could
• May might
• Must had to

Examples:
Direct : She said, ‘She can dance’.
Indirect: She said that she could dance.
Direct: She said, ‘I may buy a dress’.
Indirect: She said that she might buy a dress.
Direct: Rama said, ‘I must complete the assignment’.
Indirect: Rama said that he had to complete the assignment.

There are modals that do not change if these words are in Direct speech– Could, Would, Should, Might, Ought
to, had to. Example:
Direct: She said, ‘I should clean the house’
Indirect: She said that she should clean the house.

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G. WORD FORMATION

Q. What is Word Formation?

Word Formation is the process of forming new words from an existing root word by adding a syllable or
another word is the general process; however, there are multiple ways in which it can be done.

➢ The most common Noun suffixes are: -tion, -ty, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -ge, -ry, dom, sion,
th, or, ce, ture, sis.
Examples: alteration, expansion, admission, advertiser, punishment, unemployment, assistant, breakage, denial,
preference, bribery, kingdom etc.
 ➢ The most common Adjective suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less, ic, able, ary.
Examples: professional, excellent, repetitive, famous, careful, thoughtless, avoidable.

➢ Adverb Suffixes: They are formed by adding -ly into an adjective. The most common suffixes is -ly.
Examples: accurately, affectionately, anxiously, brutally, calmly, carefully, cautiously.

➢ Identifying verbs: It is not always possible to identify a verb by its form. However, some word-endings
(suffixes) can show that the word is probably a verb.
Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -ify, -ise/-ize* (Both forms are used, but the -ise form is more common in British
English and the -ize form is more common in American English.)
Examples: Appreciate, soften, qualify, modernize, realise etc.

H. Essay Writing

In the simplest terms, an essay is a short piece of writing which is set around a specific topic or subject. The
piece of writing will give information surrounding the topic but will also display the opinions and thoughts of
the author.
Moreover; an essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types
of essays, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive
essays. Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points,
while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At the
university level, argumentative essays are the most common type.

Types of Essay Writing

When it comes to writing an essay, there is not simply one type, there are, quite a few types of essay, and each
of them has its purpose and function which are as follows:
▪ Narrative Essays
A narrative essay details a story, oftentimes from a particular point of view. When writing a narrative essay, you
should include a set of characters, a location, a good plot, and a climax to the story. It is vital that when writing
this type of essay you use fine details which will allow the reader to feel the emotion and use their senses but
also give the story the chance to make a point.
▪ Descriptive Essay
A descriptive essay will describe something in great detail. The subject can be anything from people and places
to objects and events but the main point is to go into depth. You might describe the item’s color, where it came
from, what it looks like, smells like, tastes like, or how it feels. It is very important to allow the reader to sense
what you are writing about and allow them to feel some sort of emotion whilst reading. That being said, the
information should be concise and easy to understand, the use of imagery is widely used in this style of essay.
▪ Expository Essay
An expository essay is used as a way to look into a problem and therefore compare it and explore it. For the
expository essay, there is a little bit of storytelling involved but this type of essay goes beyond that. The main
idea is that it should explain an idea giving information and explanation. Your expository essay should be
simple and easy to understand as well as give a variety of viewpoints on the subject that is being discussed.
Often this type of essay is used as a way to detail a subject which is usually more difficult for people to
understand, clearly and concisely.
▪ Argumentative Essay
When writing an argumentative essay, you will be attempting to convince your reader about an opinion or point
of view. The idea is to show the reader whether the topic is true or false along with giving your own opinion.
You must use facts and data to back up any claims made within the essay. (Most common essay for competitive
exams)

Format of Essay Writing

Now there is no rigid format of an essay. It is a creative process so it should not be confined within boundaries.
However, there is a basic structure that is generally followed while writing essays.
▪ Introduction
This is the first paragraph of your essay. This is where the writer introduces his topic for the very first time. You
can give a very brief synopsis of your essay in the introductory paragraph. Generally, it is not very long, about
4-6 lines.
▪ Body
This is the main crux of your essays. The body is the meat of your essay sandwiched between the introduction
and the conclusion. So the most vital content of the essay will be here. This need not be confined to one
paragraph. It can extend to two or more paragraphs according to the content.
▪ Conclusion
This is the last paragraph of the essay. Sometimes a conclusion will just mirror the introductory paragraph but
make sure the words and syntax are different. A conclusion is also a great place, to sum up, a story or an
argument. You can round up your essay by providing some morals or wrapping up a story. Make sure you
complete your essays with the conclusion, leave no hanging threads.

Essay Structure (Things to include while writing an essay)

▪ Introduction
i) Broad background statement
ii) Paraphrase/rewrite the question prompt
iii) Thesis (what you will write)

▪ Body
i) A topic sentence
ii) Reasons and examples to support your answer

▪ Conclusion
Two steps conclusion structure
i) This essay discussed/explained/showed (main idea of the essay)
ii) Your suggestion/advice

Writing Tips
▪ Keep your language simple and crisp. Unnecessary complicated and difficult words break the flow of
the sentence.
▪ Before beginning the essay, organize your thoughts and plot a rough draft. This way you can ensure the
story will flow and not be an unorganized mess.
 ▪ Understand the Topic Thoroughly- (Sometimes we jump to a conclusion just by reading the topic once
and later we realize that the topic was different than what we wrote about.) Read the topic as many
times as it takes for you to align your opinion and understanding about the topic.
▪ Develop a Plan and Do The Math-Essays have word limits and you have to plan your content in such a
way that it is accurate, well-described, and meets the word limit given. Keep a track of your words while
writing so that you always have an idea of how much to write more or less.
▪ Do not make grammar mistakes, use correct punctuation.

Points to remember:
• Write in Active voice and not Passive voice
• For numbers (if you are not sure) use approximately, around or over. Eg. Over 300 members/ 300
members approximately.
• Do not use According to “me”. Instead use “I think” or “From my point of view”. (According to- is used
only with 3rd person pronoun like- him, her, them or name of a person)
• Do not use contractions. Such as don’t, can’t, shouldn’t. Full form should be used. Such as do not, can
not, should not. (Do not use contractions in any formal writings)
• Avoid using:
➢ there is/there are (Unnecessary fillers)
Eg. There are many development projects that the UN supports.
Eg. The UN supports many development projects. (Better sentence)
➢ Really, very, a lot of. (It weakens your writing)
Eg. A lot of students think University is very hard.
Eg. Many students think University is difficult. (Better sentence)
• Do not stick on one point of view for too long.
• Do not repeat the same word more than twice, use synonyms.

I. Précis Writing

Précis writing is summarizing a comprehension in limited words, covering all the important aspects and details
of the passage given.

Rules of Précis Writing

• Read the comprehension carefully
• Note down the important points
• Make a rough draft of the précis
• Make use of simple and precise language, as much as possible
• Draft the final précis once all the points have been included

Steps for Précis Writing

• Start reading the paragraph carefully before Writing the Précis. It is essential to understand the central
theme of the passage. After identifying the idea, incorporate it in the required manner.
• The word count is another important factor for a good Précis. Check whether the total number of words
is given or not. If not, then count the number of words. Generally, it should be one-third of the total
words given in your passage.
 • You should be clear about the theme or idea of the passage for Précis Writing. If you do not understand
the theme, read the passage a couple of times, before starting to write your Précis. Make sure you are
clear about the idea.
• While reading, note down the points or highlight them. Try to find the points that are irrelevant to your
Précis.
• The heading of your Précis is critical. It should give a brief idea of the passage given. So, choose your
title, wisely.
• The Précis should be arranged in a manner so that the reader understands the gist quickly. Logically
organize your sentences and write them in reported speech.
• Revise and edit, there should be a minimal error.
• At the end mention in a bracket the number of words of your Précis.

Dos for Précis Writing

• Give a suitable title
• Start with the main idea of the Précis so that the readers can quickly grasp the base of the Précis.
• Write the Précis in the original flow of the writer to ensure that the message of Précis Writing should be
clear.
• While reading the passage, make a note of all the important points and include them in the précis.
• Pick out all the insignificant information in the passage and remove them from your Précis.
• Keep a track of the tenses you use. Data related to historical events of the past must be described in the
past tense only.
• There must be a relation between the data you are writing in the précis. It should have some common
links.

Don’ts for Précis Writing

• The length of the précis must be shorter (1/3 of the original passage)
• Do not overcomplicate the précis and use easy vocabulary.
• Do not make assumptions or add information in the précis as per your own imagination.
• Do not give your own opinion or criticism over the comprehension.
• Avoid using abbreviations.
• Do not enter statements in the question format in the précis.
• Don’t focus on any one point for very long. Keep the information as precise as possible.
• Do not copy paste the same sentence from the original passage

J. Paragraph Writing/ Amplification

• (Based on the outlines)
Paragraph writing on any topic is not only about expressing your thoughts on the given topic, but it is also
about framing ideas about the topic and making it convenient for the readers to follow it. In English paragraph
writing, it is essential to focus on the writing style, i.e., the flow and connection between the sentences.

• (Based on the picture)

Take some time to absorb the picture details and get the main idea of the picture.
Points to remember
• Give suitable title
• Do not use contractions
• Include all points and write systematically. (Based on outlines)
• Elaborate by adding relevant information
• State facts, not opinion
• The idea should connect with the next sentence
• Use punctuation marks accordingly