Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.

shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy
vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.
Faculty of Arts and Sciences – Education Department – Professional Diploma in Teaching
Methods of Teaching:
What is Teaching
In education, teaching is the concerted (Planned) sharing of knowledge and
experience, which is usually organized within a discipline and, more generally,
the provision of stimulus to the psychological and intellectual growth of a
person by another person or artifact.

There are two fundamentally different ways of understanding teaching. The first
sees teaching as an instructor-centered activity in which knowledge is
transmitted from someone who has acquired that knowledge to novice (not
experienced) learners: teaching as knowledge transmission. The second sees
teaching as a learner-centered activity in which the instructor ensures that
learning is made possible for novice learners and supports, guides, and
encourages them in their active and independent creation of new knowledge:
teaching as assisted knowledge creation.

Inputs: teachers, students, curriculum, content, instructional materials.

Process: It includes instructional methods strategies and approaches.
Output: attainment of instructional objectives.

What is Learning:
A relatively permanent change in behavior through experience.
Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are
relatively permanent.
Acquiring new or modifying and reinforcing existing knowledge, behaviors,
skills, values, or preferences.
Learning is a continuous process that commences at birth and continues until
death
It involves the whole personality - senses, feelings, intuition, beliefs, values and
will.
It is the process through which we use our experience to deal with new
situations and to develop relationships.
Learning involves far more than thinking: If we do not have the will to learn,
we will not learn and if we have learned, we are actually changed in some way.
If the learning makes no difference it can have very little significance beyond
being random ideas that float through our consciousness.
Learning occurs when we are able to:
Gain a mental or physical grasp of the subject.
Make sense of a subject, event or feeling by interpreting it into our own words
or actions.
Use our newly acquired ability or knowledge in conjunction with skills and
understanding we already possess.
Do something with the new knowledge or skill and take ownership of it.
Key Principles of Learning
This list is not exhaustive but it should, however, help you to understand some
of the key concepts of learning.
People learn best when they are treated with respect and are not talked
down to or treated as ignorant. Establishing ground rules at the start of a
teaching session will reinforce this important principle However, for the
training to be most effective and to involve full participation, the trainer should
model such exemplar behavior.
Learning opportunities should, when possible, be linked to previous positive
experience - this involves self-awareness on the part of the learner and
understanding and empathy on the part of any facilitator. Learning can be
blocked by past negative experiences - some people who hated school cannot
bear to be in a classroom situation, for example.
When possible learners should take part in the planning of learning activities.
Learners should be encouraged to be self-directing in terms of goal-setting
since this usually improves commitment and motivation and increases
participation. Facilitators should examine the expectations of the learner at
the start of a course or session to help to encourage self-direction.
People learn best when their physical environment is comfortable. In group
situations a positive emotional and supportive environment is also important;
individuals in groups tend to learn best when they can socialize and interact
with other group members.
Interaction with a facilitator is vital. People need to be able to react, question
and voice opinions on what they are learning.
Learning activities and/or delivery need to be varied, to cover the range of
different learning styles and help the learner maintain interest and motivation.
In a classroom setting, for example, including discussions or other activities,
especially some sort of problem solving, as part of a lesson or lecture will
enable learners to interact and engage with the subject.
Instant rewards help. People learn best if the results and/or rewards of
learning are made clear and can be demonstrated during or immediately after
the learning experience.
Self-evaluation and reflective practice is important. Learners should be
encouraged to reflect on what they have learnt and think about ways that they
can further their knowledge.
Teaching Approach: It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature
of learning which is translated into the classroom.
Teaching Strategy: It is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a
particular goal.
Teaching Method It is a systematic way of doing something. It implies an
orderly logical arrangement of steps. It is more procedural.
Teaching Technique: It is a well-defined procedure used to accomplish a
specific activity or task.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ivevgMedmG4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AKb9gRgKFxM

Approaches vary in the degree of: teacher and learner engagement, focus,
number of learners involved in the teaching-learning process.
Examples of teaching Approaches:
Teacher-Centered Approach The teacher is perceived to be the only reliable
source of information in contrast to the Learner-Centered Approach in which
it is premised on the belief that the learner is also an important resource
because he/she too knows something and is therefore capable of sharing
something.

Subject Matter-Centered Approach Subject matter gains primacy over that of

the learner.

Teacher Dominated Approach In this approach, only the teacher’s voice is

heard. He/she is the sole dispenser of information.

Interactive Approach In this approach, an interactive classroom will have more

student talk and less teacher talk. Students are given the opportunity to
interact with teacher and with other students.
Constructive Approach The students are expected to construct knowledge and
meaning out for what they are taught by connecting them to prior experience.

Banking Approach The teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty” minds of
students for students to commit to memory.

Integrated Approach It makes the teacher connects what he/she teaches to

other lessons of the same subject (interdisciplinary) or connects his/her
lessons with other subjects thus making his/her approach interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary.

Disciplinal Approach It limits the teacher to discussing his/her lessons within

the boundary of his/her subject.

Collaborative Approach It will welcome group work, teamwork, partnerships,

and group discussion.

Individualistic Approach It wants the individual students to work by

themselves.

Research-Based Approach As the name implies, teaching and learning are

anchored on research findings.
Whole Child Approach The learning process itself takes into account not only
the academic needs of the learners, but also their emotional, creative,
psychological, spiritual, and developmental needs.
Metacognitive Approach The teaching process brings the learner to the
process of thinking about thinking. The learner reflects on what he learned and
on his/her ways of learning.

Problem-Based Approach As the name implies, the teaching- learning process

is focused on problems. Time is spent on analyzing and solving problems.

Direct Teaching Approach The teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates

what is to be taught.
Indirect, Guided, Approach The teacher guides the learner to discover things
for himself/herself. The teacher facilitates the learning process by allowing the
learner to be engaged in the learning process with his/her guidance.

Direct/Expository Instruction Approach

Direct instruction is a way of teaching which is aimed at helping students
acquire some basic skills and “procedural knowledge.”
It is straightforward and is done in “a step-by-step manner.” The emphasis is
on how to execute the steps of the entire procedure.
It includes presentation and recitation, as well as teacher-student interactions.
Attention is focused on every detail of the procedure.
Content mastery and over learning of fundamental facts.
Teachers need to arouse (evoke or awaken or heighten) the interest of the
students.

Methods use in Direct Instruction:

Lecture and Student Recitation
Demonstration method
Steps of the Direct Instruction Lecture Method
To employ the methodology in teaching skill/s, follow these steps:
a) Provide the rationale,
b) Demonstrate the skill,
c) Provide guided practice until mastery,
d) Check for understanding and provide feedback,
e) Provide extended practice and transfer, and
f) Assess learning at the end.
(This is what we call summative assessment.)
The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student learning at the end of
an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.
Summative assessments are often high stakes, which means that they have a
high point value. Examples of summative assessments include: a midterm
exam, a final project, a paper

To teach facts, principles, or laws, follow these steps – they are similar with
those of teaching a skill.
a) Give a short introduction by providing the rationale,
b) Present your lesson,
c) Develop the lesson by explaining, illustrating, it with diagrams if appropriate
and/or giving concrete examples,
d) Give application of the lesson, and
e) Check for understanding and provide feedback. (This is what we call
formative assessment.)
The goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide
ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching
and by students to improve their learning.
More specifically, formative assessments:
- help students identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that
need work.
- help faculty recognize where students are struggling and address problems
immediately.
Formative assessments are generally low stakes, which means that they have
low or no point value.
Examples of formative assessments include asking students to:
- draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of a topic,
-submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lecture,
-turn in a research proposal for early feedback

Characteristic of a Direct Instruction Lecture Method:

 Teacher-directed and teacher dominated
 The emphasis is on the teaching of skill. Each step must be mastered,
hence the students gain “how” rather than “what”. It is termed procedural
knowledge. Taught in a step-by-step fashion, it ensures the learning of the
entire procedure with no step missed.
 Lesson objectives include easily observed behaviors that can be measured
accurately.
 The level of performance can be assessed from the number of steps
performed correctly.
 This is a form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed
“behavioral modeling”.
 This can also be used to teach facts, principles, and laws.
Guidelines for Direct Instruction Effective Use:
To be effective, direct instruction should not only provide information, but also
customize it.
According to a group of German psychologists at the University of Freiburg,
direct instruction may actually be equally as efficient as non-directive
instruction (e.g, self-directed learning), with one important catch— it must be
customized for the learner. That can be done by targeting each particular
student’s prior knowledge. (customize: to modify or build according to
individual or personal specifications or preference, to build, fit, or alter
according to individual specifications)

In 2010 the team tested its own theory and published the results in the Journal
of Educational Psychology. The theory presents four distinguishing
characteristics of effective instructional explanations.
4 Teaching Tips For More Effective Direct Instruction:
1. Be Adaptive
Every student comes to a classroom with his or her own reserve of prior
knowledge on the subject at hand. This is part of what psychologists call the
“Zone of Proximal Development” (or ZPD). This concept refers to the
difference between a learner's ability to perform a task independently
versus with guidance. “The ZPD is the distance between what children can
do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve
with competent assistance.”
Reviewing the following examples will hopefully help you to better
understand how the zone of proximal development works in the real world.
Example1: A student is able to perform simple addition when working
with a teacher or parent, but is frustrated when performing the task alone.
By guiding the student to use tools and strategies, and by asking
questions about why he/she is using each tool or strategy, the student is
able to fortify knowledge and eventually add independently.

Example2: A college student is able to understand the current philosophy

that is being studied when it is discussed in class but struggles on his
own. The professor works with the student to help him to learn how to
approach the philosophy book and how to consider the right questions to
ask himself while reading alone.

Example3: A child is struggling to learn how to read. By working with

the student to teach how to sound out words and use other word
recognition strategies, the child is able to learn to read.

By understanding what children are able to achieve alone, as well as what

they are able to achieve with assistance from an adult, educators can
develop plans to teach skills in the most effective manner possible, giving
students a gradual release of responsibility to perform tasks
independently. This process is referred to as scaffolding, which is the
way in which an adult helps the child learner to move from the inability
to perform a task to being able to do so through guidance, interaction and
questions.

It was found that when tutors planned their instruction around the
student’s prior knowledge, students gained a deeper understanding of the
subject and developed fewer false beliefs about newly presented
concepts.
 From a cognitive perspective, this kind of instruction works because it
neither overwhelms the student with new knowledge nor limits his or her
cognitive resources with redundant information (expertise reversal
effect). It falls right within her zone of proximal development.
Thus, it is important for you, as an instructor, to target this zone, and
not bore or overwhelm your students, because providing too little or
too much explanation can actually prevent them from learning. If you
present them with too little explanation, your students may experience
cognitive overload because they aren’t familiar enough with the
concept at hand; if you present them with too much information, they
may suffer from the “expertise reversal effect,” where they over-
analyze a concept they already understand but don’t recognize because
they think they’ve missed something.

Applying the Zone of Proximal Development in the Classroom

- Before teachers can begin guiding students through the steps necessary to learn
a concept, they should get a grasp of how these tasks, referred to as scaffolds,
are applicable to everyday life.
- The teacher then builds on these scaffolds to develop the child's zone of
proximal development. To most effectively teach by using the zone of proximal
development, teachers should stress the connections between the learner's prior
knowledge of a task in everyday contexts with the new task or concept being
learned. For example, let's say a teacher is instructing students about the water
cycle. If a teacher has already taught a lesson on the concept of evaporation, the
teacher should use this prior knowledge of evaporation when introducing
information about condensation. The child will then be able to make
connections between the different phases of the water cycle.
 Here is a look at the step-by-step process by which a teacher can apply the
zone of proximal development:
- First, a teacher should identify what a student already knows. By identifying
this prior knowledge, the teacher can build on that skill set when introducing
new concepts.
- Next, the teacher can build on this knowledge through scaffolding; the scaffold
will help students move from what they already know to what they should know
by the end of class. When planning lessons, teachers should keep in mind the
scaffolding process by integrating guided practice in their lesson plans.
- Last, teachers can help students connect their new learning to their prior
knowledge. For example, if a math teacher has just taught children how to
master dividing decimals, the teacher might then relate this concept back to
multiplying decimals.
All in all, through applying the concept of the zone of proximal development,
the teacher identifies what a child already knows, teaches him or her something
new to add to it, and then relates this back to his or her prior knowledge so that
he or she can now understand the new concept with assistance.

Scaffolding:
Teachers should remember several important facts about instructional
scaffolding:
 Scaffolding is most useful for teaching new tasks or strategies with
multiple steps.
 Any student at any grade level, including high school, can benefit from
instructional scaffolding.
 Scaffolding can be applied to any academic task.
Instructional scaffolding is a process through which a teacher adds supports
for students in order to enhance learning and aid in the mastery of tasks. The
teacher does this by systematically building on students’ experiences and
knowledge as they are learning new skills. Just like the scaffold in the picture,
these supports are temporary and adjustable. As students master the assigned
tasks, the supports are gradually removed.

To gain a better understanding of scaffolding, consider the analogy of a child

learning to walk. First, a parent holds the child up. His feet barely touch the
floor as he mimics walking. Slowly, the child is allowed to support more and
more of his own weight. Next, he might support himself by holding on to an
object like a coffee table while his parents watch. Finally, the child is ready to
take steps, though his parent’s hand might still be just inches away. Soon
enough, the child is walking—and running—on his own. Like the parents in
this example, teachers teaching new tasks initially have complete control and
support their students fully. Gradually, when the students are ready, support is
withdrawn until the students are able to stand on their own.
Providing support, or scaffolding, is a critical component in teaching new tasks
with multiple steps. Likewise, scaffolding is a critical element in the teaching of
instructional strategies. Many teachers do this naturally when teaching a new
task or strategy, whereas others need to purposefully incorporate scaffolding
into their teaching styles. It is important to remember, however, that even
when students have learned the purpose of a strategy and have memorized its
steps, they may still not be ready to use the strategy independently.

6 Ways of How to Use Scaffolding with Your Students

1. Show and Tell
How many of us say that we learn best by seeing something rather than hearing
about it? Modeling for students is a cornerstone of scaffolding, in my
experience. Have you ever interrupted someone with “Just show me!” while
they were in the middle of explaining how to do something? Every chance you
have, show or demonstrate to students exactly what they are expected to do.
- Try the fishbowl activity, where a small group in the center is circled by the
rest of the class; the group in the middle, or fishbowl, engages in an activity,
modeling how it’s done for the larger group.
- Always show students the outcome or product before they do it. If a
teacher assigns a persuasive essay or inquiry-based science project, a model
should be presented side-by-side with a criteria chart or rubric. You can
guide students through each step of the process with the model of the
finished product in hand.
- Use think aloud, which will allow you to model your thought process as you
read a text, solve a problem, or design a project. Remember that children’s
cognitive abilities are still in development, so opportunities for them to see
developed, critical thinking are essential.

2. Tap Into Prior Knowledge

Ask students to share their own experiences, hunches, and ideas about the
content or concept of study and have them relate and connect it to their own
lives. Sometimes you may have to offer hints and suggestions, leading them to
the connections a bit, but once they get there, they will grasp the content as their
own.
Launching the learning in your classroom from the prior knowledge of your
students and using this as a framework for future lessons is not only a
scaffolding technique—many would agree it’s just plain good teaching.

3. Give Time to Talk

All learners need time to process new ideas and information. They also need
time to verbally make sense of and articulate their learning with the community
of learners who are engaged in the same experience and journey. As we all
know, structured discussions really work best with children regardless of their
level of maturation. If you aren’t weaving in think-pair-share, turn-and-talk,
triad teams, or some other structured talking time throughout the lesson, you
should begin including this crucial strategy on a regular basis.

4. Pre-Teach Vocabulary
Pre-teaching vocabulary doesn’t mean pulling a dozen words from the chapter
and having kids look up definitions and write them out—we all know how that
will go. Instead, introduce the words to kids in photos or in context with things
they know and are interested in. Use analogies and metaphors, and invite
students to create a symbol or drawing for each word. Give time for discussion
of the words (small groups and whole class). Not until they’ve done all this
should the dictionaries come out. And the dictionaries will be used only to
compare with those definitions they’ve already discovered on their own.
With the dozen or so words front-loaded, students are ready, with you as their
guide, to tackle that challenging text.

5. Use Visual Aids

Graphic organizers, pictures, and charts can all serve as scaffolding tools.
Graphic organizers are very specific in that they help kids visually represent
their ideas, organize information, and grasp concepts such as sequencing and
cause and effect.
A graphic organizer shouldn’t be The Product but rather a scaffolding tool that
helps guide and shape the students’ thinking. Some students can dive right into
a discussion, or writing an essay, or synthesizing several different hypotheses,
without using a graphic organizer of some sort, but many of our students benefit
from using one with a difficult reading or challenging new information. Think
of graphic organizers as training wheels—they are temporary and meant to be
removed.

6. Pause, Ask Questions, Pause, Review

This is a wonderful way to check for understanding while students read a chunk
of difficult text or learn a new concept or content. Here’s how this strategy
works: a new idea from discussion or the reading is shared, then you pause
(providing think time), and then ask a strategic question, pausing again. You
need to design the questions ahead of time, making sure they are specific,
guiding, and open-ended. (Even great questions fail if we don’t give think time
for responses, so hold out during that Uncomfortable Silence.) Keep kids
engaged as active listeners by calling on someone to give the gist of what was
just discussed/discovered/questioned. If the class seems stuck on the questions,
provide an opportunity for students to discuss in pairs.

Scaffolding Techniques:
Advance organizers: Tools used to introduce new content and tasks to help
students learn about the topic: Venn diagrams to compare and contrast
information; flow charts to illustrate processes; organizational charts to
illustrate hierarchies; outlines that represent content; mnemonics to assist recall;
statements to situate the task or content; rubrics that provide task expectations.
Cue Cards: Prepared cards given to individual or groups of students to assist in
their discussion about a particular topic or content area: Vocabulary words to
prepare for exams; content-specific stem sentences to complete; formulae to
associate with a problem; concepts to define.
Concept and mind maps: Maps that show relationships: Prepare partially
completed maps for
students to complete or have students create their own maps based on their
current knowledge of the task or concept.
Examples: Samples, specimens, illustrations, problems: Real objects;
illustrative problems used to represent something.
Explanations: More detailed information to move students along on a task or in
their thinking of a concept: Written instructions for a task; verbal explanation of
how a process works.
Handouts: Prepared handouts that contain task- and content-related
information, but with less detail and room for student note taking.
Prompts: A physical or verbal cue to remind—to aid in recall of prior or
assumed knowledge. Physical: Body movements such as pointing, nodding the
head, eye blinking, foot tapping. Verbal: Words, statements and questions such
as “Go,” “Stop,” “It’s right there,” “Tell me now,” “What toolbar menu item
would you press to insert an image?”, “ Tell me why the character acted that
way.”
Question Cards: Prepared cards with content- and task-specific questions
given to individuals
or groups of students to ask each other pertinent questions about a particular
topic or content area.
Question Stems: Incomplete sentences which students complete: Encourages
deep thinking by
using higher order “What if” questions.
Stories: Stories relate complex and abstract material to situations more familiar
with students. Recite stories to inspire and motivate learners.
2. Focus on Concepts and Principles
One argument for the non-directive approach to instruction is that students
develop lasting problem-solving skills that aid them in future situations rather
than learning to solve only the problem in front of them.

Consider this example: if a student brings an essay to you for editing, and you
find a line that is confusing or unclear, you should not say, “This is unclear”
but instead, “What do you mean by this?” in order to help your student arrive at
her own answer. This way, she will not only understand why the sentence in
that particular essay is unclear, but why sentences like it in future essays might
be unclear and how to avoid writing them.
In the same way, instead of lecturing on the difference between autocracy and
bureaucracy, you can stand back and let students create projects or presentations
on the topic, forcing them to learn on their own. Independent learning allows
students to apply their own unique learning style (visual, verbal, auditory, etc.)
and equips them with lasting research and presentation skills.

But this reflects no shortcoming of direct instruction. Direct instruction can

equip students with those same problem-solving, researching, and analyzing
skills if educators focus on concepts and principles. While many direct
methods involve dishing out fact after fact, which can overwhelm any
student’s cognitive functions, the most effective direct methods are the ones
that guide students through new principles and concepts which help categorize
those facts.
If a student has ten new facts to memorize about a certain event, the best
mental glue you can provide is some sort of organizing schema that facilitates
the coordination of self-generated information. The idea is that students will be
able to absorb more material per lesson (and retain that material) if they have a
mental crutch, so to speak.

3. Take Into Account The Student’s Individual Learning Profile

As an educator, take note of patterns in your student’s learning process in order
to customize your teaching as much as possible.

Is your student a visual learner? An auditory learner? A verbal learner? Does

the student outperform others on tests but remain silent throughout class? Does
the student have a knack for remembering names and dates but struggle with
concepts? Do your student’s eyes glaze over when you lecture on World War II
in the past tense but light up when you lecture on it in the present tense? How
often does your student raise her hand when you quiz the class on their
multiplication tables versus their division tables?

Consider how and what your student enjoys learning, which concepts she has
mastered and which concepts she has not, and where her strengths and
weaknesses lie. And, again, consider what knowledge your student brings to the
classroom before you design your lesson. Equally as important, consider what
the student has been learning in other classes.
These are great ways to provide customized, organizing schemata for your
students’ ongoing learning and cognitive activities.
In other words, providing direct, individualized instruction helps make the most
of a student’s cognitive resources.
4. Collaborate With Other Content Area Teachers
To avoid confusion that may happen because of information taught in two
classes or lessons.
Further guidelines:
5- The students must be given ample time for practice.
6- They must be included in the planning stage since this technique is highly
task-oriented and aimed at mastery of every step. The lesson objectives are
student-based.
7- Describe the testing situation and specify the level of performance
expected.
8- Divide complex skills and understanding into subskills or into its component
steps so they can be taught easily and with precision.
9- Design own strategy in teaching each skill which will eventually contribute to
the learning of the entire skill.
10- Before the demonstration, carefully rehearse all steps. The steps should be
observed and followed.
11- Assign practice for short periods of time, then continue learning by
imitating others.
12- Provide feedback and encouragement through praises. Positively
motivated, the students will never get tired practicing.
13- Be able to construct good performance- based tests.

When Teaching Declarative Knowledge – Facts, Principles and Laws

1. Be sure the facts, principles, and laws are correctly, clearly, and adequately
explained.
2. Use visual aids to concretize abstract principles and laws.
3. Illustrate laws and principles with concrete examples.
4. Present facts meaningfully by citing their significance and by connecting
them with everyday life.

Striking a Balance
Yes, this could be considered an argument for direct instruction but not for
treating students like sponges. There is a limit to how directive instruction
should be, even when it is customized. Most truly effective teaching methods
strike a balance between directive and non-directive intervention. Neither
approach is better than the other; both are valuable for their own reasons.
As an educator, you should always challenge your students to think for
themselves. Mental effort is what keeps us all sharp and capable. But when
thinking becomes challenging on a more internal, psychological level, don’t be
afraid to step in. The first step is to raise awareness: By acknowledging the high
demands learning places on cognition, you can frame your instruction in a way
that prevents cognitive overload and allows your students to reach their full
potential.

Deductive and Inductive Instruction

A deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach. This
means that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then
has the students practice using the concept. For example, when teaching a
new concept, the teacher will introduce the concept, explain the rules related
to its use, and finally the students will practice using the concept in a variety of
different ways.
 Teacher-dominated approach
 It begins with the abstract rule, generalization, principle and ends with
specific examples and concrete details.
 Cover a wider scope of subject matter.
 Learning is a passive process, the learners do not take part in the
generation of conclusion or generalization
 Drill or exercises come after the explanation of the rule or principle.
Example: Geography
The teacher begins her lesson with a generalization that geographical location
influences peoples’ way of life.
She will present a map of country. Then study the map with the students.
Those who live in wide plains like …, … have rice as main product and farming
as main occupation. Those who live near the sea are fishermen. Their main
product is fish.
Example: Science
Teacher gives a definition: All animals with a backbone are classified as
vertebrates.
Teacher give examples: dog is vertebrate because it possesses backbone. Fish,
frog and cow are vertebrates, they possess backbone

When teaching a new grammar concept, the teacher will introduce the
concept, explain the rules related to its use, and finally the students will
practice using the concept in a variety of different ways.
Advantages of Deductive Method:
Wider scope of subject matter because the instruction is direct by stating at
once the rule or the principle at the beginning of the class.
Teacher do not have to worry on what questions to ask for learners to
generalization or conclusion.
Disadvantages of Deductive Method
Passive learning. Less involvement on part of the learners.
The learners do not take part in the generation of conclusion or
generalization.
Learners’ involvement will be drill or exercises that come after the
explanation of the rule or principle
Lesson appears uninteresting at first. Teacher begin the lesson with
the abstract with what the learners do not know
Deductive Approach: (Rule-driven, top-down): General Rule → Specific
Examples → Practice

Inductive Instruction
In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of
student “noticing”. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this
explanation with examples, the teacher presents students with many examples
showing how the concept is used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way
of the examples, how the concept works.
 It begins with specific details, concrete data and examples and ends with
an abstract
 Learners are more engaged in the teaching-learning process
 Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because we begin with
the experiences of our students. Begin with what they know.
 It helps the development of our learners’ higher order thinking skills. To
see patterns and analyze the same in order to arrive at generalizations
requires analytical thinking.
 It requires more time and so less subject matter will be covered
  Need much time to lead students to formulate generalizations
 Teachers got to ask the right questions, organize answers and comments
to pave the way to the derivation of generalizations or principles
Example: Geography
The teacher will shows to the class the map of a country then ask the
class to study it with special attention on geographical features and
economic products.
To guide them in their analysis she will ask them questions like what
is the occupation of people who live by the sea? What is their main
livelihood? What generalization can you draw about the relationship
between geographical features of a place and peoples’ means of
livelihood?

Example: Science
To Find out the body parts of animal that if it has a backbone.
Teacher will say: the dog has a backbone. The fish, frog and cow also have
backbones.
Then the students will conclude that: the dog, fish, cow and frog are
vertebrates.

Advantages of Inductive Methods

The learners are more engaged in teaching-learning process. The learners
formulate the generalization or rule.
Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because teachers begin with
the experiences of the students. Teachers begin with what they know.
It helps the development of the learners’ higher order thinking skills. To see
patterns and analyze the same in order to arrive at generalizations requires
analytical thinking.

Disadvantages of Inductive Method

It requires more time and so less subject matter will be covered. Teacher
needs much time to lead students to the formulation of generalizations.
It demands expert facilitating skills on part of the teacher. Teacher got to ask
the right questions, organize answers and comments to pave the way to the
derivation of generalizations/principles.

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