​ he survey method has several advantages.

First, information can

T
be gathered quickly and efficiently from thousands of persons.
Second, since surveys can be conducted quickly, public opinions on
new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the issues arise.
There are some limitations of a survey too. First, people may give
inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may not
want to let the researcher know what they really believe about a
particular issue. Second, people sometimes offer responses they
think the researcher wants to hear.
Psychological Testing Assessment of individual differences has
remained one of the important concerns of psychology from the
very beginning.
you might have seen that a test contains a number of questions,
called items, with their probable responses, which are related to a
particular human characteristic or attribute.
It may or may not have a fixed time limit for answering the
questions. Technically speaking, a psychological test is a
standardised and objective instrument
which is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others
on some mental or
behavioural characteristics. Two things are worth noting in this
definition: objectivity and standardisation. Objectivity refers to the
fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test
on the same group of people, both of them would come up with
more or less the same values for each person in the group. In order
for a psychological test to become an objective measure, it is
essential that items should be worded in such a manner that they
communicate the same meaning to different readers.
It involves detailed analysis of items, and estimating reliability,
validity, and norms of the whole test.
Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by
an individual on the same test on two different occasions.
For this, we can compute test-retest reliability, which indicates the
temporal stability (or stability of the test scores over time).
Another kind of test reliability is called split-half reliability. It gives
an indication about the degree of internal consistency of the test.
Validity refers to the question : “Does the test measure what it
claims to measure”?
For example, if you have constructed a test of mathematics
achievement, whether the test is measuring mathematical
achievement or for example, language proficiency. Finally, a test
becomes a standardised test
when norms are developed for the test. As mentioned earlier, norm
is the normal or average performance of the group. The test is
administered on a large number of students. Their average
performance standards are set based on their age, sex, place of
residence, etc. This helps us in comparing the performance of an
individual student with others of the same group. It also helps in
interpreting individuals’ score obtained on a test.
Types of Tests
Psychological tests are classified on the basis of their language,
mode of administration, and difficulty level. Depending upon the
language, we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests.
Literacy is required for taking verbal tests as the items have to be
written in some language. In non-verbal tests, items are made of
symbols or pictures. Performance tests require movement of
objects from their respective places in a particular order.
Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests
are divided into individual or group tests
Individual tests are time consuming, but are important ways of
getting responses from children, and from those who do not know
the language. Group tests are easy to administer and are also less
time consuming. However, the responses are fraught with certain
limitations. The respondent may not be motivated enough to
answer the questions and may give fake responses.
Psychological tests are also classified into
speed and power tests.
If a person, for example, is unable to solve the 6th item, s/he will
have difficulty in answering the subsequent items. It is, however,
difficult to construct a pure speed or power test. Majority of the
tests are a combination of both speed and power.
Test data should be combined
with information about a person’s background, interests, and past
performance.
Case Study
Researchers focus on cases which can provide critical information
or new learning on less understood phenomena.The cases that we
select for study are unique and, therefore, are rich in information.
A case study employs multiple methods for collecting information,
such as interview, observation, and psychological tests from a
variety of respondents who in some way or the other might be
associated with the case and can provide useful information. With
the help of case studies, psychologists have done research to
understand feelings, fantasies, hopes, fears, traumatic experiences,
parental upbringing and so on, that helps to understand a person’s
mind and behaviour. Case studies provide a narrative or detailed
descriptions of the events that take place in a person’s life.
A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical
psychology and human development. Freud’s insights that led to
the development of psychoanalytic theory emerged from his
observations and showed that meticulous records must be
maintained on individual cases.Minturn and Hitchcock conducted
a case study of socialisation ofchildren among Rajputs of Khalapur.
S. Anandalakshmy studied aspects of childhood in a weavers’
community in Varanasi.The problem of validity in a single case
study is quite challenging. It is recommended that the information
should be collected using multiple strategies from different sources
of information by a number of investigators.it is desirable that the
researcher should not depend upon only one method. A
combination of two or more methods should be used to get the real
picture. If the methods converge, i.e. they give the same results, one
can certainly be more confident.
ANALYSIS OF DATAIn the earlier section, we discussed different
methods for collecting information. After data are collected, the
next job of the researcher is to draw conclusions. This requires
analysis ofdata. We generally use two methodological approaches
for the analysis of data. These are: quantitative and qualitative
methods.
Quantitative Method
psychological tests, questionnaires, structured interviews, etc.
contain a series of close-ended questions. That is, the questions and
their probable responses are given in these measures. Generally,
these responses are given in scaled forms. That is, they indicate the
strength and magnitude of the response. For example, they may
vary from 1 (low) to 5, 7 or 11 (high).In doing so, the researcher
converts the psychological attributes into a quantity (usually
numbers).
For the purpose of drawing conclusions, ANALYSIS OF DATA
In the earlier section, we discussed different methods for collecting
information. After data are collected, the next job of the researcher
is to draw conclusions. This requires analysis of
a researcher may compare individual’s score with that of the
group, or compare the scores of two groups.
Qualitative Method
Any attempt at its quantification will not enable you to get at the
principles of organising such experiences. Psychologists have
developed various qualitative methods to analyse such data. One of
them is Narrative Analysis. Also data are not always available in
the form of scores. When the researcher uses the method of
participant observation or unstructured interview, the data are
generally in a descriptive form—in participants’ own words, field
notes taken by the researchers, photographs, interview responses
noted by the researcher or taped/video-recorded, informal talks,
etc. These type of data cannot be converted into scores or subjected
to statistical analysis. Rather, the researcher uses the technique of
content analysis to find out thematic categories and build those
categories taking examples from the data. It is more descriptive in
nature.
LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
Lack of True Zero PointPsychological measurements do not have a
true zero point. For example, no person in this world has zero
intelligence. All of us have some degree of intelligence.whatever
scores we get in psychological studies, are not absolute in nature;
rather, they have relative value.This also illustrates the relative
nature of the psychological measurement.
2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools : Psychological tests are
developed keeping in view the salient features of a particular
context. For example, a test developed for urban students may
contain items that demand familiarity with the stimuli available in
the urban setting— multistoried buildings, airplanes, metro
railway, etc. Such a test is not suitable for use with children living
in tribal areas who would be more at ease with items that describe
their flora and fauna.
3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data :the field work
should be done by more than one investigator, who at the end of
the day should discuss their observations and arrive at an
agreement before finally giving it a meaning
ETHICAL ISSUES
respect for persons’ privacy and choice to participate in the study,
beneficence or protecting the participants in the study from any
harm, and justice or sharing the benefits of research with all
participants.
1. Voluntary Participation : This principle states that the persons on
whom you want to conduct the study should have the choice to
decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study.
2. Informed Consent : It is essential that the participants in a study
should understand what will happen to them during the study. The
principle of informed consent states that potential participants
must receive this information before data from them are collected,
so that they make an informed decision about participation in the
study.
3. Debriefing : Once the study is over, the participants are provided
with necessary information to complete their understanding of
research. This is particularly important if deception has been used
in the study. Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study in
the same physical and mental state as when they entered.
4. Sharing the Results of the Study : In psychological research, after
collecting information from the participants, we come back to our
places of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions. It is
obligatory for the researcher to go back to the participants and
share the results of the study with them.
5. Confidentiality of Data Source : The participants in a study have
the right to privacy.
The most effective way of protecting the confidentiality of
participants is not to record their identities. This is, however, not
possible in certain kinds of research. In such cases, code numbers
are given on the data sheet, and the names with the codes are kept
separately. The identification list should be destroyed as soon as the
research is over.
Summary
• A psychological research is conducted for the purpose of
description, prediction, explanation, control of behaviour, and
application of knowledge generated in an objective manner. It
involves the following four steps: conceptualising a problem,
collection of data, analysing data, drawing and revising research
conclusions. The psychological research is also conducted to
discover and understand the subjective meanings of events as they
occur in a particular context, and also reflect upon one’s own
behaviour and experiences.
• In psychological studies, different types of data including
demographic, environmental, physical, physiological, and
psychological information are collected. However, the data in
psychological studies remain located in a context and are tied to
the theory and method used for its collection.
• Different methods are used for collecting information. The
observation method is used for describing the behaviour. It is
characterised by selection of a particular behaviour, its recording
and analysis. Observation can be done in a naturalistic or
controlled laboratory conditions. It can take the form of a
participant or non-participant observation.
• The experimental method helps in establishing cause-effect
relationship. The effect of the presence of independent variable on
the dependent variable is studied using experimental and control
groups.
• The purpose of correlational research is investigating association
between variables as well as making predictions. The relationship
between two variables can be positive, zero or negative, and
strength of association varies from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
• The focus of survey research is to inform about the existing
reality. Surveys can be conducted by using structured and
unstructured interviews, mailed questionnaires, and telephone.
• The psychological tests are standardised and objective
instruments which help in knowing one’s standing in comparison
to others. Tests can be verbal, non-verbal, and performance types,
which can be administered individually or to the entire group at a
time.
• The method of case study gives detailed in-depth information
about a particular case. • The data collected through the use of
these methods are analysed through quantitative and
qualitative methods. The quantitative methods allow the use of
statistical procedure for drawing conclusions. Narrative method
and method of content analysis are some methods that are used in
case of qualitative research.
• Lack of absolute zero point, relative nature of psychological tools,
and subjective interpretation of qualitative data are some of the
limitations of psychological enquiry. Ethical principles of voluntary
participation of the subjects, their informed consent, and sharing of
results with the participants must be followed by a researcher.